Full text of "Bulletin of the Pan American Union"

See other formats

31206

mio

THE CiTY LIBRARY ASSOCIATION
OF SPRINGFIELD. MASSACHUSETTS
LITERATURE ~ ART - SCIENCE

THE
DAVID A. WELLS
ECONOMIC LIBRARY
IN THE
CITY LIBRARY

SPRINGFIELD
MASSACHUSETTS

Digitized by the Internet Archive *
in 2009 with funding from
Boston Library Consortium Member Libraries

http://www.archive.org/details/bulletinofoaname6632pana

BARGES GM AORN

= Comics per

eve" BULLETIN

is eo OF THE

=> PAN AMERICAN
UNION

UNI DSTA

JANUARY 1935

PBOCKYAILYS MGC OCW sl AIOE RON TINIAN ROOD (YDSO

MORI) _RCKDNHORAS AEA GIAO EMCEE

GOVERNING:-BOARD:-OF-THE
PAN-AMERICAN
UNION

Mr. Henry L. Stimson, Chairman

Argentinas. 2o 26.4 Senior Don Fruire A. Esprit,
1806 Corcoran Street, Washington, D. C.

Bolivia veccovlyryes Senor Don Luis O. ABELLI,
2830 Forty-fourth Street, Washington, D. C.

PST AAU sce i epee Snhr. Dr. R. pp Lima B Siva,
2437 Fifteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

Gl nt Fe Seahe tics ice fal Sefior Dr. MiavELCRucHAGATOCORNAL,
2154 Florida Avenue, Washington, D. C.

OOM os ee ee Sefor Dr. Fasro Lozano,
Hill Building, Washington, D. C.

Costa Rica. eres Sefior Don GuittERMo E. GonzALzz,
1838 Connecticut Avenue, Washington, D. C.

BL) ba: hai fll Lael sc agli Senor Dr. Jost T. Barén,
2630 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

Dominican Republic. Sefior Dr. RopER10 DESPRADEL,
Woodward Building, Washington, D. C.

Heuad ore a. Yew eatas Sefior Dr. GonzaALo ZALDUMBIDE,
1712 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C.
El Salvador_______- Sefior Dr. Cartos Letva,
2601 Connecticut Avenue, Washington, D. C.
Guatemala_____-_.- Sefior Dr. ApR1AN RECINOs,
1614 Eighteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
Halhieewes dnroaian M. Dant&zs BELLEGARDE,
1708 Q Street, Washington, D. C.
Hondirags. ) noe Senor Dr. Cétzro DAvita,
1100 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
IM ex1e Quis sce me To gh Senor Dr. Jost Manure. Pure
CASAURANG,
2829 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
Niesarariac st pecu Sefior Dr. Juan B. Sacasa,
1711 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C.
PaO Aieyes ope ween ie Senor Dr. Horacto ALFARO,
1535 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C.
Barapa ho li Sefior Don PasLo Max. YNSFRAN,
1726 Irving Street, Washington, D. C.
1 2c at) LM HE ARI eBid ah We Senor Don M. pz FrreyrzE y SANTANDER,
1300 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
United States____-- Mr. Henry L. Stimson,
Department of State, Washington, D. C.
re ECS eR pn Sefor Dr. Jacopo VARELA,
1317 F Street, Washington, D.C.
Menemuela,.. 0626 Sefor Dr. Pepro Manvurt ARCAYA,

1628 Twenty-first Street, Washington, D. C.

WABEE, OF CONTENTS

Page
ColonsGathedralsbabana, Culbassesseet os eee (Cover design)
Lieut. Col. Luis M. Sanchez Cerro, The New President of Peru. =~ 1
Western Cuba: Land of Sunshine and Fine Tobacco. == 2
By Hugh Hammond Bennett, United States Department of Agriculture
Makino VoureaCaTato Cubes =. Ste yess oe eo A ee ee 17
By Enrique Coronado Suarez, Assistant Editor of the Boletin dela Unién Pan Americana
Dr. Gonzalo Zaldumbide, The New Minister of Ecuador to the United
States (ovognap)) eee ears Sates Saye A eS ee SB es 23
Miesvolean Region of Panama === 222. 2 24
By Marcel J. Bussard, Associate Member, American Society of Civil Engineers
Educational Beacons in Colombia_______-______________ == 30

I. The National Pedagogic Institute for Girls in Bogota
By Francisca Radke, Ph. D., Principal of the Institute

IJ. Popular Culture eye :
By Concha Romero James, Division of Intellectual Cooperation, Pan American Union
Seeing Latin American Products Enter United States Industries__.._ _____ 38
By William A. Reid, Foreign Trade Adviser, Pan American Union=- Ts

Diego Rivera Exhibits in New York 48
Columbus Memorial Library Notes vaei e Ste ae x 53
Pan American Progress: Q os
IemiGe rea COM al CATT aT ses ee oN a ey ee ee By ee DE al 56
PAC TENG UTit UT; eaniiteee east See eA ne cats es J aT abe os Lae Se ar 5b 57
ALITY GHUTSS Y5 yee spe mee eters Sis ob mays ens ao he Sle eee a ie 61
WU LD © epee ae rh tee ae eh Mag te ry SNe GL Ae aeat eheres eeter be rD ee Be Se 65
ATiascrence sand haucatlon =: == 22 iu) so ee a ee 70
BYE TINT Sree se hae we Oe ae eee Ri ee ee ae Pe eS 74.
Subject Matter of Consular Reports..._____-_________________________- 79

(The contents of previous issues of the BULLETIN OF THE PAN AMERICAN UNION
can be found in the READERS’ GUIDE in your library.)

LIEUT. COL. LUIS M. SANCHEZ CERRO, PRESIDENT OF PERU

Inaugurated December 8, 1931, for a term of five years.

BULLETIN

OREM:

PAN AMERICAN
UNION

Voke LXV i

JANUARY-DECEMBER
932

SEVENTEENTH STREET AND CONSTITUTION AVENUE NW., WASHINGTON, D.C., U.S. A.
CABLE ADDRESS FOR UNION AND BULLETIN - - - - - “PAU,” WASHINGTON

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1933

2a : = -
ee
ak oats
$ : 4 :
tg
ZN, ‘
Eee.
ee
- z
“i
¢
Z, ot ‘
Ler
t
2 a re
Pere he woke s & -
Py.

INDEX RO: Welk

BULLETIN OF THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Vol. LXVI January to December, 1932 Nos. 1-12

(The contents of previous volumes of the BULLETIN OF THE PAN AMERICAN UNION can be found inthe READERS’

GUIDE)

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE PAN AMERICAN UNION (Moore)________________
Acosta y Lara, Horacio: CotumBpus Mbrmoriat LiguTtHousre Compr-

STFS ON EAU) UE GS Stew nee eee ney yeh US Be Se a See
ACTIVITIES OF THE URUGUAYAN GOVERNMENT DuRING 1931____________
AGRICULTURAL COOPERATION IN THE AMERICAS (Carter) (illus.)_________
Agriculture:

AN TPFEN RON GTS eee aS ew Rl ay iy SR 129,

ESO iy sien ene ere are eins eal etn ee ee Se Cee be ee

TREO O LONE aN Pe a eS Fee sh ree Fee ee Er
PESACCo TA GLUT; 2A ae tie pace ci ee ee ate ee artes, SL as NE Rete LB Oa ee Lt Sana eiclhae

UTR es ws ce es ey eee cy 60, 207, 445,

Wiene7 ela meme pe er mnmene CRAG ee hy aS ie eS Se a Se
AUD EHOR SM RAZTUDAN ANKG= - 2.520. cceo5ecel00- Lob ee ee ee See
Artr-MinpEep Latin AMERICA (Carter) (illus.)_--___-_______________._--
ALBORNO, Paspio: A CoLonrtaAL CHURCH IN Paraauay (illus.)_____ __-__-
Atraro, Ricarpo J.: A TRIBUTE TO WASHINGTON (illus.)________-_----
AMAZON, OvER THE ANDES TO THE (Ker) (illus.)_________-_____-_----=-
AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW, MEETING. __--_-_----~~
Amemricas Pay HomMaGE To WASHINGTON (port.)_______________----=-
ANpDERSON, Luis: THE EvoLuTION oF PAN AMERICANISM___-----------
END HSETOUREE AMAZON, OvER THm (Ker) (illus) 2222-92292 92 2 22 =
ARBITRATION, INTER-AMERICAN COMMERCIAL__-_---__--_--------=-----
Argentina:

ARC HNDINH CED ©ROSS) AND! IIS) VWiORKe= === su = eas Sees

Burnos Arres New anp Oup (Videla-Rivero) (illus.)._____------

ammonia iy Aua@inmy (Sinrovwal) Gilluis,) = 25-5222 222

Justo, Gen. Acustin P., PRresipentT or ARGENTINA (biography)

(DO) ek es es oe ac ee ee

NATIONAL LIBRARY OF ARGENTINA (Sandy) (illus.)__-_----------

New Burtpines ror Naruraut History Musrum___---------- fee

PaIntines or Gaucuo Lire In ARGENTINA (illus.)__------------

SixtH REFRIGERATION ConGRESS AND ARGENTINE Meat INpustRyY-

Ten Points In ARGENTINE Economics (Bunge) -----------------
Artas, Dr. Harmopio, NEw PRESIDENT or Panama (biography) (port.) -

157611—83 I

448

58
733
794
700
493
630

56
457
230
630
519

II INDEX

Art:
CoLonrAL CuuRcH IN PARAGUAY (Alborno) (illus.)____________.__
Disco RivERA Exuirpits In New York (illus.)_____________.__._
PaintTines oF GaucHo LirE IN ARGENTINA (illus.)_______________
TREASURE OF Monte ALBAN (Newhall) Gillus.)___-______-________
Art, Science, and Education:
YAU ER EY ONIONS ea a eee Ue at ee 70, 136, 139, 140, 2
IBXO) DINARS eee ee SM ee i aS RI ie eee gene eR ee ere me ee aie =

Colom Taina Ue tee Ee ee SL 72, 593,

TEE CUTE Gl peter Ae oe Sa We re AAO cao ALY EPS a

(Couraiternnall ae ease Sher a seers ae nie ee tae Fee See. wee G3, Il

PanwAmernGan une pulbli¢sv< «22 07s e so 2 eo Rose a oes oe
IBA VOU Ay nee ve een Re NR en leahd Rk re pA ee BLT ek Scr ea ee re

Wn weWahy= ee CS ie RS Paes 8 ieee cles epee nae 2 eS
ASSOCIATION FOR HONORING THE LIBERATORS OF AMERICA___________
Ayata, Dr. EusEBIO, PRESIDENT oF ParaGuay (biography) (port.)_____-
AYLLON Pastor, ANTONIO: JUNIOR RED Cross IN Peru (illus.)________
AUR DUNG a Ulss Sl TAS HIS.) hy ee he Be ee ee ee
Betio, ANDRES, A GREAT CONTRIBUTOR TO INTERNATIONAL Law (Cru-

chacamhocornal) (porte s2= Sas 5 sas od ee ee
BENNETT, HucH HamMMonD: WESTERN CuBA: LAND OF SUNSHINE AND

iN neo RACE Ou (illus) Eee Ce Ee 2h ace en ee ee
Buackiston, A. Hooton: Goup Rivers or HonpurRas (illus.)__________
Bolivia:

Iv TEE iNGAY Kiverr«n) (WlermonCanvyallo)) (illus) sy 2 ee

IAI WiMIGAGA Ay IbA IPA (ile)... ==. = ee

SwCinis) (Owe Iireyare)) (Cilllie ose oo ee

BVA Tacs CAvzaam aliuitye): {CUNT Se) es Se ae ap
BRAINERD, HELOISE:

Ty lUVSSoNMaONE WWiencier IPAvas IDINANODINIDS. — $=. <= =- 2 -

BARS ZANTSISIOVAIN, (SiieiononomNae (Cranys a ee SEL ee
BratTrEerR, Herspert M.: StLveER IN THE WEST AND THE Hast (illus.)
Brazil:

ANTD EF OR WDAZ LEAN ANIKI GE == ers te Lae Se ee Se ee ee eee

MipWInTER’s Eve In Braziu: St. JoHN’s EvE oR VESPERA DE SAO

Tomo ‘@Vilainc bani) Are St weke ele + he al Bo ee ee si ecto ee ke

SAo VINCENTE, THE SMALL BEGINNING OF A GREAT Nation (Vampré)

(GUTS) ete Ser cy IRR en 2 lee ee ee
ARO wW GH VEATTON GROSSO) (Carmenom) |e (illliiss) eee ee ee ene vn

W ASHINGTON’S INFLUENCE ON THE Early Spirit oF INDEPENDENCE

gp JBWSWAVALIE: (INEM EEG YE NN) epee eee Ae eee NTO. a ee he
Burnos ArrEs NEw anpD Oxp (Videla-Rivero) (illus.)__________________

16,

Bi,

INDEX

Bussarp, Marcen J.: THE Votcdkn ReGIon oF Panama (illus.)________
CALENDAR REFORM, INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON (Stiles)
CAMERON, C. R.: THroucH Matto Grosso (illus.)
CaRTER, ADAM:
AGRICULTURAL COOPERATION IN THE AMERICAS (illus.)_____________
Arr-MinpEp Latin AMBRICA (illus.)___-_________________________
SmAVERCHNLURIN Sr (UWS. eae eae = ee ke oe ae
Cassava: AN Economic Puant Native to Latin America (Colom)
(CULTS) ce a eg ae ag ee ee
CrstERO, Tunio M.: Cotumspus MremoriaL LightHouse COMPETITION:
ANTDIDIR TONS ole BAS ee Ed aes Se eb C esee ME e He SO OP PEARS ED |
Chile:
BeLtLo, ANDRES, A GREAT CONTRIBUTOR To INTERNATIONAL Law
(Cruchaga, Wocornell) (Ort) 22-2 a eens ses ee eo eee eee
Montero Ropricunz, JUAN ESTEBAN, PRESIDENT OF CHILE (biog-
TRAGOGIST) (OOH R)) al eae es ee A ea ie re a pes Sey a ERE Oe feged ee Oe
Coat or Arms oF Lima (Harth-Terré) (illus.)
Couom, Jost L.:
Cassava: AN Economic Puant Native to Latin America (illus.)__
FERMIN TanGtis, FATHER OF PERUVIAN CoTTON (port.)___________
Colombia:
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SCIENTIST: JOSE CELESTINO Mutis (port.)___
FINANCIAL MbasuRES TAKEN TO MEET THE EcONomIc CrIsIs (Suro) _

NatIonaL PEpaGoaic INSTITUTE FOR GIRLS IN Bogor (Radke) (illus.)_
PoPruUDAR Cummuine Cemnes)) Gillis.) 2 35 ee
Conon, Cision iy IDAAGrAee (CAllsyoneavo))) (CUlhtIs)) 22 =
COLUMBUS AS SEEN BY HIS CONTEMPORARIES (Howerth) (illus.)_________
CotumBus Discovers HispantoLta: From THE JOURNAL OF COLUMBUS
(CUS) ce = ees 28S on 8 1 SS Te OS et te er ne ee aie ee ee RE Ce es
CoLumMBus Memoria Liprary NOTES

125, 203, 288, 437, 515, 579, 663, 722, 822,

CotumsBus MemortraL LightHouse: Mrssace (Trujillo) (illus.)________-
CotumBus Memorial LIGHTHOUSE COMPETITION:
ADDRESSES DELIVERED AT CEREMONY OF AWARD OF PRIZES________-
CEREMONY OF AWARD OF PRIZES; THE OPENING OF THE FINAL EXuI-
BLOT O Ngee (CE Sesya ie lls) eee ee ee ee le oS ee Se Se eee
CotumBus MemortaL LigHTHousE Drsien (Gleave) (illus.)_-______
liens) JEiisavorne (Cbinclenme) Gling.) 2 eee ee ee
CotumBus MemoriaL LigurHousE Drsian (Gleave) (illus.)_________--
Commerce. See Finance, Industry, and Commerce.
Communications and Transportation:

Pam Ameria IRepmiolies. 22 keen eee EES
1 acre Tan Mea TS Seen a ee is lle Berd et ee ee
TRNAS cs Sake Ble et a RI ee ye

Tiana Gl Spee ey 0 aN aa De ee sk 136,

[OISPUERUEN Stes N ee ee

IV INDEX

Conferences and Congresses:
CONFERENCE OF SoUTH AMERICAN CENTRAL BANKS
First Latin AMERICAN LABOR CONGRESS____.__________________
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CALENDAR REFORM (Stiles)
MontTEVIDEO Economic CONFERENCE

SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF AMERICAN STATES,
ECO YS WIE CONS GN Weegee eg epee fn OS Sc ae SO
SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF AMERICAN STATES,
[PRO GINA as ties oe ee See OPE eee rns Sh eee ee ee eee
SIXTH REFRIGERATION CONGRESS______________________=_______-
TuirD Pan AMERICAN PostTaL ConereEss (Glover) (illus.)_________
YERBA Mat&é CONFERENCE
CoRONADO SUAREZ, ENRIQUE:
Pray Ammmncany IDAsz, 1084 Clilis,) 2-5 ese ee ee eee
HT PAUSTaNG(G NYA CO ILUFER IN (© FACE CTS @ Sun ©) ES YAU (1H 5) je
Costa Rica:
JIMENEZ OREAMUNO, RICARDO, PRESIDENT oF Costa Rica (biog-
TEN MANY) a TO OWLS nese Se i ee ee er ep eS Se ee eee
CrucHaGa TocornaL, Miaurit: ANDRES BELLO, A GREAT CONTRIBUTOR
FIA (O Yam SN eTWEY ERAN PACE © NPAT LUV AN Vl (0) © Ta U5) eer er
Cuba:
ESSENTIALS OF PAN AMBERICANISM (Ferrara)_____________________
TaKING Your Car To Cusa (Coronado) (illus.)_-_.____________-
WESTERN CuBA: LAND OF SUNSHINE AND FINE Topacco (Bennett)
GUNS) rere Be SS eas eat p ie 5 Ria re wes NY AE) el ene tine O e o
CUELLO FREYRE, JUAN ANDRES: SUCRE (illus.)_____________________-
DamMeErT, JUANA ALARCO DE, A Great Lapy anp A Great PHILAN-
ETSELSEY COPA S FIM (FOO Ty Uj) Fee ae Ue 2 Go als gn
Deueapo, Jost Matias, 1832—November—1932 (Jerez) (illus.)____-_ —__
Dominican Republic:
CotumsBus MeEMoriIAL LIGHTHOUSE COMPETITION. _____ 309, 321, 3
CotumBus Memoria LicHTHousE: MrssaGeE oF GEN. RAFAEL L.
shRUsTETOnGlhwss 2 Se eee. et ee en Sa ee a
MONUMENT TO THE DiscovVERER OF AMERICA AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE

(CSYOnO)) Shen hel ees a A NS es ee ee ean in Phe Meet a hei eee
DORSINVILLE, Luc: Rivers AND Lak#s oF Hartt (illus.)__--_____________
DUGGAN, STEPHEN P.: SoutH AMERICAN CoURTESY___________________
Ecuador:

INTRODUCTION To Montatvo (Zaldumbide) (port.)________________-
ZALDUMBIDE, Dr. GonzALo, MINISTER OF ECUADOR IN THE UNITED
SPACE Sat QO OTts oh ts ee, cee WEN ewes ta: Rai Ue) see 1d le See
Education. See Art, Science, and Education.
POCO MNPAIL, JBIBVACONIS) my COWOMAUA—. = 4-2-2 5 oe ee de
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SCIENTIST IN CoLomBiIA: José CELESTINO
Mutts (port.)
El Salvador:
DeEuGaADo, José Matias, 1832—Noveniber—1932 (Jerez) (illus.)
“HLISABETTA.’’ See Pate, EH. M.S.
ESSENTIALS OF PAN AMBRICANISM (Ferrara)___________________________
EVo.LutTion oF Pan AMERICANISM (Anderson)
Feminism:

572
Le

533

696

858
749

25, 343

305

INDEX Vv

Feminism—Continued. Page
iWmmtedtStatesmeuete remanence La Ponty Ae ee Do See 74, 226
RUS ANy ane ereye nye oN CE Se ee a ee ee a Se a 226

FEMINISM IN ARGENTINA (Strozzi) (Gllus.).____-_______________________ 565

FERRARA, ORESTES: HSSENTIALS OF PAN AMERICANISM______=_________ 497

FIGUEIREDO, Nestor E. pE: CotumBus MermoriaLt LignhTHousE Com-

BE RERLO NE AD DRE S See semaine whee Nb Ce ee ee ee lee oh 341

Finance, Industry, and Commerce:

PAC EIU IN Neate tans ee ne eee, Ue ee ee 291, 295, 296, 521, 891
Bolivian <2. fie ie Nag Sore ee ee ee ee 208, 296
Jee Wail a2 i a eee ie eee eee ee 64, 291, 295, 588, 733
(Cnn Cee ee ag Sc OS Se ee ee Sea een 63, 208
Colom eee ares ake, aes UD, Es Sa ee ee 62, 208, 726, 806
COUN Oo as Sar et SN de 61
TO CUANC Oa aes sein anata tone Nyse eA be ee ee Se ee 208
(GRU MBC TIEN I a mp ea a ee yy hd Myr cee A 590
IN Nese C@ tate ee seein ee UE ee lee eee Sey oe 62, 131, 450, 888
RaneAniericanm Ne pulbliGsts 22 i) 0s = a Sr ae ee ee ee 519
TE ENT. EV UT ety oie eceeape ean age eRe Mem na el EA Sg RNs ee Be lS 295, 296
JESS ees US ae es ee ne a ae eee 57, 62, 208
Wiratrexol Snape ee ee ee ee 745
[Siena i eur ay eee oe ye ares ies, ee als et as ae 63, 291, 445, 449
FrnanctaL Measures TakEN By CoLOoMBIA TO MEET THE ECONOMIC
] eS Time (SS Uline) a eae ep Sp a SS a i Rs Be ges Se a 726, 805

FoREworD: [Pan AMBmRICAN Day] (Rowe)____-__-_--_-___________-- 229

GLEAVE, J. L.: CotumBpus Memoriau LicotHovuse Desian (illus.)_--_.. 348

GuLovER, Irvine L.: Tutrp Pan American PostaL Conaress (illus.)___ 169

CorpeRivakrs or LHonDuRAS (Blackiston)) (illiis:)es2os= 2 sess sees ee 559

Goupscumipt, THEA: LirtLhE Mexico NoTE____-___________------=-- 827

GOVERNING BoarD Honors THE MiEMorRy OF WASHINGTON___________-_- 471

Great Lapy aND GREAT PHILANTHROPIST: JUANA ALARCO DE DAMMERT

(GOES) ass ee A a a Ze a al 858

Guatemala:

GUATEMALA-HoNDURAS BOUNDARY ARBITRATION____________--_-- 93
GUATEMALA MODIFIES ITS SUBSIDIARY CURRENCY________--~---- 590
GUATEMALAN INDIANS (Osborne) (illus.)__________________------- 651

GUATEMALAN Inp1ANns (Osborne) (illus.)_-__.____________-_-----=-=--- 651

Haiti:

LANDS oF BoLivAarR AND P&Trion EXPRESS THEIR FRIENDSHIP- ~~ ---- 235
Rivers AND Lakes or Harri (Dorsinville) (illus.)___------------- 188

Hart, ALBERT BUSHNELL: WASHINGTON AS AN INTERNATIONALIST (illus.) _ 475

Hr REE Tes ©OATION ARMS OF ort ss (llus:) == == 180

Hewes, Harry L.: Mexican Bauitet-Sympuony “H. P.” (illus.)_-_--- 421

Honduras:

Gotp Rivers or Honpuras (Blackiston) (illus.) _-__------------- 559
GUATEMALA-HONDURAS BOUNDARY ARBITRATION______----------- 93
INFRA TS TeTNG El ONIDURIAS (Exe lim) (Cllrs) ys eee = ee 390
Howertu, Dorotuy PLeTcHER: CotumBus As SEEN By His ConTEM-
COIR A Teas: (CUI) ee ee 364

Immigration. See Labor.

limmngmamnon IRIEMENGMmONG.....-----22-- 2 ee ee ee === = == 296

IMMIGRATION, TRENDS OF, IN THE AMERICAS (Reid) _------------------ 710

LMS Ose, Ce RE hing ak Cg Cee Le ee Ee 690

In THE Inca Empire (Merino Carvallo) (illus.)___-------------------- 694

VI INDEX

Industry. See Finance, Industry, and Commerce.
INTER-AMERICAN COMMERCIAL ARBITRATION_________________________
INTER-AMERICAN FINANCIAL AND Economic Stapiuity (Manger) ---___
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CALENDAR REFORM (Stiles)__________
linemen An, (COomminAumon 26 (os a ee
International Relations. See Treaties and International Relations.
IntTRopuctTIoN TO Montatvo (Zaldumbide) (port.)_____________-___-_-
INVESTMENT Wuicu Pays DivipmNpDs (Brainerd)_______:__________--
JamEs, Concua RoMERO: PopuLarR CULTURE [IN CoLomBIA] (illus.) -____-
JEREZ, Victor: Jost Matias DeLtaapo, 1832—NovEMBER— 1932 (illus.) -
JIMENEZ OREAMUNO, RiIcARDO, PRESIDENT oF Costa Rica (biography)
(qe oTu t=) ere ate ee oat eR Oe ee ee
JuNIoR RED Cross IN PERv (Ayllén Pastor) (illus.)_______________-__-
Justo, Gen. Acustin P., PRESIDENT OF ARGENTINA (biography) (port.) —-
Ketsey, ALBERT: CoLUMBUS MermorIAL LIGHTHOUSE COMPETITION:
CRIM ONGYe OHA GWVEATR DO Hl FRITZ Sym (CULTS) jem ace es
Ker, GrawamM M.: OvER THE ANDES TO THE AMAZON (illus.)___________-
Labor:

DD ominicaniWepulblich ss" Soe 2S ee ee ee
BEA S call aysea Gh ree eaters te ci ee le escent ae eee es ee a =
FIN TG sxal © Co pee ip a Ns A cle Sa at pe Se ERS ee OAS
NING i A a ea ep rl ae lid apt eg es eee SE ease, os
RangeAmiericamekve PUGS sa is see Se Nae ee eee
LE eine yas Wise ea eee ee eee aes ea eer BE ee ai ee fa an AU GEN Blas ce ese SS
TE WrerE yea yg iN pg ID a nee od Ss cetalgl An Ot 9-2 Ae Rae 214, 2
Wires Way eect eee sens rads ot Sen aes eee ee Oe le eee a
DAK TiGTiGAGA Aus IbA IPA Gilltig,)) 2.2 2 oe ne
LANDS OF BoLtivar AND P&TION EXPRESS THEIR FRIENDSHIP

Tye) S)) ee apes gh a a 2 et at Ce ae a a 9 a De acy Le oh Oya clu ce il

Legislation:
TENE = Seber Neelys Sti ae cin Ee Dot Yelle eect Es 128, 149, 441, 524, 588, 5
(© atl et See en in a A SANE 7 ak A ee Ot ke Ng ae 1
(Ol ommlo aes ee ae eC Sk ie Wh nem see ne aS ae 206, 296, 593, 7
(GOS Wal Ae eta ee BE ee LE eR ER eee Lc 5 eee ce er 1
oramimicamreRe pull Caps Sy ks a ae ah ee 2
NEGUS auld Gl Tees 2 Ses A in ig I TUE a ive ea a ee ee
Giaibemmall art ech tei ert oe cults Bierce ee anus Si eth a Se ror 5
INT sxal © Gypsies oe er eV oy Sa eR eS ee a el et oe 65, 205, 4
JERS CEN aM 5S ema OR, ey ee eh BO rR EU ee
JEXS TEU Sie es 8 ee ait Inka hee rc eine et CoH MOR SENG PT ee a assume CMEC S
NOITU EAU tam ee el Se ay ee ce eee ed eR eee pps ste Lees 149, 2

Lima:

Coar On Arms Celene emds) Gills.) ==. 525 2522222 82

IV [WAU Kor TNT Gabe IN GTM eAse settee aroete ee Pe asta a eat eek eS ea pate
Drains) Mipxac@ Noms (Golelslaanchs) 222-252 22--4--=-- 22-2 5--
Luoyp, Boutvar J.: PAN AMERICAN COOPERATION IN PuBLIcC HbALTH
Work: Pan AMBRICAN SANITARY CONFERENCES AND Pan AMERICAN
SVAN TBAT Re BLOAT OU TGP. GULL GISIS) ee oe ae eee sy) es era ee

15,

13,

95,
46,
26,

90,

57,

Page
519
534
419
518

383
852

34
749

533
425
153

321
630

595
734
297
215
297
214
735
214
734
296
216
215
690
235

194

733
150
806
593
740
149
740
888
296
128
215

180

535
827

246

INDEX

LuprEwie, C. KEEcH:
CotumBus MermoriAaL LIGHTHOUSE ARCHITECTURAL COMPETITION:
[cn owblers no Rive (INNIS) eee tee eke Nel SE ee eee
Past AND PRESENT OF OCEAN SHIPPING IN THE AMERICAS (illus.)____
Mancer, WILLIAM:
INTER-AMERICAN FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC STABILITY___________
Pan AMERICAN UNION AS THE PERMANENT ORGAN OF THE INTER-
NATIONAL AMERICAN CONFERENCES_._________________________
Marcuant, ANNIE D’)ARMOND: WASHINGTON’S INFLUENCE ON THE EARLY
NEURO RS INIDEPENDE NCH IN) SBIVAZ M4 ea) 2-8 eee Ee ee
Marcuant, ANyDA: MIDWINTER’S EVE IN Braziu: St. JoHn’s Eve or
VWasrmnn Din SAO WOROs Te as AS ee eee Set eee eee
NICE Ken DEN Gest pe DM Ae MINUS) ee se Ne
Mepicat ResearcuH IN Latin AmeprRica (Moll)
Merino Carvatio, Neviuy: IN tHe INca Emprre (illus.)_-__________
MESSENGERS OF Goop WILL: THE LAUNCHING OF THE BS. S. “SanrTa
EBACE Ateeem CEU O WiC) eee terrae nees Ri eS hig eo SN ie eye ee Nee Se ee
Mexican BaLLeT-SympHony ‘‘H. P.”’ (Hewes) (illus.)________________
Mexican TrisputeE To DwicHt WHITNEY Morrow (illus.)_____________
Mexico:
DirGo RiveRA Exuipits In New York (illus.)_________________
INDUS MEW A CHNSU SEO kw 98 eee: ee oe See eee
Ili IMMSaGO ING@nin (Gollelselnmaich) 2 5-2 22-2 == =
Mexican BaLLet-SympHony ‘‘H. P.” (Hewes) (illus.)___________
Mexican TrIBUTE TO Dwicgut WuHitnEyY Morrow (illus.)_______

MoNETARY AND BANKING REFORMS__________________________ 450,

Notre on SOME OF THE JEWELS CONTAINED IN Toms 7 at MONTE
PASTA YAUNIceae CIN Unt t ail) pe (GUUS) eet pce ee ae ee ee ee Oe Ss a
TREASURE OF MontE ALBAN (Newhall) (illus.)__________________
RopricteLz, GEN. ABELARDO L., PRESIDENT oF Mexico (biography)
(QoOritS Pe aie sah ee einke cares Si sneer ee Oe el es
MipwiIntEr’s EvE IN Braziu: St. JoHN’s EVE OR VESPERA DE SAO JOAO
(CM baeeline nats) Ze 3 se eS Se pede ge Ue ee Pao a as ee

Monrtatvo, INtTRopuUcTION To (Zaldumbide) (port.)__-____-----------
Monte ALBAN, Note oN JEWELS IN Toms 7 (Nuttall) (illus.)__-____-
Monte ALBAN, TREASURE oF (Newhall) (illus.)_________________----
Montero Ropricgurz, JUAN ESTEBAN, PRESIDENT OF CHILE (biography)
(FOIE) sae Eas ie ge eee Sieger el Se ati eee ea are a ae ge Re
MontTEVIDEO Economic CONFERENCE_________________________-_--=--
MoNUMENT TO THE DISCOVERER OF AMERICA AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE
CEO we) enema enone Sputue ine Sue Sub ee eee es SSS

Morrow, Dwiecut Waitney, A Mexican TRIBUTE (illus.)--__--_----
Music:
Mexican Batunt-Sympuony “H. P.”’ (Hewes) (illus.)-------------
Wir ucuaAneNe MiUsien Bate): dllluss)es seem eo Bees 2 ees =e
Mots, José Crertestino, aN EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SCIENTIST IN Co-
TEKOWMATBIR, (SOO ICL) es see ee
NATIONAL LIBRARY OF ARGENTINA (Sandy) (illus.) ______--------------
Natronau PepaGcoaic INSTITUTE FOR GIRLS IN Bogota (Radke) (illus. )_-
NFER TS RNING LOND UEDA S) @Lvelna) in (LUIS:) yee = ee tee eee

i Soa RS nd i he 779,

Mott, A. A.: Mrpicat ResharcH IN LATIN AMERICA_____________-- 77,
MoneETARY AND BaNKING REFORMS IN MeExico__________________- 450,

Vill INDEX

Necrology: Page
AS OARE HMM NOE ee, ake yf eng cy eee epee lO A eee ee De 227, 602, 746
DES eet zi are a erst lee a le tee a TG NS By Ay RCA Nt CS I Fae 227, 603
(Cini eae OR ee ee yh Ry he dy, ee ee Get) ea ee 899
CO aSIWaat ah rss ca ps ets eI ee Le cS lm et oy 151, 899
Cll pee ts aes A Sere ee ery el an EE Pie oe Ser See 602
DomimicansepublcueLe oe Sesto ee ec Lee 746
TEC Ue Gl (Tees span mc Oe IN pw tds Re mene ye er Sal a Ae Pat ys he eine 227, 899
(Geese an ei ees aes Ae ae Se ee le es Oh ee ed se eee Sr ae 151
TERS EES es a Ee Na SN Bo ae ol oe eae Bee SS a 151
TE Econ Wb ets Sp ls Ss Sp fk cee FC ees See i Oe pee Dee beet 602
TiS PAU es gE Ee em pee ee eee 899
EFS EASTN EU eae MN ETS ayy Say ee ed ed IAN 1 227, 746
IEPATrel Ugo aye eet cra i mane oan Lee el in Sh cled El eae ake ee oe 603
PC Ree eee NSE NE a NS rs eel Ce We Be anes pe 899
HUW inset Ses re le, 2 ea a Se ie ead kes Sf at ee 900
\W GREY ATEN es ee Oe Sete are ney eT ee ME Se ees Se 151
New AVENUES oF CULTURAL APPROACH BETWEEN THE NATIONS OF
Ain RTCA (NOrtom)s(lWss)/ 292 sees eee oie Hee Re ae ae 77
NEWHALL, BEATRICE:
Traastmias Om Mion Aman (lls) 405
ZORRILLA DE SAN Martin, JUAN (illus.)_________________________ 96
Norton, Henry KittrrepGe: NEw AVENUES OF CULTURAL APPROACH
BETWEEN THE Nations oF AMERICA (illus.)_______________________-_ UU
NuttTauu, Zetia: NOTE ON SOME OF THE JEWELS CONTAINED IN TOMB
(ee NCTRAIN LEO INTE EAT VAC (MUU Se) SS hs hs See ea re 896
OsBorRNE, LILLY DE JoNGH: THE GUATEMALAN INDIANS (illus.)_________ 651
OVER THE ANDES TO THE AMAZON (Ker) (illus.)_______________________ 630
PaINnTINGS oF GaucHo LirE IN ARGENTINA (illus.)__._________________ 173
Pan AMERICAN Day, 19382 (Coronado Sudrez) (illus.)__________________ 572
Pan AMERICAN PostTaL ConGREss, THIRD (Glover) (illus.)__-___________ 169
Pan AMERICAN COOPERATION IN PuspLic HEaLTH WorK: Pan AMERICAN
SANITARY CONFERENCES AND Pan AMERICAN SANITARY BUREAU
G1GV sy, cl) ag (unas PS Rese ot eas eee as ee ae 2 ee es ee ee 246
Pan AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC ConGRESS, POSTPONEMENT OF SEVENTH______ 57
Pan AMERICAN STUDENT CuusBs (Brainerd)___________________________ UT
Pan AMERICAN TREATIES AND CONVENTIONS (table)__-_________________ 724
Pan AMERICAN UNION:
ACHIEVEMENTS TOR (MGOre)= 2256 552 - a aP Sle eee ee 500
PERMANENT ORGAN OF THE INTERNATIONAL AMERICAN CONFERENCES
(CNY Le ce 0) ke ga UR mae cap anane ene tinea SUR eee Geta eh oe a Td Nn 261
(COMUMESTIS IMGaormnAin IbiisiyNese IGM. 32 = RS),
125, 203, 288, 487, 515, 579, 663, 722, 822, 883
GovERNING Boarp Honors THE MreMory oF WASHINGTON________ 471
IPARy AMIDRICAny WixmiOny IN@mmogs. 2 = 5 ee 288, 433, 883
Pan AMERICAN WINTER INSTITUTE IN FLORIDA_______________________ 803
Pan AMERICANISM, ESSENTIALS OF (Ferrara)_________________________ 497
Pan AMERICANISM, EVOLUTION oF (Anderson)________________________ 230
Panama:
Arias, Dr. Harmopio, PRESIDENT OF PANAMA (biography) (port.)__ 750
DD FRIES {CONTI COMAV V PAUSS ETTUNNG G18 IN @AUTHieaIT5 ©) (CLL) enn 493
VoucAn REGION oF PanaMa (Bussard) (illus.)____________________ 24
Paraguay:
AyaLa, Dr. Eusesio, PRESIDENT oF Paraguay (biography) (port.)_ 605
CoLoniaL CHURCH IN Paraauay (Alborno) (illus.)________________ 700

INDEX Tt
Page
Past AND PRESENT OF OCEAN SHIPPING IN THE Americas (Ludewig)
(TUN) a I Sa ad ce pn ee 610
Acre eh View See DH URUGUAYAN ViuSsiTe) GllWds:)/ aan sae ee oe 763
Peru:
Coat or Arms oF Lima (Harth-Terré) (illus.)_----_-_______________ 180
Fermin, Tanciis, FATHER OF PERUVIAN Corton (Colom) (port.)___ 718
Great Lapy AND GREAT PHILANTHROPIST, JUANA ALARCO DE
DAREN RTA (10 O Ge pares serve = aia oe Lee 2 See 858
JunriorR Rep Cross IN Perv (Ayllén Pastor) (illus.).----_-_________ 425
AV IGSSRR Ker TTT Gael el MA eye ee se Re 2 eee ee eee 553
SANCHEZ CERRO, LinutT. Cou. Luis M., PRESIDENT oF PERU________ 1
Puitiies, MatTiupa:
Latin AMERICAN ForREIGN TRADE IN 1930—A GENERAL SuRVEY__ 1138, 194
UNITED States TRADE WITH LATIN AMERICA, FiscaL YEAR 1931-32. 720
UNITED States TRADE WITH LATIN AMBRICA IN 1931_____________ 259
PoruLaR CULUTRE [IN CoLomBta] (James) (illus.)_____________________ 34
POSTPONEMENT OF THE SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF
AA SRTE TSI OUAIS ISG EI OISIS Ss ee ae Ri aaa ee oe ee Ba ene Jeera re 388
PRESIDENT OF ARGENTINA, GEN. AGusTiN P. Justo (biography) (port.)__ 153
PRESIDENT OF CHILE, JUAN ESTEBAN MontTERO Ropricuez (biography)
GOO Use ees es eee 381
PRESIDENT OF Costa Rica, Ricarpo JIMENEZ OREAMUNO (biography)
(SNC EA RS) ies Be SS eg a I es Sere red ere ee oye ee 533
PRESIDENT OF Mexico, GEN. ABELARDO L. RopriGuEz (biography)
(DOI) so 3! es See Be ae eee am Bee te Re See ee ee 5 825
PRESIDENT OF Panama, Dr. Harmopio ARIAS (biography) (port.) —___-- 759
PRESIDENT OF Paraauay, Dr. Eusmsio AYALA (biography) (port.) --——- 605
PRESIDENT OF Perv, Linut. Cou. Luis M. SANcHEZ CERRO (biography)
(DOM) Lea So Se eee ee 5 See re ee niin col eee ee ees om 1
PROGRAM OF THE SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF AMERICAN
SELEY ACI COR peep ROR =p DEG cp Reem AS Pf Sea ep we ay EI a ae Ce 89
Public Health and Social Welfare:
JANTREXSS OR DU GURY 5 teen Ss ee Fare eee eG Re eee 141, 220, 596, 742
LES 12211771] ee OR ra ara I peer Sere RS ee Sp eee pe aS a ge 149, 666
(Gill eo earaeee a me wees ee re Sears paket ky aoe 146, 150, 226, 299, 301
Gy rir en ee ee eT eine iy te ac a a hg PS Se SE eee 667
(Sosa Gee ie ae a cee ns ere ere es ane RE er eras ae 150, 223, 302, 743
(Gilley ea Ne og cee rg ct ae A ay ea OL en ee ere 2 as I Ne ise 2 300
Womuncanswepublics- <2 4s5 625-55 U ee kee Sj oe ee 301, 742
ES Sai iyerGl @ Leet earn, ephedra tee el A een os eee eS 149, 668
(Ginennaa ayes ak 5 ee oe ee ae te ee ee ee eee 298, 668, 740
TESS oe ore Ae SRN A a a ae et een ee Ee ea 222, 224
TSl@imGhning.s eee Se ee ey a ee ee ee 299, 743
MIGTO0. S32 2652 eS a See ene eee as 223, 226, 299, 300, 668, 743
FE arate 1 9 een en eDaily re Sr us pea an sch 221
PACs 62 5 ee ed eS eee 299, 303, 668
TESTU eck eae a a a ep re ge Ee ope ey US 300, 744
IW rer ue, pee ins wel BS ees 141, 149, 222, 447
AN ZesTN ZiT | 1 Mees pO RU LOSER CL oy Meret Laren aN eee Pion ene 150, 222, 302
RaDKE, Francisca: NaTIoNaAL PEpaGoGic INSTITUTE FOR GIRLS IN
Bocas Ati.) Spe ec es Soe Ee eee 30
REFRIGERATION ConGRESS. See SIXTH REFRIGERATION CONGRESS.
Rerun, James A. G.: Narurauist In Honpuras (illus.)---------------- 390

xX INDEX

Rep, WILLIAM A.:
Serine Latin AMERICAN PRopucts ENTER UNITED States INDUS-
RTETER Tos SS CHAT EUT SS) ey este ated SSE Ra a ces ee
TRENDS OF IMMIGRATION IN THE AMBRICAS_______________________
Reyes, Auronso: Cotumpus Mermorian LiGHTHOUSE COMPETITION:
PASO) Ts SLOG SSeS a Ua ee acs SC ale J Re spo a gee Me eee
IRinnaRA, IDMIGO, Wrceanis may Nine Wom (ilhue,)) 22-2 22252 - = 2 S=
RIVERS AND LAKES oF Hartt (Dorsinville) (illus.)____________________-_
RopricuEz, Gen. ABELARDO L., PRESIDENT OF Mexico (biography)
(ONO RE Ta ase Woes I es ee a ee eee ee ne ye =.
Rosas, ARisTIDES: WASHINGTON AT THE CENTENARY OF BOLfvAR: STATUE
Ap ING niRGOs iy CARAGAS (ills) 35 2 See
Rowe, L. S.:
PoRnyOp (eam Amino IDAs] 32-5 sooo ese ae see sasse
A MESSENGER OF Goop WILL: LAUNCHING OF THE S. S. “Santa
SEAR TEA tak (Cy EU AC@ Tet EEN Rios Metter ne cc Ver ee ated Pes pe Ses AE el OR ae
MoNnUMENT TO THE DISCOVERER OF AMERICA AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE_
SAncueEz, Cerro Lieut. Cou. Luis M., NEw PRrEsIDENT oF PERU (biog-
TAO lays) il QO Olgbs Pees ee Se See eR ee a Se ee ee
Sanpy, GprRALD HerBeRT: NatTionaL Liprary OF ARGENTINA (illus.)——_
Sio VicENTE, THE SMALL BEGINNING OF A GREAT NATION (Mammo)
(GILT UT SS) ae aed SE a ee OU ete Se BS ed 2 cl Me ee
Science. See Art, Science, and Education.
Serine Latin AMERICAN Propucts ENTER UNITED STATES INDUSTRIES
(TRyeica (UTS VS nT i Sc ee CI aE SS Hs SU pe
Sine Chmuinnns (Carmien) (illus, 2. oe ae
SILVER IN THE WEST AND THE Hast (Bratter) (illus.)__________________
StxtH REFRIGERATION CONGRESS AND ARGENTINE Muar INDUSTRY
Social Welfare. See Public Health and Social Welfare.
Soum: Anmimncan Commmasre (Durer). = 5 2
Strues, MerepirH N.: INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CALENDAR

StrRozz1, ADA: FEMINISM IN ARGENTINA (illus.)_______________________
Sucrme (well omlreyare)) GUNNS) ee mee eS ee ee eee
SUMMER SCHOOLS OF SPANISH IN THE AMBRICAS (illus.)________________
Suro, GuintteErRMo A.: FrnanciaL MrAsurRES TAKEN By COLOMBIA TO

Meet THE Economic Crisis Ce

Taxinc Your Car To Cusa (Coronado Sudrez) (illus.)__-._-____________
TanGiis, FerMin, FATHER OF PERUVIAN CoTron (Colom) (port.)_______
aIVAvE Tey AGa CACZ UGLY, eIGINUTS's)) ai See So Sie ead Oa ee ee
Tuirp Pan AMERICAN PostaL Coneress (Glover) (illus.)_-____________
THroucH Matrro Grosso (Cameron) (illus.)--.--.-.-.-_-.__-____________
Trade:

Page

806

17
718
698
169
155

Latin AMERICAN ForEIGN, IN 1930—A GENERAL SuRVEY (Phillips)_ 113,194

UnitEep States with Latin AMERICA IN 1931 (Phillips)_-.-________
UniTrep SvratTes with Latin America, Fiscan YEAR 1931-32
(LENO OFS) yess ethene aS ereett 5 Cleaner nM ea eet i Econ et ere UR i
Transportation. See Communications and Transportation.
TREASURE OF MontE ALBAN (Newhall) (llus.)__-_-____________________
Treaties and International Relations:
TEX OUT iE eae Ac ae a a ane ee Ne ree Yd el Neate REL pet svat an

259
720
405

57
440

56
440

INDEX

Treaties and International Relations—Continued.
COS IRICGHS 55 Soe oe ee er ea Oe ee ee

Wonamicanghvepullichee sa. Bie Cs es Ps ere ee
CUA CO aan ae eee eee ee nih Bates LT en ee oe

UU 8 Bl SS oes ee a ee en ee I 440, ¢

TRENDS OF IMMIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS (Reid)_____________________
TRIBUTE TO WASHINGTON (Alfaro) Gllus.)____-_-_-_-_-____________________
TrusILLo, Gen. RaranL L.: Contumpus Mermoriaun LicHtTHouse:
INTER SYNCH GIT G™ emer eevee en tne a a Rt a ee her a oe ae SI A ee ae
United States:
Americas Pay HomaGE TO WASHINGTON (port.)__________________
Dinco RiveRA EXuHisits IN New York (illus.)__-_______________
GOVERNING Boarp Honors MrEMory OF WASHINGTON_____________
INVESTMENT WuHicH Pays DivipDENDs (Brainerd)__________________
Littte Mexico Norm (Goldschmidt) ____-22--_____________=____==
Pan AMERICAN WINTER INSTITUTE IN FLORIDA____________________
SEEING Latin AMERICAN Propucts ENTER UNITED STatTEs INDUs-
TURUIEHS Sha CEE TCL) an GILLS) ee rere et aya See a ee eee eae cS ee
TRADE witH LATIN AMERICA, FiscaL YEAR 1931—82 (Phillips) -__-_-
TRIBUTE TO WASHINGTON (Alfaro) (illus.)__-._____________________
WASHINGTON AS AN INTERNATIONALIST (Hart) (illus.)______________
WASHINGTON AT THE CENTENARY OF BoLivaR: STATUE AND ME-
MENGOS iy CARAGAS (Rojas) (llluis,)) 2 = -=- 5 2 ee
WASHINGTON’S INFLUENCE ON THE EARLY SPIRIT OF INDEPENDENCE
iy IBAA, (Mierelngime)): Clie os 2 oo ee ee
UNITED STATES TRADE WITH LaTIN AMERICA IN 1931 (Phillips) ________-
Uruguay:
ACTIVITIES OF THE GOVERNMENT DuRING 1931__________________-_

Unucimanamy IMtosie GPa) Gilling.) 2 = oe ee
ZORRILLA DE SAN Martin, JuAN (Newhall) (illus ) ____------------
Urucuay SENDS A WOMAN TO THE DISARMAMENT CONFERENCE ____-----
Unueuazam Mise CPame) Gillis) 2-22 oe ee sea see
Vampré, SPENCER: SAO VICENTE, THE SMALL BEGINNING OF A GREAT
INGACEKONIM GICs") eee em nen mas Ms rer ah) cree yn lel es I es See see
Venezuela:
Beiito, ANDR&S, A GREAT ConTRIBUTOR TO INTERNATIONAL LAW
(Crichagasocounal): (Onis ss sen eee eee ee
Lanps oF BoLivaR AND P&TION EXPRESS THEIR FRIENDSHIP__----—--
WASHINGTON AT THE CENTENARY OF BotivarR: STATUE AND MEMEN-
TOR Tay CARAGAS (Rojas) Glite)) 2-22 is aa ee
VIDELA-RIvERO, C. J.: BuENos Atrres New AnpD OLp (illus.) -----------
Vouckn REGION oF PANAMA (Bussard) (illus.) ----__----.-------------
WASHINGTON AS AN INTERNATIONALIST (Hart) (illus.)____--------------
WASHINGTON, AMERICAS Pay HomaGE To (port.) _----_----------------
WASHINGTON AT THE CENTENARY OF BoLivaR: STATUE AND MEMENTOS
my CanaGas (Roas) (lis))= 222-2 eee oe eS ee

XII INDEX

WASHINGTON, GOVERNING Boarp Honors THE MEMORY OF____________
WASEEINGRON, Jian a0) UNbizio) (lis) = 5225552225232
WASHINGTON’S INFLUENCE ON THE EARLY SPIRIT OF INDEPENDENCE IN

Brains (Varchant) 22 2 ae ae ye ee oS ee oe eee
WESTERN CuBA: LAND OF SUNSHINE AND FINE Tosacco (Bennett) (illus.)-
ZALDUMBIDE, Dr. GonzaLo, NEw MINISTER oF ECUADOR IN THE UNITED

SS FVACTSEY Spl (0. OTUs) eae eet apes rere Ra ie Seat ee os Saree
ZALDUMBIDE, GoNzALO: INTRODUCTION TO MONTALVO (port.) ________-_-
ZORRILLA DE SAN Martin, JUAN (Newhall) Gllus.)____________________

See. re NE SSSI Peer

Vou. LXVI JANUARY, 1932 No. 1

LIEUT. COL. LUIS M. SANCHEZ CERRO,
THE NEW PRESIDENT OF PERU

N DECEMBER 8, 1931, Lieut. Col. Luis M. Sanchez Cerro
was inaugurated as Constitutional President of Peru for a term
of five years. The ceremonies, which were cheered by an immense
throng, took place before the new national Congress, which had been
sworn in just before Lieut. Col. Sanchez Cerro took the oath of office.
The new Chief Executive of the Republic, the first to be elected
by secret ballot and with obligatory voting, is still under 45 years
of age. Educated at the Military School, Chorrillos, he has served
for over 20 years in the army of his country both at home and abroad.
In 1915 he was military attaché to the then Peruvian legation in
Washington, and in 1922 he left Peru on a five years’ mission to
Europe, where he studied in military schools in France and Italy.
He found this cosmopolitan experience of interest and benefit, both
personally and professionally. :
President Sanchez Cerro acted as head of the Provisional Govern-
ment of his country for some months in 1930, but resigned the next
year to become a candidate for the presidency in the election held
October 11, 1931. The day after his inauguration, the President sent
through the press a message of greeting to all the nations of America,
in which he expressed his patriotic ideals as follows: ‘‘The govern-
ment I desire for Peru is a government of order and peace, so that
the country may develop its economic life along lines of mutual
respect.”

WESTERN CUBA: LAND OF SUNSHINE
AND FINE TOBACCO

By Hueu Hammonp BENNETT
United States Department of Agriculture

E were awakened not by the crowing of the cock but by the
crowing of a whole cityful of lusty-lunged, raucous-throated
roosters. There could scarcely have been less than 10,000 of them, and
they crashed forth at the fifth hour from midnight with tumultous din.
At this point my fellow scientist exclaimed, ‘‘Caramba, hombre,
this explains Cuba’s annual importation of 12,000,000 dozen eggs;
the chickens are all roosters!”

“The evidence points that way,’ I replied. ‘‘ However, there is
nothing that can be done about it; so, what about a little café y pan?
The hour is propitious; there can be no more sleeping amidst this
riot of chicken dulcets. Besides, this is the day for Vinales Valley.
Why not get going?”

Thus we were introduced to Pinar del Rio, the metropolis of the
Province of Pinar del Rio, that is to say, of western Cuba.

The city has other claims to distinction beyond its multitudinous
population of sleep-wrecking chanticleers. There is, for example,
a population of forty or fifty thousand human beings. Moreover, all
the houses have frontal rows of large columns; some have another row
above, accompanied by a spacious balcony. The columns rise from
a point about halfway between the outer and inner edges of the side-
walk, so that each street actually has four sidewalks. The part
inside the line of columns, the cloistered part, is protected from those
rains which fall not too slantingly. It was a happy thought of the
builders of the city to provide this special feature. It may have been
something of an oversight, however, that they should not have fore-
seen the actual working out of the plan; that, because of the inordi-
nate fondness of the Pinar del Rians for social gatherings about tables
conveniently placed along the full cloistered length of the street, it
was to be entirely impossible for one to make any practical use of the
protected part, no matter what the hour or the inclemency of the
weather.

The endless lines of columns along Main Street are somewhat
suggestive of Grecian architecture. But this architectural flavor
does not in any respect make the city Grecian. Neither is it Roman,
nor yet Parisian. It is Cuban, or to be more precise, western Cuban.

LAND OF SUNSHINE AND FINE TOBACCO 3

It has been made securely this by the Pinar del Rians themselves.
The energetic citizens not only have been lavish with the building of
the attractive columns, but they have gone about with their brushes
and painted every house in town, including the columns, yellow,
buff, or cream. Many have added an attractive streak of pale blue,
lavender, or pale green at odd points of the structures, but these are
lost in the composite effect of the dominant color scheme; and you have
as the result a pale yellow city, in toto—a clean, pretty city that
fairly glistens in the abounding sunshine and the amiable spirits
of its inhabitants.

Of other interesting points of individuality pertaining to this most
hospitable and alluring city, one especially should be mentioned.
Look out the third or fourth story window of either of the two leading
hotels, and a panorama consisting of acres and acres of tile roofing
opens before you. It is not a case of an occasional tile-roofed struc-
ture; every building has its artistic cover of heavy, light-reddish tiles.
The roofs do not, as a rule, have high ridgepoles. Many are rather
flattish ; and so, the whole blends into an undulating red plain of tiling.

PINAR DEL RIO NOT VISITED AS IT SHOULD BE

- Not one foreign visitor of the tourist order was seen during the two
delightful January weeks we spent in the western Province! A few
Americans were seen about the vegetable districts and some of the
sugar plantations; business had called them there.

Strange how the many who visit Cuba during the winter spend
practically all their time in Habana. Some make hasty trips to
neighboring sugar centrals or run over to see Bellamar Cave near
Matanzas; many go out to the festive race track, the bathing beaches,
and the yacht clubs. But these places for the most part are merely
suburban Habana. Habana is a brilliant city, tremendously inter-
esting; but it is not Cuba, at least, not all of Cuba.

After you have seen ane Browines of Pinar del Rio you are going
to ask why so few visit the region. There it lies but a few miles
beyond the Florida Keys, with its perfect winter climate, its good
train service, a splendid hard-surfaced highway (the Carretera Central),
with fairly good country roads, and scenery more entrancing than
can be found over wide expanses of the United States or in some
entire countries of Europe; yet few go there and no outsider knows
much about the country.

Did you ever hear of the magotes of the Cordillera de Guaniguanico?
Of course not. The country possessing this matchless range is too
near home for its existence to be suspected. The Guaniguanicos com-
prise one of the most beautiful and wonderful areas of mountain
landscape to be found on the Western Hemisphere. The majestic
erandeur of the snow-covered Alaska Ranges and Andean peaks or

4 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

the matchless forested areas of the Carolina Mountains are not to be
seen here, it is granted; but there is beauty of unforgettable impres-
siveness, none the less, and oddity of form and topographic unique-
ness to be seen nowhere else in the world, although there is some
resemblance to the limestone highlands of the central part of the
Malay Peninsula seen along the railroad from Kulu Lumpur to
Penang.

This almost within a stone’s throw, and we have never heard of it!

ON THE ROAD TO HOPE

A good road takes you from the city of Pinar del Rio, situated on
the South Plain, up across the piedmont hills, down into beautiful
Vinales Valley, thence out and over the northern piedmont to La
Esperanza (Hope) on the North Plain. The round trip is easily made
in a day, with considerable time for stops. The major feature of the
trip will be Vifiales Valley and its wonderful magotes, those strange
truncated mountains, perhaps the most extraordinary orographic
feature on the face of the earth.

Having recovered from the crowing of the cocks, we breakfasted
and were off at 7 a. m. Our driver was a vivacious young fellow
from Herradura, the village center of a western Cuba _ trucking
district, where tomatoes, eggplants, and many other vegetables are
grown for the New Year’s dinner of your New York, Washington,
and Chicago friends. The driver knew his Pinar del Rio, its plants,
and the names of all the numerous villages and streams; but he had
absolutely no sense of distance, as shown by his consistent over-
estimates of kilometers traveled. His figures invariably exceeded
those posted along the roadside. The speedometer was out of order,
so that settled that. Even so, the charge for transportation was not
unreasonable, although we were paying not by the hour but by
kilometerage.

We passed one tobacco farm after another in the gently rolling
country about the city of Pinar del Rio. Within an hour’s ride the
topography became more uneven. After this the elevation increased
rapidly toward the north, and we soon climbed up into the rolling
pine lands of the piedmont section. From this point we looked
back across a broad, low plain that fell away gradually to the shore of
the sapphire Caribbean. Around us were great expanses of pine,
the graceful Cubensis species, with long, lustrous needles of deepest
ereen. There was but scant herbage of wire grass, and nothing else,
save an occasional paralejo bush (Byrsonima crassifolia).

The piedmont country, to a considerable extent, is so thin as to
sou, so infertile, that the Cubans have wisely passed it up as being
hopeless for agricultural purposes. Along the rivers that wind
through these hills, the situation is vastly different. Here the rich

‘OZIS
SUIAIBA puv odvYS [BIMOUTUTAS JO SYI[OMOUT dUOASEUMT] 10 ‘sajobnUL YYATA po}}Op UepaRs USYUNS oULSIS B SB SIvadde 4say AOT[VA oy, ‘“odevospuvy onbran pure [njyneeq y

HONTAOUd OTH THA UVNId NI AWTIVA SH TVNIA

6 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

alluvial plains are almost wholly occupied with tobacco fields. At-
tractive palm-thatched dwellings and tobacco-curing barns are
scattered about, and royal palms lift their magnificent plumes regally
above the bright green floors of the peaceful valleys. A little farther
on we came to the inner edge of the piedmont. Here we had our
first close-up view of the magnificent Guaniguanicos.

RHINE CASTLES MODELLED BY NATURE

The Cordillera de Guaniguanico comprises a chain of small and
large block-like mountains, or magotes, that rise with nearly perpen-
dicular walls from a flat plain to heights exceeding 1,300 feet. The
plain les below the belts of piedmont hills that inclose it on the north
and south; but the higher magotes rise somewhat above the upland
level of these adjacent hill lands.

Vinales Valley, into which we were now looking, revealed itself as a
prodigious sunken garden. Wherever the eye ranged, great and small
monoliths rose from the flat valley floor. These were of such sym-
metrical shape you could not at first conceive them as being anything
but artificial structures. Some of the taller ones furthest away looked
like purple etchings of Rhine castles; others with receding upper parts
were duplicates of the ultra-modern New York skyscraper. Deep
defiles between the detached masses of stone were suggestive of the
street-canyons in down-town New York.

Although most of the magotes are flat-topped, they never resemble
the buttes or mesas of the western United States. Perhaps this is
due in part to the fact that the first view of them is not from the level
of the plain upon which they stand, but from the high piedmont
position, where the perspective is always strangely beautiful. Our
western mesas often have a castellated appearance, but they never
rise out of a sunken garden like gigantic monuments placed for deco-
rative purposes, and you can not slip up on one of them except by
night. You always see them first from long distances. Not so with
these extraordinary mountains of Vifiales Valley; you almost stand
above them before seeing them.

In the distance the magotes shimmered in the soft, purple haze of
January. Tobacco barns covered with palm leaves and houses with
roots of red tile or gray thatch gave just the right balance, the motif
of human occupation, so essential to a picture of a joyous landscape.
Here and there plowmen trod slowly behind ox-drawn, old-fashioned,
home-made plows, turning up blood-red soil. In some fields tobacco
was being harvested; in others it was being planted. The planting
and harvesting of the same crop at the same time, as in the tobacco
and cane fields of Cuba, is not a matter of every day occurrence in
the regions with which we were familiar.

LAND OF SUNSHINE AND FINE TOBACCO 7

Now a column of smoke rose from a cabin that resembled a doll’s
house in the distance. Tinkling of cattle bells and other rural sounds
were faintly caught from somewhere out of the picturesque valley.
I think no human ever looked upon a more friendly landscape. It
had every conceivable aspect of rural peacefulness. No doubt tragic
events have stalked among the inhabitants of this tranquil valley, but
no thought of anything but joy was suggested in the picture that we
saw. And when we had descended the steep sides of the inclosing
hills and come closer to the farmsteads and the people who lived upon
them, the same spirit of contentment seemed to characterize every-
one we met.

I wonder if it is not in just such places where genuine happiness -is
found. Even with low prices and little money, there is always suffi-
ciency of food in the valleys of western Cuba. It seems inconceivable
that these polite and wholesomely friendly people give much thought
to the common worries of those who dwell in cities and congested rural
districts. Probably these glittermg valleys are really depression
proof.

And so, along the way we traveled, leisurely and joyously. We had
partaken of the cup of Vifiales’ cheer, its warm wine of azure January
skies and the kindly greetings of the roadside. Two miles brought
us to Vifiales, a village of attractive tile-roofed houses and streets
(as well as many of the houses) blood red with the prevailing clay of
the locality. We had a good lunch at a tiny café, and then onward.

Another 2 miles brought us to the entrance of a magnificent pass
between two beetling cliffs. Arrived at the foot of one of these, we
were astounded to find the mountain masses of limestone simply
riddled with cavities. The magotes truly are “rotten to the core.’’
There is not merely a cave or two, but hundreds of them ramify the
entire mountain range. Long icicles of stalactitic lime carbonate hang
from the roofs of gaping caves. The very facings of the cliffs are
vertically streaked with cream-colored lime formed by deposition
from trickling water. Green trunks of trees growing from rock débris
on ledges and in cracks paralleled the limestone striations high up the
almost perpendicular walls in a most fantastic way. About the base,
upon accumulated débris fallen from above, grew dense strips of
royal palm, ceiba, almdcigo, yagruma, hibiscus, and other tropical
plants. Parrots and other birds made lively these belts of jungle.

SUGAR LOAF RIVER

At one place Ancon River coming straight against the foot of Sierra
de Vinales does not turn aside to flow around the elevated mass, but
strikes straight through by a natural tunnel more than a mile long.
Rio Pan de Azucar flows close along the foot of the cliffs of one of the
western magotes, almost circling it before turning away from the north
side to sparkle across the plain and thence by narrow valley through

8 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

the northern belt of piedmont hills into the Gulf of Mexico. One
type of stream is undermining the mountains internally, while the
other is employing a system of external attack in the undertaking of
wearing away the highlands.
No doubt there formerly were scores of natural bridges among the
Guaniguanicos; some are still to be seen. These, weakened by con-
tinuing subterranean solution and erosion, caved in to leave gaps with
vertical walls between the divided masses. Rock decay and erosional
water scoured out the fallen débris to form the flat-floored plain and
WHERE THE CAYA-
GUATEGE _ RIVER
LEAVES THE VAI-
LEY

A cave where one of the
smaller streams of Vinales

Valley enters a subterra-
nean passage to the sea.

the sharply cut, picturesque defiles between isolated magotes. In
time, weathering processes will completely efface the monolithic high-
lands and leave Vifiales Valley a normal flat-roofed erosional depres-
sion having nothing of its present charm, but that is an unimportant
matter of the remote future.

THE HILL OF HELL

Sierra del Infierno is the Cuban name for one of the larger elevations
in the western extension of the group. This is completely honey-
combed with bat-infested caverns of midnight darkness. The for-
bidding depths, the darkness, the weird whirring of thousands of bat

LAND OF SUNSHINE AND FINE TOBACCO 8)

wings probably impelled some local scribe to invent the picturesque
appellation of this magote: The Hill of Hell.

Out near Guane, beyond the end of the railroad, the writer crawled
through an opening in a vertical wall of white limestone one sunny
day to see what was inside. A cul-de-sac with a flat floor of about
one-fourth acre in extent was found. White limestone cliffs sur-
rounded this, save for a mere slit in one side, invisible a few steps
away. Within this well-like opening beautiful specimens of royal
palm were massed in such density that their leaves nearly closed
above. In the gentle breeze entering by the narrow defile the great
plumed fronds of the palms waved gracefully to and fro. Their
shadows moved spectrally across the faces of the cliff, and splashes
of sunlight checkered the floor. There were a number of banana
trees, some blossoming hibiscus, and a few green shrubs. Near the
center, children from neighboring farmsteads had built a playhouse
with a miniature yard about it. But for the occasional note of a
songbird hidden in the masses of foliage and the softest murmur
and patter of wind among palm leaves, the place would have been
completely silent.

The combination of things found in this exquisite spot was such as
to develop the very distinct impression that here was a bit of fairy-
land. That impression remains tenaciously in the imagination and
probably is not accomplishing much harm by doing so.

In this region are to be found diminutive tobacco fields at the
bottoms of the well-like depressions. The soil in these hoyos is of the
kind that produces very fine cigar tobacco; accordingly, wherever
there is arable ground at the bottom it is utilized. One field is
entered by climbing down a flight of 13 ladders, and its crop is culti-
vated with oxen let down when calves. At least one field is most
easily entered by the subterranean passageway of a river, at time of
low water.

GUANO CAVES

The limestone caves of Cuba contain much fertilizing material in
the form of accumulated refuse from bat life. Near the entrance of
one, the writer bored through a 5-foot deposit of this guano. The
material is sometimes taken out for use as fertilizer in fields of tobacco
and sugarcane. It is on the order of the bird guano which formerly
was imported into the United States in large quantities from the west
coast of South America.

TREES WITH LARGE TUMMIES

The most ludicrous tree of all the plant kingdom is the bottle palm
of western Cuba (Colpothrinax Wrightii). When you first enter a
forest of these big-tummied fellows, you are sure to emit some hearty
guffaws, if your digestion is orderly. You even half expect the bloated

10 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

gentlemen standing about so conspicuously to laugh back at you, in
accordance with the traditional joviality of fat men. But they don’t;
not even those with the scarecrow tufts of hair left on their heads by
the gatherers of thatch.

The cause of the enlargement of the middle part of these palms is
a secret of their own. It certainly can not be charged to gluttonous
feeding, because the soil where the best developed specimens grow is
an acid, sandy variety of marked infertility. On the other hand, it
would not require any undue effort to imagine the swelling to be the
result of overstraining on the part of the trees in wresting sustenance
from lean soil.

Courtesy of H. H. Bennett

BOTTLE PALMS OF WESTERN CUBA

Forests of these curious trees characterize the sandy plains of Pinar del Rio. The leaves are extensively
used for thatching roofs, particularly those of tobacco-curing barns.

The leaves of this strange plant are much in demand as roofing
material for the curing barns of the tobacco planters. A thick roof
of barrigona leaves lasts 20 years, gives perfect protection from rain,
and allows the slow distribution and moderate absorption of sun heat
that must be had for the even curing of a perfectly finished product.
Metal and tile roofs cause entirely too much heating inside, and
shingles neither wear well in the climate nor give as even distribution
of heat as thatch.

The tree stands in danger of being exterminated in Cuba through
the depredations of those wasteful thatch gatherers who chop it down,
rather than climb up, in order to get the leaves. Some, of less ruth-
less traits, cut the leaves from the standing tree, leaving enough at
the top for continuing growth. It would not be an unwise step
for the Government to protect this useful and remarkable tree, as
it has protected the stately royal palm.

LAND OF SUNSHINE AND FINE TOBACCO 11

PALMS THAT GLITTER IN THE SUN

Although palma cana, bottle palm, and various lesser palms, pine,
paralejo and espartillo grass are conspicuous forms of vegetation on
the low coastal plains and the piedmont sections, royal palm is found
in splendid growth over most of the limestone areas, often crowded
in intriguing nooks and corners about the Guaniguanicos. Besides
their tremendous usefulness in furnishing a large supply of excellent
hog feed (the oily fruit) and abundant thatch for covering and siding
houses and shading tobacco barns, royal palms add matchless charm
to much of Cuba’s countryside.

The writer recently journeyed out into various parts of the island
where these palms handsomely decorate the entire countryside.
The trip began in January and ended in March. The entire period
was one of pleasant sunshine. The climate, without so much as a
single hour’s exception, was the kind one would have ordered had the
gods given permission. One’s entire embodiment tingled with the
delicious pleasantness of it. Everywhere mocking birds sang the
lyrics of a land of enchantment; bougainvillea flamed in raiment of
gergeous purple, pink, carmine, and saffron; royal palms lifted their
curved plumes in lordly splendor above the incarnadined plains of
Habana, Matanzas, central Camaguey and the alluring country of
the magotes in western Cuba. _

There were two. particular occasions when this part of the world
changed to a place of ethereal, fairylike grandeur: At sunset and
sunrise, among royal palms. Looking to the west one day, at the
time of twilight, the stately palms loomed like purple statues against
a background of fading tropical fire. In the absence of wind, their
huge lower fronds curved downward with all the grace of an artist’s
Imagination, as if bowed in thankfulness for the joy of life; while the
two uppermost plumes stood like arms uplifted in supplication to a
supreme power for continuing beneficence of tropical sunshine and
shadow.

At this bewitching hour, the time when trade winds subside and a
vast drapery of silence spreads out with the recession of the sun and
its flaming reflection, the subtlety and delicacy of nature’s ways are
trenchantly revealed. One’s thoughts almost become incoherent,
confused by the sublimity of the inspiring spectacle. With the
feeling that the ponderables of life are too abstruse and engulfing for
serious reflection at a time when the immediate environment is that
of delicious comfortableness and the onrushing darkness is accom-
panied by scenes of stimulating glory, one turns to walk silently and
somewhat solemnly back to the casa vivienda.

We started before sunup on a long trip through southern Camaguey.

A fog of considerable density lay over the countryside. The'speed of

12 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

the motor developed a bit of January chilliness. Coats were buttoned
and hands thrust deeply into trouser pockets. Then came the sun,
and with it, marvelous opalescence. The mist turned to pearly
drapery. Through it the purple palm leaves of the evening before
were now of dull silver; their supporting trunks were invisible or nearly
so. It was a morning of spectral magnificence. Never had I beheld
anything like it. And yet the climax had not been reached!

As the sun’s rays whipped down, the mist thinned above. Finally,
the tips of the uppermost palm leaves, catching the direct rays,
turned into points of highly polished silver, from which thin shafts
of light shot out radially and gloriously as we rushed by. Sun dogs

att TY La

Courtesy of H. H. Bennett
TREES THAT GROW ON CAVERNOUS LIMESTONE

The roots reach for food into deep cavities where the soil is concealed.

and strange celestial rays had come into the woods to dance and
olitter on leaves of silver!

Dr. Tom Barber, the famous naturalist of Harvard University, a
man who knows every nook and corner of Cuba, as well as most other
countries of the Caribbean region, gives us an appealing glimpse of
western Cuba in his charming monograph on the birds of Cuba:

The Rwisenror of the Cubans is well named, for no bird of the Americas can wear
more worthily the style of nightingale. Picture ...a hot and misty dawn,
high cliffs with tangled jungle and towering palms. The night and rains have
given way to coppery rising sun which makes each arid clamberer stop willingly
to sweat and pant. Suddenly, as the sunlight strikes into a dark ravine, a long,
repeated crescendo of such unearthly beauty rings out that one sinks down to
rest and drink in the rising flood of antiphonal music. Far and wide, from ridge
to higher peak, another bird and then another answering, ring out the limpid,
flutelike notes, so serene and yet so sad.

LAND OF SUNSHINE AND FINE TOBACCO 13

TREES THAT HUNT HOLES

In the far western part of Cuba one comes to “‘dog-tooth land”’
(tierra de dientes). This is rocky ground, where unequal solution of
the regional platform of coralline limestone, by rain water, has caused
the development of sharp-edged protuberances. These stand about
in sword fashion and in such plentifulness that one must be careful of
every step. There is no difficulty at all about garnering sore shins
and disabling wrenches in walking over land of this rudely spiked
nature. It is even worse to travel where the rock is of the piedra
hueca type. This holey variety of limestone is pierced by thousands
of cavities, many of which appear as if they had been bored out with
an auger. Slip carelessly into one of these holes, and you are about
as likely to have a broken leg as a smarting shinbone. Cattle stray-
ing into areas of piedra hueca sometimes break their legs in the ubiqui-
tous holes.

Much of this rock formation has on it no visible soil whatever; yet
all of it is forested. Silk-cotton trees 5 feet in diameter were seen
in some parts of the island where not so much as a spoonful of soil
could have been collected from an acre of ground. The trees, which
have their beginning in accumulations of leaves and pockets of disin-
tegrated rock, send their rootlets out in search of food. Straying
about over the surface, a hole is found, and through this they plunge
to find food in the hidden soil of subterranean cavities.

THE VUELTA-ABAJO

Cuba’s Vuelta-Abajo is probably the most famed agricultural
region of the world. For generations the contents of all genuine
“Habana cigars”? have been produced in this most favored of several
favorable Cuban tobacco districts. It would seem an easy matter to
find a place so renowned. Some who have written of tobacco have
described the locality as a region of such well-defined and restricted
boundaries that from one spot the perfect aromatic leaf required for
the true Habana is obtained, while from another place but a few steps
away a product of vastly inferior quality is grown.

But it wasn’t easy to find. It was not difficult to locate what is
known as the heart of the district, but to get at the boundaries, or to
know when you go in or out of Vuelta-Abajo territory depends con-
siderably upon the person you talk with. If he happens to be one
who grows tobacco west of San Cristobal, quite likely he will tell you
the district begins at a point just far enough east to take in his farm.
As you go westward the boundary goes with you. Down at Consola-
cion del Sur you will be told the real district begins there, and still
farther west, at Pinar del Rio, you will again be told it extends from
that city to some miles beyond San Juan y Martinez.

89921—32—Bull. 1——2

14 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The truth is, the Vuelta-Abajo, while constituting a genuine tobacco
district very worthy of recognition, is somewhat indefinite as to bound-
aries, certainly in so far as these relate to definite positions readily
accepted by the interested inhabitants of the region.

Not all the growers, however, juggle thus with the geography of the
world’s leading tobacco section. Some of those questioned in the
vicinity of Herradura replied readily: ‘‘ No, no, this not Vuelta-Abajo,
this is the Semi-Vuelta district.”

Certain it is, at any rate, that in the section from the vicinity of
the city of Pinar del Rio and westward through the country about
San Luis and San Juan y Martinez you are in thoroughly good Vuelta-
Abajo territory. Certain it is, also, that some very excellent tobacco
is grown east of this roughly defined area, as in the vicinity of Conso-
lacion del Sur. Much depends on the soil, the fertilization, and the
curing and assorting of the leaf after it is grown.

The most perfect wrapper must be of silky thinness and of fine,
velvet texture. To produce this, the leaf of optimum quality, well-
drained sandy or gravelly soil of a quartzose nature is essential, and
the plants must be grown and cured under shade. The clay lands of
the Partito district near Habana and of the various districts com-
prising the Vuelta-Arriba region of Santa Clara Province produce
different grades of tobacco. The Partito leaf has good color; that
of the Vuelta-Arriba is grown on mulatto and dark clay soils, and
generally is considered of not so good quality.

On the sandy lands of the Vuelta-Abajo there must be liberal enrich-
ment with the right kind of fertilizers. Tobacco is a heavy feeder, and
to produce good yields on the thin, sandy, and gravelly lands of Pinar
del Rio it is necessary to supply large amounts of those most essential
elements of plant food: potassium, nitrogen, and phosphorus. The
potassium must be in the form of the sulphate or carbonate. Chlo-
ride salts of the element invariably give poor burning quality, causing
your cigar to give forth miniature explosions from time to time.
The best form of nitrogen is said to be contained in cottonseed meal,
although the manure of corn-fed horses obtained at the Habana and
Santa Clara cavalry posts also gives good results.

Irrigation is practiced on the larger plantations, and the shade is
full cheesecloth cover. The cloth is stretched over the top and sides
of the entire field. Some of the smaller growers use only partial
shade by placing over the tobacco plants leaves of royal palm sup-
ported in squares or strips by scaffolding.

CURING THE GOLDEN LEAVES

The unspotted leaves from the middle part of the stem give the
best product. These are handled with much care, from the time the
seed is sown in specially prepared beds until the fragrant carots are

LAND OF SUNSHINE AND FINE TOBACCO 15

baled for shipment to Habana. Harvesting begins when the color
of the leaf is yellowish-green, known to the growers as anaragando.
The writer was not at all sure he could detect any color difference
between the leaves that were being plucked and those that were
being left on the stalk for further ripening. There was, however, no
hesitation of procedure on the part of the expert harvesters, mostly
women. 7

Leaf by leaf the tobacco is hand picked from the stalk. These are
carefully placed one upon the other, bottom sides facing, until 32 to
36 have been collected, enough to — —
fill a ‘‘stick.’”’ Carriers, usually
girls and boys, take this handful of
plucked leaves from the picker over
to the basket placed in the aisles
between the plants. Here the
leaves are tenderly transferred
to burlap-lined shallow baskets.
When these are filled one layer
deep, a burlap flap is turned over
the leaves, and another crew of
carriers takes the baskets into the
barn, where the leaves are taken
out immediately, strung on wooden
sticks and finally hung for the long
process of curing.

Direct sunshine never touches
the precious wrappers, as they are
handled on the better-managed
plantations. With the filler, which >
Realinemaicess up the Ody) Olea | — Coutey of HOH Bennett
Eeeenesme ious are quite dilters: A RVESTING Tht EaMous vue
ent. This is SON in the sun and The greatest care is taken in the cultivation,
fae cotmceceiye: nearlys so muuch) | ete ee ee HOTELS
care as the wrapper. Much of the
filler is partly cured in the sun by hanging on field scaffolds for a
day or more before transferrence to the barn.

The curing process is too long and complicated to describe here.
Often the leaves remain in the barn for three months, and throughout
this period the humidity must be scrupulously regulated by window
airing in fair weather and by charcoal fires during rainy spells.

The cured leaves from the barn when not of a sufficiently bright
color are taken down and worked into stacks for fermenting. This
proceeds little by little until the desired color is obtained, the temper-
ature being controlled by tearing down and rebuilding the stacks.

16 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Now comes the grading, a very important part of the tobacco
business. On some of the better plantations as many as 65 to 70
assortments or classes of leaf are worked out by experienced graders.
In this operation the leaves are individually examined and reexam-
ined, some going through the hands of six or more graders variously
qualified for special skill by generations of trainmg. Much of the
work of grading is left to the factory by the average small grower,
who frequently is unable to carry the separations beyond a few
basic colors, such as maduro, colorado and claro.

THE CIGAR DE LUXE!

In Habana you select one of a number of famous brands of cigars,
light it, and feel contented. It will be a good smoke, if you appreciate
superior flavor and aroma; and you will have the satisfaction of
knowing that no better cigar can be bought the world over.

Out on one of the big Vuelta-Abajo tobacco farms you would find
something much better to smoke, tbat is to say, you would there
have plantation-made cigars into whose composition goes the very
cream of selected leaf. That is the kind the administrador smokes;
this is truly the cigar de luxe. Unfortunately, it can not be bought
or had anywhere but on a Vuelta-Abajo plantation. The best
Habana cigar made is not nearly so good as one of these (according
to the writer’s appraisal) especially if it has been kept in a hog-
bladder pouch along with a few vanilla beans. Place yourself in a
comfortable rocker on the broad, tile-floored veranda of the manager’s
palatial residence on a January afternoon, light up one of these de
luxe cigars and you will speedily observe that you have thus gathered
about yourself a situation impossible of duplication under any other
circumstances. The weather will be that of the most pleasant June
day of the Middle Atlantic States. You will gaze down a long
avenue of royal palms rising majestically from a flowering hedge of
hibiscus, across the valley of the Rio San Juan upon the pale purple
slopes of the distant Lomas de los Contadores; mocking birds will be
singing joyously in the tropic shrubbery about the casa vivienda.
If you care for it, the boy will fetch a chilled bottle of carbonated
water and whatever else the whim suggests. This will be one of your
really perfect days; you will be in tune with life, and you will say to
your host: ‘‘Sefior, the cigar you have given me is excellent beyond
belief; and the climate here, Sefor, I am sure you can not possibly
appreciate how entirely delightful it is. Why, I had not supposed
that anywhere in the world January was acquainted witb anything of
the kind.”’” To this your host will reply: ‘‘Ah, Senor, our tobacco, it
is good, yes. You understand, Sefior, the ground here is of the best
quality; it is—ah, how do you say it?—It is perfecto! It gives to our
tobacco the very good texture and the aroma, ah, yes, the aroma
suprema!”’

TAKING YOUR CAR TO CUBA

By Enrrqur Coronapo SuARreEz

Assistant Editor of the BoLETIN DE LA UNION PANAMERICANA

T is certain that among the millions of American tourists who seek
new places in which to escape the rigors of winter there are many
who are completely unaware that only a short distance away from
the United States there is a beautiful and hospitable country richly
endowed by nature, which offers them the pleasures of a delightful
climate and most beautiful scenery as well as other enjoyments pro-
vided by human agencies. This lovely land is the Republic of
Cuba, justly called “The Queen of the Tropics.” According to
legend, it brought to the lips of Admiral Christopher Columbus,
when for the first time he stepped upon its fertile shores on Octo-
ber 28, 1492, the phrase, “‘It is the most beautiful land that
man’s eyes have ever beheld.’ And history relates that when the
Great Discoverer rendered his report to the King and Queen of Spain
he said, in speaking of Cuba, ‘‘This land, Your Gracious Majesties,
is so marvelously fair that it surpasses all others in enchantment as
the light of day surpasses the darkness of night. I have often said
to my subordinates that, however much I might exert myself to give
Your Majesties a complete account of it, my tongue could not speak
the whole truth, nor could my pen write it, for truly | am so amazed
by its loveliness that, although I have written fully of other regions,
with their fruits and flowers and their varied qualities, this one
exceeds my powers.”’ Such words, in conjunction with the many
other descriptions which historians, poets, and other authors have
written in praise of this sunny isle are more than sufficient to invite
the American tourist to these fresh fields and pastures new which le
almost within his sight.

The journey to Cuba from the United States may be comfortably
made to-day in three ways, by sea, by land, and by air. But consider-
ing that the second way, if by automobile, offers perhaps the greatest
attraction since upon one’s arrival in Cuba it affords a means for
a closer view of an exotic countryside, I shall confine myself to a brief
description of such a journey and of the ease with which the writer
has just made it.

Taking as our starting point the city of Miami, Fla., the trip to
Cuba may be made in the following way: Leave Miami not later
than 8 o’clock in the morning and drive 90 miles between that city
and Matecumbe Key, where one takes the steamer the same day at

18 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

1 o’clock in the afternoon. It is important to purchase tickets
ahead of time in Miami, since the space for automobiles in the ferry-
boat is limited, and if a ticket is not secured, one has to wait over a
day. The passage from one key to the next takes two hours, after
which there is a drive of 12 miles before another ferry is taken for a
second trip of two hours. Then one motors 40 miles to Key West.
The cost of these two ferry trips, including the fare of the driver,
ranges between $3.50 and $6.50 according to the weight of the car.
Other passengers pay $1 apiece.

Since the ferryboats and the steamer from Key West to Habana
do not make connections the same day, the night must be passed in
the former city. The next day the steamer sails at 1 o’clock in the
afternoon, arriving at the Cuban capital at 7 o’clock in the evening.
The customs officials in Key West require all automobiles to be ready
for embarkation at the port at 11 o’clock in the morning, at which
time a declaration must be filled out, giving the make of the car,
name of the owner, number of the motor, and other simple data.
It is therefore important that every driver should carry with him his
registration card, his driving permit, and all other information needed
to fill out this declaration without loss of time. The cost of trans-
porting the automobile from Key West to Habana is $15 each way.
Passengers, including the driver, pay $17.50 apiece, or for $30 may
buy a round-trip ticket good for 60 days. Other rates are made
for 10-day tickets.

It is essential that travelers should know in advance the name of
the hotel in Habana where they are to stay, since the port authorities
require that this should be placed on the declaration. Charges in
even the best Habana hotels are very moderate this season. As soon
as passengers have transported their baggage to the dock in Key
West it is in the care of the steamer officers, who have it carried to
the cabins and on arrival at Habana to the customhouse, where
passengers obtain it after examination. The same is the case with
the automobile. In the customhouse at Habana the driver is given
a free temporary permit to operate his car in Cuba, the permit being
valid for 90 days. The car must be taken out of the country by the
same port at which it enters. At the customhouse are found the
agents of the various hotels, easily identified by the name on their
caps. They take charge of the transportation of baggage and assist
the tourist in everything necessary for removing his automobile and
getting through the customs, which is not an onerous process. Any
returning traveler may bring into the United States free of duty 50
cigars, 300 cigarettes, and 3 pounds of smoking tobacco.

Since the city of Habana is one of the most beautiful capitals in the
world because of its magnificent buildings, imposing churches, noble
historical remains, delightful promenades, beaches, hotels, recreation
facilities, and many other attractions, the tourist will be well advised

“BpUNjOI 9} JO 100 OY} UI JOS PUOMIVIP 4e1Kd-E7Z L—ABAYSIFA [V1YUIO Of} 1OJ OUOJSO[IUI O40Z 94} PUNO] OS[e St oJOFY ‘SuI00I
pejurodde puv poyvdoosp Ajowospuvy JO WoIssodoNS B s[BeAdl ‘TEHT “FZ ATVNIGeT peyBiInsNVUl AT[BIOWJO SEM YoIyM “[ORIdeo QudOyIUseUE SIqy 01 JISTA -W

VNV4VH “IOLId VO AML

BqnyQ JO SYIOAA oIGQN JO Jueu41edseq 944 Jo AsajINO0,~

20 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

to remain there at least a week before starting out on the trip through
the interior of the island, in order that he may have ample opportunity
to view all the pomts of interest. The new capitol is worthy of
special mention for the beauty of the materials of which it is con-
structed and the interesting but not gaudy use of color in its decora-
tions. It is considered by many a much more handsome building
than the Capitol of the United States. But the tourist must always
remember that if he limits his visit to Cuba to Habana he will not
know Cuba, and he will, moreover, have lost the opportunity of
making one of the most picturesque motor trips imaginable.

This journey, from Habana eastward to Santiago and westward to
Pinar del Rio, is taken to-day over the Central Highway or Carretera
Central, one of the most perfect pieces of modern highway engineering
in the world, which will bear comparison with the best in the United

GULF OF
MEXICO

Copyright by Warren Bros. Co.
THE CENTRAL HIGHWAY OF CUBA
The splendid 700-mile concrete highway which spans the island, connecting all provincial capitals, is

a model of road construction, in which steep grades, sharp curves, and grade crossings have been either
entirely eliminated or reduced to a minimum.

States.! The length of this magnificent concrete highway is about
600 miles to the east of Habana and about 100 miles to the west. As
the Province of Pinar del Rio has been eloquently described by Mr.
Hugh H. Bennett in the preceding article in this issue, I shall limit
myself to a brief description of the trip to the historic city of Santiago.
It may be added here that the price of gasoline in Cuba last October
was from 28 to 35 cents a gallon, filling stations being conveniently
located all along the Central Highway.

Leaving Habana early in the morning, the motorist may drive
leisurely along the highway, enjoying the beautiful tropical scenery
on either side until he arrives at the city of Matanzas, picturesquely
situated at the mouth of two large rivers. Near this city of 62,000
inhabitants are numerous attractions such as the Caves of Bellamar,
the incomparable Valley of Yumuri, and the Hermitage of Montserrat.

1 See The Central Highway of Cuba, by Charles M. Upham, in BULLETIN of the Pan American Union
for June, 1931.

TAKING YOUR CAR TO CUBA Dil

fod

Before arriving at Matanzas one may visit Madruga, the center of a
region of sulphur and iron springs and of one of the principal sugar-
making districts of the island. The next morning one starts out
again, this time for the ancient city of Camaguey, third city in size on
the island. It presents to the tourist a charming colonial aspect and
many reminders that it was founded more than 400 years ago. In
the course of the second day’s trip one passes through the beautiful
city of Santa Clara, started in 1689 by some residents of Remedios on
the site once occupied by the Indian town of Cubanacan, believed
by Columbus to be in Asia, and now the center of an important
tobacco-growing district. One likewise passes through the cities of

ee:
Courtesy of the Department of Public Works of Cuba

A STRETCH OF THE CUBAN CENTRAL HIGHWAY

Sancti Spiritus, one of the oldest in Cuba, and Ciego de Avila.
Throughout the day the tourist will be delighted at the aspect of the
wide-stretching sugarcane fields situated in a fertile region adorned
by palms of singular beauty.

The night is passed at Camaguey in a famous hotel, once a barracks,
and long the delight of all visitors because of its large rooms, walls
3 feet thick, and fascinating patios where one may take his ease in
the midst of a profusion of tropical plants and flowers. This, like
many others, is a charming place in which to linger; but if the motor-
ist’s time is limited, he may set forth next morning on the last 200
miles of his journey to Santiago, the eastern terminus of the Central
Highway.

De, THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

This section of the road passes through one of the loveliest of all the
lovely regions of Cuba. About 100 miles to the east of Camaguey
the traveler is enchanted at the distant view of mountains whose
varied tints make them seem a fairylike vision. On the way the
tourist has the opportunity of visiting and admiring the towns of
Guaimaro, where the first constitutional convention of Cuba met;
Holguin, center of another important sugar zone; Bayamo, founded in
1513; Baire, where the famous rallying cry was given which launched
the war of independence; and Palma Soriano, the historic town where
José Marti, the Cuban national hero, died. Finally the traveler
arrives in the notable city of Santiago. In the days of the conquis-
tadores it was the point of departure for the expeditions of Cortés and
de Soto for the conquest of Mexico and Florida, but to most Americans
it is better known for the famous charge of Roosevelt’s Rough Riders
up San Juan Hill, just outside the city, and the defeat of Cervera’s
fleet upon endeavoring to escape from the harbor. If indeed nature
has bestowed her beauty especially on some favored regions of the
universe, it may be said without fear of contradiction that in the
fertile fields and lofty mountains surrounding Santiago her gifts have
been lavished with a prodigal hand. Mr. T. Philip Terry well says
of Santiago in his useful Guide to Cuba:

Ancient Santiago, spread fanwise on sun-drenched hills that overlook one of
the loveliest and most romantically historic bays in the southern world, possesses
a lure which the most blasé traveler finds difficulty in resisting. Facing the blue
Caribbean whose drowsy bosom thrilled to the touch of Columbus’s caravels four
centuries agone; backed by flower-decked mountains that shut it in from the
workaday world, this age-old capital of the conquistadores is to many one of the
most pleasing and captivating of the Cuban cities. Known for its beautiful
Spanish women and handsome men; as the birthplace of Heredia, Cuba’s greatest
poet; as the place where Americans crushed Spain’s armada and by so doing
destroyed Iberian ascendency in the Antilles for all time, Santiago is a felicitous
blend of the frigid north and the sensuous Tropics, of Old Spain and the New
World. It isa voluptuous lotophagi retreat that possesses in a marked degree the
ability to take the nerve strain out and replace it with a placidity sometimes
unknown in the hustling Northland.

It is to be regretted that lack of space prevents a more extensive
account of the cities and of the places of interest in this privileged land.
It must, however, be added that in all the towns of the island the
American tourist will find imposing monuments, beautiful colonial
residences, magnificent churches, and historic scenes which will recall
not only the Spanish conquistadores and the colony which they founded
but the Cuban soldiers, who fought so nobly and untiringly for inde-
pendence, and their American comrades in arms. The enjoyment of
all these marvelous natural and historical scenes and the proverbial
hospitality of the Cubans will give a modern significance to the words
of the Great Discoverer: ‘‘It is the most beautiful land that man’s
eyes have ever beheld.”

HIS EXCELLENCY DR. GONZALO ZALDUMBIDE
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Ecuador in the United States

The new Minister of Ecuador, who presented his credentials to President Hoover December 16, 1931,
represented his country in the United States in the same capacity in 1928-29. Doctor Zaldumbide’s
diplomatic career began as Secretary of Legation in Lima, Peru, followed by a similar appointment
to Paris which he held throughout the World War until 1922, serving in addition as Delegation Secretary
to the Peace Conference in 1919. While Chargé d’ Affaires in Rome, 1922-23, he was appointed Minister
to France. Before coming to Washington in 1928 he also represented Ecuador as Minister ad interim
in London and Brussels, and prior to his second appointment to Washington he filled the cabinet post
of Minister of Foreign Relations.

THE VOLCAN REGION OF PANAMA

By Marcet J. Bussarp

Associate Member, American Society of Civil Engineers

HE Volcan region is situated in the Province of Chiniquf and is a

part of the westernmost territory of the Republic of Panama.
Historically, Chiriqui once formed a part of that great territory of
Veragua,' the object of aspirations on the part of many of the early
Spanish conquistadores.

Juan Vazquez de Coronado, the famed explorer, is credited as having
been the first to penetrate its domains in a resourceful march across
the continent from the Golfo de Dulce on the Pacific, over the Sierras
de Talamanca to the Valley of the Changuinola, where gold was dis-
covered in the river sands. Perafin de Ribera, another Spanish
cavalier, is said to have conducted an expedition after Coronado’s
death from Cartago in Costa Rica to the Bay of Almirante on the
Atlantic, returning across the continent to the country surrounding
the present-day town of David, where he left a few settlers.

This Province of Chiriqui boasts numerous river systems, and the
highest mountains of the Isthmus. El Voledén de Chiriqut, still known
by its Indian name, ‘“‘El Baru,” is the giant extinct voleano which
once held in awe the tribes that roamed its skirting fastnesses. Its
elevation above sea level is 3,436 meters, or 11,270 feet.

Although a foot trail leads almost to the top of El Baru, few persons
have ever reached the rim of the crater owing to its precipitous slopes.
Several curious natives who claim to have achieved the ascent hold
that a look within revealed a deep, obscure lake of water, thus satis-
fying their unconscious wish that the voleano is forever dormant.
Togetber with its counterfort and accessory summits, namely Cerro
Pando and Pico Rovalo, this immense crater peak forms very defi-
nitely the continental divide of this region and is the nucleus from
which spring many of the streams flowing to the Pacific and Atlantic
littorals.

On the mountain slopes to the eastward, coffee recognized as equal
to the best in the world is grown by contented finca owners of many
nationalities. To the south in the foothills snuggles the little town
of Boquete, which is the railhead and shipping point for the produce
of the region, chiefly coffee.

1 Of this territory 625 square leagues were granted in 1537 by the Spanish Crown to Luis Col6n, grand-
son of Columbus, who discovered it in 1502.—Editor.

THE VOLCAN REGION OF PANAMA 25

West of El Baru and spreading from its base lie the flatlands, or
Llanos del Volcdén, an extension of some 15,000 acres. This is a veri-
table tableland, the natural handiwork of the monster voleano during
its long period of activity. One need not be a geologist to under-
stand immediately that this plateau was at one time part of a luxu-
riant valley denuded by continuous hot eruptions of rock and ash
(ceniza) and at last completely filled to an almost perfect level. It
seems an incredible coincidence that the Great Builder should have
passed into eternal repose at a time so propitious. One can but
visualize the film of hot, fine ash continually darkening the sky over

Llanos

we £/ Baru
als

£/ Ha7o

Courtesy of Marcel J. Bussard

MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF THE VOLCAN REGION OF PANAMA

this now flat plain, with the occasional terrific outbursts of huge,
hot boulders, during the period of deposition.

In recent generations, the Llanos del Volcén have given pasturage
to herds of cattle and horses, and were a portion of a great ranch
known as “‘Potreros del Vole4n,’’ an extensive land grant to an
enterprising family of pioneers. The tract has changed ownership
numerous times since the occupancy of the original grantees, and now
the industry of cattle raising no longer prevails, although groups of
wild horses and cattle, descendants of the first introduced, may still
be glimpsed occasionally in the distance. The old ranch house,
“Hl Hato,” stands as a picturesque land mark of an earlier period
and is the terminus of the road from the provincial town of Concepcion.

26 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

CHIRIQUI VOLCANO

This extinct volcano, still known by its Indian name, ‘‘E] Bart,’’ is the highest peak not only in the
Province of Chiriqui but on the Isthmus of Panama.

Rio Chiriqui Viejo, which skirts the Llanos del Volcdén to the north,
hes at the foot of heavily jungled cordilleras which form a series of
immense buttresses for the river’s present gorge. This river, one of
the largest in the Province, is more than 62 miles long, its drainage
basin comprises 625,000 to 750,000 acres, and its source is hidden in a
mountain gulch several miles to the northeast of the slopes of El Baru.
The stream follows a course generally westward, and borders the
northern edge of the voleanic plain for some 15 miles, whence it makes
an abrupt deviation to the southward and rumbles onward toward
the Pacific through a canyon 500 feet deep. It is not navigable even
for the native dugout (cayuga) in the uplands, where the foaming
torrent nowhere subsides to calm water. It descends to sea level from
an elevation of 8,000 feet in shghtly more than 60 miles. The roar
of the river is not only echoed through the canyon, but resounds
over the surrounding mountains and is faintly audible even at a great
distance. The crystalline swiftness of the water disappears in the
lowland flats bordering the Pacific, and the stream becomes turbid
on its journey through cultivated banana areas to the sea.

The upland districts drained by Rio Chiriqui Viejo as it traverses
the Volcan region are locally known to the east as “‘Kaisan,”’ and
to the west as ‘‘ Rabo Gallo,” extending to Costa Rica.

Kaisan was the name of an ancient cacique, or chief, of Indian
tribes inhabiting those mountains. Tradition states that his fol-
lowers often made war with Dorace, another cacique, and his men

THE VOLCAN REGION OF PANAMA 7

Courtesy of Marcel J. Bussard
THE CORDILLERA OF THE VOLCAN REGION

Part of the rugged mountain chain bordering the Llanos del Volcdn on the north.

The center of Dorace’s domain was Dolega, a short-lived Spanish
settlement which was abandoned shortly after a church had been
erected. Thereafter, the bone of contention was the church bell, for
which both caciques fought intermittently, each carrying it off in turn
as the principal trophy of war.

Rabo Gallo is said to have inherited its name from the old tribal

-custom its Indians practiced of using the tail feathers of certain wild
birds for personal adornment.

To-day these territories are practically uninhabited with the excep-
tion of a dozen isolated families of squatters and a few roving groups
of gypsylike Indians. Most of these speak a crude Spanish, but are
pure-blooded descendants of Indian forefathers. Apparently they

have inherited the custom of a certain muteness and aloofness toward
strangers. They never divulge any of the secrets of their ancestry,
and regard a traveler with a tinge of strange distrust, scrutinizing
askance his manner and every motion. They maintain themselves
as independently as did their ancestors, out of reach of officials,
squatting and planting wherever fancy takes them. Proudly they
claim their own distinct Chiricano nationality, and are sometimes
offended if one refers to them casually as Panamanians.

Once or twice a year these primitive folk descend from their
mountain homes to celebrate the annual fiestas in distant villages.

28 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Usually such celebrations last from three to six days, and most of the
time is occupied in dancing the native cumbia and tamborito, feasting,
and drinking.

Solemn proof of the numbers which once populated these lands hes
in the great burial grounds which have been discovered on ridge tops
and mounds throughout the area. Numerous articles of pottery,
stone implements, and gold adornments have been recovered from
these sacred graves by individual exploiters. Some of the findings
indicate a touch of Mayan character. Possibly a few of the old
tribes were driven from Mexico and Guatemala and found peace and
seclusion for a time in these localities.

Courtesy of Marcel J. Bussard
PLAZA IN DAVID, CAPITAL OF THE PROVINCE OF CHIRIQUI

The Volcan region will become more accessible with the extension to the Costa Rican border of the
national highway which, early in 1931, was opened to automobile traffic as far as David.

The story is related how, a generation ago, an ambitious but no
less avaricious settler bartered with the Indian squatters and moun-
taineers for all the gold relics they could recover from the graves.
The Indians accepted payment in equal weight of silver coins, then
the national currency, for each piece of gold found. Grave exploiting
became the constant occupation of many among the ignorant inhabi-
tants, and it is rumored that the trader amassed a considerable
fortune from this enterprise.

The presence of gold or other precious metals in mine or placer
deposits is not known in this part of the Republic to-day. However,
a legend which persists among certain of the older families in the

THE VOLCAN REGION OF PANAMA 29

provincial towns states that at the time of the Spanish conquest the
Indians had been working a very rich gold mine, the name of which
has been passed down as ‘‘La Estrella,’ meaning ‘‘The Star.” Tra-
dition relates that before one of the Indian workers could be captured
and forced to reveal the mine’s location, the workings were destroyed
and the mine site permanently obliterated by flooding.

Families of North American and European nationals have of late
years started coffee plantations in the territory adjoining the Llanos
del Volcan and are also successfully growing fruit and garden truck
of the temperate and semitropical zones. In spite of the wet and
dry seasons, the unusual fertility of the soil and the many brooks and
streams make possible several crops a year. An area of over 100,000
acres of excellent coffee land, also adaptable to the production of
vegetables, but now in a state of virgin forest, is available for future
development. Ready markets for such produce exist in the populated
centers of the Republic and in the Canal Zone, which at present
import a large percentage of the green vegetables consumed.

This territory is easily accessible excepting in the rainy season,
when the road to El Hato from Concepcion, a distance of 19 miles, is
oftentimes impassable for motor vehicles. The improvement of
this highway will complete the final link with other points in the
country and the exterior. Concepcion and David, the provincial
capital, are served by the National Railroad running from Puerto
Armuelles, which is a port of call for a regular line of steamers.
Within a few minutes’ travel of David is also situated a modern airport
which is touched regularly by scheduled planes making the Central
American run. The airport is situated in the vicinity of the river
port, Pedregal, which receives small coastal vessels from the national
capital. Upon final completion of the Central Highway of the Re-
public of Panama, El Volcan will be easily reached by motor from
all cities of the Republic.

The region ranges in elevation from 3,000 to 6,000 feet above sea
level and offers a delightful climate with no extremes of temperature.
The mountain streams not only lend themselves to irrigation and water
power, but also to excellent bathing and fishing. Varieties of Ameri-
can brook trout have been stocked, and native fish are also plentiful.
There are several crater lakes known as ‘‘Lagos del Volean’”’ which
offer opportunities for water sports, and the surrounding forests
abound in wild game of many descriptions. Here is another garden
spot for the nature lover and student of botany.

Yearly, increasing numbers of vacationists visit this district where
the hot tropical sunshine is softened and flavored with the coolness of
mountain air. The Republic of Panama is keenly interested in the
continued colonization and development of this upland province,
and rightfully believes in the vast potentialities of the Volcan region.

89921—32—Bull. 13

EDUCATIONAL BEACONS IN COLOMBIA
I
THE. NATIONAL PEDAGOGIC INSTITUTE FOR GIRLS IN BOGOTA

By Francisca Rapxz, Ph. D.
Principal of the Institute

HE history of the development of secondary education for girls

in Colombia is an interesting chapter in the story of South Ameri-
can feminism; a concrete expression of this movement may be
found in the National Pedagogical Institute for Women, which had
its inception in 1917. It should be noted that the visible role of the
Colombian woman in public life has been very small, for her ideal
has always been that of housewife and mother. The natural riches
of the country have generally permitted husbands and fathers to con-
sider their wives and daughters as ornaments of family life, far re-
moved from everything ugly or disagreeable. For this purpose edu-
cation for society, savoir-vivre, the fine arts and deeply religious train-
ing sufficed. But travel, immigration to Colombia, the closer con-
tact of the capital with the rest of the world through air service,
could not fail to exert an influence upon home life. The newspapers,
books, motion pictures, cafés, imposing modern buildings, highways
and railways that brought the country into closer communication
with foreign lands and thought contributed to the development of a
more complex iife of quickened tempo, whose effects women, as well
as men, could not escape.

Two novels may be mentioned as expressive of their respective
epochs. If Jorge Isaacs’ Maria, a rural idyll, was the literary choice
of the years before 1910, Zfigenia, by the Venezuelan author Teresa
de la Parra, may be termed the expression of the new era. The
immense success of the latter was due to the fact that it embodied
the ideas fermenting among many women who had still neither the
strength nor the audacity to champion them publicly. Artistically,
perhaps, this work is not of the first rank, but it must always be con-
sidered a landmark in the history of women’s development.

The effective movement toward modernizing the education of
Colombian women came from a group of men who were able to con-
vince Congress of the validity of their ideas and who had the satis-
faction of securing in 1917 the passage of a law providing for the
establishment in Bogota of pedagogic institutes for men and women.
The names of Pomponio Guzman, Miguel Abadia Méndez, Juan N.

EDUCATIONAL BEACONS IN COLOMBIA 31

Corpas, José Ignacio Vernaza, Tomas Rueda Vargas, and Karl Gloeck-
ner, a German, will always be intimately connected with this idea of
vital significance in the education and intellectual advance of the
Colombian woman and her brother.

Between the passage of the law and the execution of the work but
a short time intervened. A Colombian architect, Pablo de la Cruz,
was entrusted with the construction of the building for the Peda-
gogic Institute for Girls, since he had already had experience in simi-
lar work in various South American countries. It was desired to
make the structure as modern, hygienic, and practical as possible.

THE NATIONAL PEDAGOGIC INSTITUTE FOR GIRLS, BOGOTA

In this handsome building, located in one of the best sections of the Colombian capital, girls are prepared
for positions in the normal schools of the republic.

The situation of the building, as shown in the photograph, is most
delightful. It is located in the Chapinero section, the most charm-
ing, healthful, and fashionable of the capital. On the east the Cor-
dillera rises only 1,600 feet away, while on the west lies the lovely
plain of Bogota. Air and light are abundant; the constant breeze
cleanses the atmosphere and the bright sun of this high plateau
drives away disease. This plain, more than 7,600 feet above sea
level, may well be called a great health resort.

The National Pedagogic Institute for Girls has for its purpose the
training of teachers for normal schools throughout the country. In
order to offer a modern European education to the students, the
Colombian Government engaged in 1926 four German university

Courtesy of Dr. Fabio Lozano

THE NATIONAL PEDAGOGIC INSTITUTE

The 92 rooms of the main building are equipped and furnished throughout in modern style. Upper: The
library. Lower: A corner of the biological museum.

EDUCATIONAL BEACONS IN COLOMBIA 33

graduates who, with some of the best teachers in the country, began
and still direct the work of the institute.

Since the furnishings, the schoolroom equipment, and the teaching
supplies were ordered from Germany and the United States, the 92
rooms of the principal building have an absolutely modern appear-
ance. The classrooms for natural science may be especially men-
tioned because of their provision for individual work. It is hardly
necessary to say that the purely feminine branches are not disre-
garded. A new subject was the training in housework which, in
addition to cooking, gives instruction in all tasks to be done in the
school, all being enthusiastically performed by the students.

Gaia. of Dr. Fabio Lozano
THE PRACTICE SCHOOL OF THE INSTITUTE

Where students have the opportunity of teaching under supervision.

The main purpose of the institute is training in practical pedagogy,
which is therefore the most important subject. Girls from all parts of
the nation are eligible for entrance at 14 years of age. Hach year 30
girls are selected by competitive examination from the aspirants,
who generally number about 120. In three years a groundwork is
laid, and two years more are devoted especially to psychology and
practical pedagogy. The curriculum and courses of study are adapted
from those of German schools, modified to suit the needs of the
Colombian student. For practice teaching there is a model school
belonging to the institute. It offers a 6-year course to pupils between
7 and 14 years of age, 30 in each class. These six classes are taught,

34 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

under the supervision of the teachers of the Pedagogic Institute, by
the fourth and fifth year students, the latter being thus prepared for
their degree, which they generally obtain at the age of 21 or 22 years.
They may then consider their studies ended or may specialize in the
2-year supplementary courses, which include psychology, biology,
eymnasium, religion, and literature.

It is proposed to begin next year a course for kindergarten teachers.
Thus the Pedagogic Institute will include a 6-year model school, a 5-
year course in the Pedagogic Institute, and two years of supplementary
courses (or a year of preparation for kindergarten teaching). The
total number of students registered is 350, of whom 120 are boarders.

The expenses for the students are trifling. The Government not
only offers free board and lodging but also gives textbooks and sup-
plies to those holding scholarships. The only obligation on the part
of a graduate is four years’ teaching service in whatever Government
school she may be placed, but even this duty is not rigorously
exacted.

The visitor entering the school finds a group of students who, in
spite of their studies, have not lost the joy of youth. Their bright
eyes, strong bodies, dexterity in sports and general good health indi-
cate that this first generation, in establishing a new tradition, has
not lost its feminine charm nor poise, and that it still preserves the
balance between what was the custom of the past and what is de-
manded by the present.

II
POPULAR CULTURE

By Concua Romero JAMES

Division of Intellectual Cooperation, Pan American Union

Many cultural activities recently have been started by a group of
Colombian intellectual leaders who believe in high thinking and
creative effort. With a maximum faith in their work and in their
people these men and women, prominent in the educational, literary,
artistic, and economic life of the Republic, have undertaken a number
of activities designed to benefit all the different classes of people not
only in their lovely and ancient capital but also all over the country.
Lacking abundant resources, they have set to work without impressive
budgets but with unlimited confidence in their plans. The following
paragraphs are intended to give a brief summary of the activities that
have been developed within the last twelve months through the
inspiration of this group.

One of the most important events was the organization of the
Centro de Estudios, a society composed of prominent citizens interested
in contributing to the cultural life of the nation by means of lectures,

Courtesy of Dr. Fabio Lozano

THE NATIONAL PEDAGOGIC INSTITUTE FOR GIRLS

Upper: A class in cooking, part of the domestic science course. Lower: The dining room of the Institute.

36 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

concerts, art exhibitions, short courses, and publications of a literary
or scientific nature. The president of this institution, Dr. Gustavo
Santos, 1s highly respected for his broad culture and civic spirit.
Although scarcely more than a year old, the Centro has published a
volume containing some of the lectures delivered at its headquarters
and has also sponsored the publication of the historical novel Zoraya, by
Daniel Samper Ortega, which has been hailed by the critics as a
lasting contribution to Colombian literature. The Centro has
recently inaugurated a series of excursions to points of artistic and
historic interest in Bogota, as well as to social welfare institutions and
industrial plants, in order that the members may acquire a first-hand
knowledge of the city and its resources. Among the distinguished
persons who have lectured at the Centro are Dr. Raimundo Rivas,
noted historian and former Minister of Foreign Affairs, who gaye a
course on the political ideology of Bolivar; Miss Frances R. Grant,
vice president of the Roerich Museum in New York, who delivered
two lectures on the art and literature of the United States; and Dr.
Esteban Jaramillo, director of the Bank of Colombia and Minister of
Finance, who presented a thoughtful paper on the economic role of
women.

Another notable institution, the People’s University, which was
founded as a memorial to the Liberator Simén Bolfvar on the occasion
of the first centennial of his death, has made steady progress under the
leadership of Sefior Antonio José Gaitan. This institution offers
popular short courses in bookkeeping, English, the Spanish language
and literature, the history of civilization, the history of Colombia,
criminal and civil law, social hygiene, the history of art, general
biology, labor legislation, and philosophy.

The necessity of giving young men a more practical education has
led the authorities of the old Colegio de San Bartolomé, a colonial seat
of higher education which as early as 1622 was offering courses of
university grade to the youth of Colombia, to establish a school of
economic and juridical studies where modern methods of teaching and
research will be put into practice. The course will be six years in
length, the last one being devoted to practical work. The lecture
hall will then be turned into a court room in order that the student
may have actual experience in court procedure as judge, prosecutor,
or lawyer for the defense. The young man who specializes in econom-
ics will have in his sixth year an opportunity to put into practice his
knowledge of banking, commercial methods, life-insurance work, and
similar subjects.

The intellectual life of women has been enriched by the establish-
ment of the Women’s Atheneum—curiously enough, at the initiative
of a man, Dr. Carlos Delgado Morales—where the regular activities
of the club will permit the women of the upper classes to enlarge the

EDUCATIONAL BEACONS IN COLOMBIA 37

range of their interests. Particularly significant are the new courses
of university grade offered for the first time at the colegio directed by
the Sefioritas Casas Castafieda, notable educators. These courses will
be given by such distinguished men as Dr. Miguel Abadia Méndez, a
prominent jurist and former president of Colombia; Dr. Antonio
Goémez Restrepo, a noted literary critic; and Drs. Francisco Rengifo
and Jenaro Jiménez, authorities, respectively, in philosophy and
Latin.

One of the most fundamental aspects of this cultural movement is
the anti-illiteracy campaign carried out by the Legién Femenina de
Educacién Popular (Women’s Legion for Popular Education). This
organization came into being in Barranquilla on March 16, 1930,
under the aegis of the Alianza Unionista. Chapters have now been
founded in practically all the important cities of the Republic. The
members of the legion pledge themselves to endeavor not only to
teach children and adult illiterates how to read and write but also to
inspire them with love for wholesome recreation, including sports,
gardening, and good reading. The organization likewise functions
through committees on medical inspection, school lunches, distribu-
tion of clothes to needy children, and school gardens. All the chapters
must have these committees, at least, and others may be formed to
meet the peculiar needs of each community. Several chapters have
undertaken other activities such as series of lectures, many of which
are broadcast regularly; Sunday courses for workers; dental, eye and
ear, and prenatal clinics. The enthusiam and efficiency with which
the women have devoted themselves to their new tasks have been
surprising even to themselves. ‘‘All of a sudden,’ commented
a woman writer, ‘“‘the women of Colombia, without knowing how it
came to pass, have been assigned a most fundamental role, and all the
doors that had been heretofore hermetically closed have now been
opened wide to receive them.”

The first important exhibition of Colombian art ever held in the
country was inaugurated in August by the President, Dr. Enrique
Olaya Herrera. The event was a revelation not only because of the
large number of painters and sculptors participating but also because
of the high quality and the nationalistic tendency,of many of the
works shown. It is hoped that this exhibition will become an annual
affair and that it will serve as an incentive to the creative genius of
the people.

To coordinate and spur on the various cultural activities, Dou Luis
Enrique Osorio, journalist and former columnist on the staff of I
Tiempo, has undertaken the publication of Cultura Colombiana, an
8-page weekly printed on inexpensive paper which has no objection
to exhibiting its poverty and makes no apologies for its simple appear-
ance. It prides itselfi—and justly so— on the dynamic idealism that
breathes in every line.

38 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

In these many ways the new leaders of Colombia are endeavoring
to reach every social class and give an opportunity for self-expression
to all, whether young or old, low in the social scale or high in the upper
levels of society. And we venture to prophesy that if they continue
with the sincerity and earnestness with which they are now working
they will do much toward the accomplishment of their ideal as
expressed by one of the most enthusiastic supporters of the movement:
‘To define our personality as a nation, and to preserve the traditions
which we have had and{which we have put aside to follow those
bearing a foreign stamp.”’ A cultural movement inspired in Colom-
bia’s needs and eager to bring into action all the latent spiritual forces
of a country so rich in cultural traditions is a task worthy of these
times when every nation of America is struggling to develop a person-
ality enabling it to make an effective contribution to world civilization.

SEEING LATIN AMERICAN PRODMIGRS
ENTER UNITED STATES INDUSTRIES

By Wituram A. Reip

Foreign Trade Adviser, Pan American Union

HROUGH the courtesy of a committee of business executives

of the United States, headed by Mr. John L. Merrill, president
of the Pan American Society and of All America Cables (Inc.), the
delegates from Latin America attending the Fourth Pan American
Commercial Conference held in Washington last October were invited
to participate in a tour of some of the leading industrial and com-
mercial centers of the United States at the close of its sessions. It
was desired particularly to augment the theoretical discussions of the
conference by giving the Latin American delegates an opportunity
to come into practical contact with modern industrial and com-
mercial progress in the United States, and in many instances, to see
the raw materials of their countries being converted into finished
products in many types of manufacturing establishments.

The trip of more than 2,000 miles was made by train, motor bus,
and boat; about a score of cities comprised the itinerary. City officials
at varlous points welcomed the guests and honored them in various
ways. The visitors were also received in several private homes and
viewed a few football games at some of the famous universities of
the country. The following pages describe a few aspects of modern-
day industry in the United States in which the raw materials of Latin
America play an important part.

LATIN AMERICAN PRODUCTS 39

When is a snow storm not a snow storm? Hat makers perhaps
can answer this question better than any one else. Miniature ‘‘snow
storms” rage in a great hat factory; to see small, almost invisible,
particles of fur softly falling like snowflakes on a quiet winter’s day
is enough to arouse enthusiam in those who have never before seen
hat manufacturing on a large scale. Indeed, the almost magical
changes that follow the arrival of fur at big hat factories of the
United States form an interesting chapter in the part that commerce
plays between raw materials and the consuming industries.

The man-made ‘“‘snow storms” in the hat factory serve a useful
purpose. By this means the multitudinous particles of fur, pre-
viously cut into minute lengths, drop onto a form—a revolving wire

LONG-HAIRED ALPACAS

The alpaca of Bolivia and Peru is one of the South American animals that supply the wool and fur required
in the manufacture of hats.

sereen in the shape of an enormous hat. Over this the ‘‘snow storm”
places an even layer of fur, which is moistened by a gentle ‘‘rain.”’
Not many minutes elapse before the form is completely fur covered.
The whole is then ready to be received by another department of the
factory, where the embryo hat is treated and removed from the
supporting form. But many additional reductions and hand treat-
ments are necessary before the product reaches the finishing stages.

‘‘Whence comes this fur for the hats?”’ we ask the factory manager.
Presently, we are ushered into the receiving department. Here are
hundreds of bales of fur—fur from Argentine rabbits, Bolivian
alpacas, Chilean vicufias, fur or wool from various animals: which
once roamed the wind-swept hills of Magellan and Tierra del Fuego.

40 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

From these distant regions a single ship recently brought to a United
States port a full and valuable cargo of fur and wool. The tale of
fur-producing animals from far and near frontiers of Latin American
nations is long and interesting.

There is another side of the same story; this is the return of the
manufactured product to the region where the material originated.
For instance, in Bolivia there is a constant demand for a certain style
and form of hat made in the factory of which we write. ‘‘How is this
demand to-day?’ we inquire of an official of the establishment.
He replies: ‘“‘The Bolivian cholos for whom we produce these special
hats will wear no other; the annual shipments to La Paz vary little in
years of prosperity or depression—the market is regular.”’

Another hat liked all over Latin America is the large broad-brimmed
yellow type, somewhat like those which cowboys and planters in the
United States wear. Thousands of estancieros and hacendados wear
these head coverings. Their countries send us fur; we return them
hats.

In this changeful age one wonders why a progressive city like
Baltimore possesses an almost changeless quarter of her vast expanse
of port facilities. This peculiar section has a strong odor of cof-
fee. Here for many years ships from Brazil, Colombia, and Central
America have discharged their thousands of bags of coffee year im
and year out. ‘Baltimore,’ said an official, ‘“‘is one of the world’s
greatest coffee marts. Clippers and steamers have long used its
wharves; the warehouses distribute the product to scores of other
cities for redistribution.’’ Business sentiment or other factors seem
to prevent innovations; coffee men appear to like the import methods
of yesterday and tenaciously cling to them.

Wilmington, Del., owes much of its progress to raw materials that
come to its factories from South and Central America. Chilean
nitrate, in particular, finds multiplied uses in the Wilmington region.
Nitrate as it enters into the manufacture of explosives becomes an
agent both of destruction and of construction. Hardly a new high-
way, a giant bridge or a great building could be carried to consumma-
tion without the aid of blasting or some other form of powder. Again,
nitrate from Chile enters into the gunpowders that are demanded by
votaries of sport all over the country. And fireworks for fiestas
have their origin far away in the arid region of Chile where nitrate
reigns supreme.

Pittsburgh steel mills suggest miniature volcanoes. Since they
extend for miles and cover thousands of acres of land, the visitor
finds that motor cars are necessary to carry him from section to sec-
tion of the same plant; and there are numerous plants. Therefore, a
single day affords only sufficient time to see afew outstanding activities.

Courtesy of Anglo-Chilean Consolidated Nitrate Corporation
LOADING NITRATE ORE IN CHILE

Chilean nitrate enters extensively into the manufacture of explosives in the United States, besides being
largely used as a fertilizer.

Photograph by Benjamin Leroy Miller

MORRA DA MINA MANGANESE MINE, BRAZIL

This is one of the sources of manganese ore, of which the United States imported $1,484,000 worth from
Brazil during 1930

A? THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Courtesy of Patino Mines

PANORAMIC VIEW OF TIN MINE AT CATAYI, BOLIVIA

Boliyvia’s tin makes possible the wide distribution of the preserved-food products of the United States,
to mention but one of the innumerable uses for this metal

One of these is the dumping of Brazilian aad Cuban manganese ore
into giant white-bot caldrons of liquid iron. ‘The manganese deposits
in the United States are insufficient for its needs; consequently, for
some years this necessary ingredient for steel manufacture has
been drawn largely from the countries mentioned. The flowing
streams of iron, into which manganese has been introduced to make
hard and ductile steel, soon begin to lose their extreme heat as they
follow their predestined channels. Later other departments shape
the raw metal into many steel commodities. One of the most
interesting branches of the plant receives an enormous cube of red-
hot steel from which, within a short time, steel rails emerge at the
opposite end of the building. Many machines take part in the proc-
ess, all operated by power and all apparently of more than human
intelligence. After the last machine delivers the completed rails,
other devices carry them away and stack them uniformly. From these
deposits giant magnets pick them up and transfer them to freight
cars for dispatch to markets. Most of the Latin American countries
obtain rails and other steel equipment from Pittsburgh plants.
But without manganese these plants would be handicapped or their
output rendered far less valuable for service.

LATIN AMERICAN PRODUCTS 43

At one of Pittsburgh’s gigantic ‘food factories” we might para-
phrase Kipling’s famous ‘‘ Boots, boots, boots,”’ to ‘‘Cans, cans, cans ’’—
tin cans by thousands—yes, millions—and they are moving in orderly
procession here, there, and everywhere. ‘‘It is simply marvelous,”
said a Bolivian visitor, ‘“‘to see my country’s leading product being
utilized to so great an extent.” Bolivia, it will be remembered, is
the only tin-producing country of the Americas. But the tin used
in canning many varieties of foods in Pittsburgh does not end in the
United States. The canned foods from this and other establish-
ments, in Pittsburgh and elsewhere, are shipped to about 100 countries
and dependencies throughout the world! So Bolivia’s tin not only
plays an important part in food distribution to millions of people in
the United States but to multimillions in cities and solitudes all over
the earth. In making Bolivia’s tin available it is interesting to note
that the commercial interests of three countries—Bolivia, Great
Britain, and the United States—are working in close cooperation.
The first-mentioned supplies the raw ore; this ore is smelted and turned
into tin sheets in the second country; and the United States utilizes
by far the greatest amount of the finished product.

The rise of Akron and the rise in rubber consumption during the
past few decades have both been remarkable. Probably it would
not be wrong to say that Amazonian rubber started Akron on the road
to fame and fortune, for it was in this city that quantities of rubber
arrived from the Amazon valley before plantation rubber became a
factor in commerce. In earlier days, about 1911-12-13, ‘‘when rub-
ber was king in Amazonia,” some of Akron’s pioneers were manu-
facturing buggy tires of rubber; most of the raw material came then
from Brazilian and Bolivian jungles.

“Do you receive much Amazon rubber to-day in your factories?’’
a Brazilian visitor asked the manager of one of Akron’s rubber
companies. ‘‘We always use a certain quantity of Para rubber,”
said the host, ‘‘and perhaps we shall always want at least some of
this product, because of its fine quality.” Then the manager spoke
of the operations of modern rubber plantations in Amazonia and of
the progress of the Ford Co. plantation now well under way
on the Tapajos River in Brazil. ‘Before many years,” said this
gentleman, ‘‘we shall probably be consuming much larger quantities
of Tapajos rubber here in Akron, not alone for tires but for the
constantly increasing number of everyday articles that are now made
of rubber. Rubber floors and rubber streets are just now opening
larger uses for this product of the tropics.”

The progress of Akron rests not merely on the importance of rubber
goods made for use on terra firma; far from it, since Akron builds for
the air both planes and ships. And both, of these rising industries
demand other Latin American materials besides rubber. Ecuador’s

44 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

TAPPING A RUBBER TREE

The United States continues to draw on Brazil in its ever-increasing demand.for rubber.

balsa wood has found an increasing market ‘‘in the air.” It is the
lightest wood known and is of sufficient strength to serve well on both
airplanes and airships. Thus Akron’s industries and South Ameri-
ca’s rubber and balsa wood complement each other.

Naturally, the Nation’s largest electrical plant—comprising many
buildings covering hundreds of acres—could not fail to hold the atten-
tion of foreign visitors. Many products from Latin America and the
world in general are made use of in such an establishment. But one
of the subjects that claimed especial attention was the number of
Latin American students and workers to be seen busily engaged in
labor of one kind or another. Student courses attract foreigners
and in recent years young South and Central Americans have found
service and salaries in these great works. Moreover, there are usually
under construction giant turbines or other machinery destined for
industrial activity in the nations to the south.

Of particular interest on this occasion was the broadcasting of the
voices of Latin American visitors. Hach member of the group was
given a few minutes in which to address radio listeners in his home
country. In charge of the microphone was a young Latin American

LATIN AMERICAN PRODUCTS 45

whose familiarity with Spanish, Portuguese, and English makes him
an invaluable and permanent employee of the company.

At a well-known industrial establishment in Rochester a sight
unusual to the average person is presented by more than a hundred
bars of silver, or about 3 tons. Yet this mass of one of the pre-
cious metals is only a week’s supply for the factory; in other words,
the silver is here to be converted into photosensitive materials. The
process appears to be wanton destruction; even if silver is of lower
than normal value we are shocked to see the big bars dissolved in
nitric acid. Silver nitrate, it may be recalled, is sensitive to light;
it loses its whiteness under
the influence of sun’s rays.
It is this basic chemical fact
that makes photography pos-
sible. Speaking of the sil-
ver, the company tells us:
“Into every bar a hole is
drilled, a record number is
punched. Chips from the
drillngs are tested by the
department handling the sil-
ver.... Ifa trace of cop-
per or iron were permitted,
unchecked, to go into the
manufacturing stream, en-
dangering photographic ef-
fectiveness, later tests would
discover and eliminate the
results, but time and other
materials would have been
wasted.” The manufacture SIUVER BULLION FROM A MEXICAN MINE

of photographic supphes 1s ™ispiy metal for use in varions industries of the United

but one process utilizing sil- States, of which the manufacture of photographic sup-
A plies is but one.

ver which is supplied the

United States and other countries by Mexico, Peru, Bolivia, Chile,

and other countries to the south of us.

Hartford is the home of the ‘‘Wasp” and “Hornet’’—both names
significant of speed and power on the wing. Within a few years
small factories have evolved into giant establishments for producing
these famous engines that are propelling planes and carrying passen-
gers over land and sea. Naturally, visitors from Latin American
countries feel more than ordinary interest in air transportation because
it is to-day connecting many a wild and distant region of those newer
nations with their civilized centers.

89921—32— Bull. 14

OPEN-CUT WORKINGS, VANADIUM MINE, PERU

Peru is the principal source of supply of vanadium, which is of vast importance in the steel industry.

Courtesy of The Barber Asphalt Co.
A SECTION OF THE BERMUDEZ ASPHALT LAKE, VENEZUELA

A small section of the 1,000-acre deposit from which the vegetation has been cleared to permit the extraction
of the asphalt.

LATIN AMERICAN PRODUCTS Wi

An official opens certain chambers of one of the engines—he wants
to show some of the finest pieces of mechanism that any land can
boast. Here are the precisely working pistons, caps, meshes, all of
the hardest steel. ‘‘What kind of steel?” a visitor asks. The engi-
neer responds, ‘‘Vanadium.” “Ah,” contimues the visitor, ‘‘you
called on Peru to help harden your steel—to send you that valuable
metal from the great heights of her mountains, and in changed form
it helps man and machine to navigate the heights of space.”’ Vana-
dium is, indeed, coming into greater use not only in aviation but in
many other industries.

““Your marvelous boulevards and endless highways,” said one of
the visitors, ‘‘astonish me—they are far more extensive than I
expected to see.”’ “‘But do you know,” replied one of the American
members of the party, ‘‘that Venezuelan asphalt is imported in vast
quantities to help build the streets and roads of which you speak?”’
Then ensued animated conversation regarding the world’s largest
deposits of asphalt—those in eastern Venezuela and in Trinidad.
Operations at both of these places not only supply the needs of the
United States, but furnish much asphalt for export to Europe, the
Far East, Australia, and to various American Republics. Asphalt
has been a much-used commodity in the United States and its min-
ing and importation represent enormous investments. Philadelphia
is the most important port of this country in the receipt and distri-
bution of asphalt cargo.

“Fifty-five years ago there was no telephone; but there was a
telephone laboratory.’”’ This sentence synthesizes a tendency of half
a century ago—a tendency far more pronounced to-day—that long
hours and years of research precede most great industrial enterprises.
The business of the telephone has during the last decade brought
American Republics into closer—some into almost instant—contact.
Back of this intimate communication stand the Bell Laboratories
where the visitor watches entranced as wizards unfold the unknown
and the seemingly impossible before his eyes. What are the marvels?
Too numerous to mention! But here are a few: 2-way television,
dial impulses changed to oral instructions, repeaters that amplify
currents, multichannel carriers, vacuum tubes that demonstrate the
defraction of electrons—all associated with improving communica-
tions between peoples everywhere on the earth.

Thus as the delegates separated in New York to take their home-
ward way by train, boat, or airplane, they knew that distance was
no longer a barrier between their countries.

DIEGO RIVERA: EXHIBITS IN NEW YORK

RESCOES especially painted in New York by Diego Rivera

heightened the keen interest in the one-man exhibition of the
work of this great Mexican artist which opened December 23, 1931,
at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. This exhibition is one
more evidence of the increasing interest of the United States in Mexico
and Mexican culture.

By bringing Rivera to New York to paint the frescoes, the museum
made it possible for American art lovers and the interested public to
see characteristic examples of the artist’s work in his most famous
medium. Since frescoes can not be shipped with safety, it has
hitherto been impossible for Americans to see Rivera’s most celebrated
work without a journey to Mexico. Those he painted for the New
York show are variations of some of his best-known Mexican subjects.

His frescoes in Mexico City are found on the four walls of two
3-storied patios in the Department of Education and in the Prepara-
tory School near by; in the School of Agriculture at Chapingo, not far
from the capital; and in the Palace of Cortés at Cuernavaca, for which
they were generously commissioned by the late Dwight W. Morrow.
Rivera’s work on a series in the National Palace, Mexico City, was
interrupted by his journey to the United States. In Jdols Behind
Altars Anita Brenner says of Rivera’s frescoes:

No lyric, no dramatic urge informalizes this cerebral world. Rivera builds a
house accessible to the mind. Upon the abstract structure conceived in esthetic
terms he pours a cast of philosophic ideas. The human beings and their courses
that he represents are chosen for a symbolic purpose. He does not garble their
textures, but to sensual beauties he arrives last, curiously enough an exception to
the native habit of seeing the physical object first.

The fact that it was the first time, so far as is known, that a museum
had brought a great artist to a city to do special work on such a large
scale for a single exhibition aroused special interest and focused
attention on the frescoes, especially in view of the reputation of the
artist for his accomplishments in this medium not only at home but
in the Stock Exchange and in the California Academy of Fine Arts,
San Francisco, where he completed frescoes last year.

The frescoes painted especially for the New York show are hung in
the museum’s largest gallery, the focal point and climax of the exhi-
bition. They illustrate Rivera’s characteristic vitality of design, his
clarity, and his feeling for perspective. Viewing them, one can under-
stand why the artist is credited with revitalizing painting in this
medium, and why he is considered the greatest living master of fresco
painting. His is the superior craftsmanship which earned fame for
the exponents of that technique of the Italian Renaissance, and he is

DIEGO RIVERA EXHIBITS IN NEW YORK 49

Courtesy of Katherine Anne Porter

WORKERS IN METAL

This picturization of a native industry is a detail of the frescoes in the Ministry of Education in Mexico,
one of the series that won international recognition for Rivera.

probably more responsible than any other artist since that time for
restoring this art to the high level of Michelangelo’s glamorous days.
The exhibition is not only interesting :esthetically but it is extremely
valuable to students of design, since with the finished pictures are
hung the cartoons made for them by the artist.
Rivera paints in the true fresco style, using ground earth colors,
mainly the oxides of manganese and iron, on wet plaster. The color

50 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Courtesy of the Museum of Modern Art
' PORTRAIT OF MME. CAROLINE DURIEUX, BY RIVERA

incorporated in the dried plaster gives to the work a unique surface
texture and a remarkably enduring quality. Lime of the exact
composition needed by the artist could not be obtained in the United
States, and it was therefore necessary to send to Mexico for material.
The frescoes Rivera painted for the New York exhibition are about
5 by 8 feet and can not be transported without danger of cracking.
For his work in this country, Rivera has evolved a method of paint-
ing on plaster which has been incased in steel and wire frames.
When completed and in place, the picture looks as if painted on the
wall, but it can be removed at will. This method is considered ideal
for frescoes in the United States, where most buildings stand but a

DIEGO RIVERA EXHIBITS IN NEW YORK 51

Courtesy of the Museum of Modern Art

THE CANOE

Rivera’s interpretation of one of the flower-decorated boats on the canals of the floating gardens of Xochi-
mileco near Mexico City.

short time compared with structures which house such world-famous
examples as, for instance, those in the Sistine Chapel, St. Peter’s.

Diego Rivera was born December 8, 1886, in the Mexican mining
town of Guanajuato. His grandfather had been chief of military
administration under Judrez. His father was a consultant chemist,
school-teacher, and editor of a small paper

When 6 years old he was taken by his family to Mexico City, where
he began to draw under the direction of José Guadalupe Posada.

52 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Courtesy of the Museum of Modern Art

THE AWAKENER, BY RIVERA

A canvas of Russian inspiration exhibited through the courtesy of Senora Guadalupe Marin de Cuesta,
Mexico City.

In 1898 he entered the studio of an academic painter, Felix Para.
In 1907 he worked under Eduardo Chicharro in Madrid. Dissatis-
fied there, he went to Paris, where his interest in painting united with
a growing interest in politics, shown also in his later journey to Mos-
cow. His work was influenced by Cézanne, Picasso, Renoir, and
Henri Rousseau. He returned to Mexico in 1910, but went again to
Paris the next year. His interest in painting as an important factor
in the portrayal of the growth of a people or a civilization turned his
attention to a medium greater in scope and more lasting than oil—
that of fresco. It was not until 1918, however, that he began experi-
menting in this medium. In the meantime he had been in Italy,
where he had seen great examples of this art.

In addition to the frescoes, the exhibition at the Museum of Modern
Art includes 50 oils, 40 drawings, and water colors, loaned by Mexican,
American, and European collectors and by American museums.
The show covers the artist’s work from 1902 to the present and will
continue through January.

Mr. Alfred H. Barr, jr., is director of the Museum, and Mr. Jere
Abbott, Associate Director.

COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY NOTES

Argentine Committee on Bibliography.—The Pan American Union
has been informed through the Ambassador of Argentina that his
Government has appointed its National Technical Cooperatirg Com-
mittee on Bibliography of the Pan American Union. Dr. Juan Pablo
Echagiie, president of the Argentine Commission for the Protection
of Public Libraries, is chairman, and the other members are Carlos
F. Melo, Leopoldo Lugones, Rémulo Zabala, and Felix Carrié.

Newspaper and magazine list—-The library has prepared the sixth
number of its bibliographic series under the title of Catalogue of
newspapers and magazines in the Columbus Memorial Library of the
Pan American Union (112 pages, mimeographed). ‘This is a revised
edition of a similar catalogue prepared in March, 1929, and is a com-
plete record of the newspapers and magazines in the library, including
not only the periodicals received currently but those for which only
one or two volumes or other short runs are on file. A limited number
of these catalogues is available for distribution to libraries.

Reading lists—In response to some of the 301 requests for informa-
tion received from students and specialists in Latin American affairs,
the library prepared brief typewritten reading lists of books on: The
Panama Congress of 1826; the Nicaraguan Canal; the Life of Benito
Pablo Juarez; the Jesuits in Paraguay; and Stock Exchanges in Latin
America. Copies of these may be had upon application.

Accessions.—Since September 1 the library has added 920 volumes
and pamphlets to its shelves; of these 367 were received during the
past month. A few selected titles are as follows:

Valores espirituales de la raza indigena; su educacién desde los tiempos precorte-
sianos hasta nuestros dias. Por Antonio Gutiérrez Oliveros. México, Talleres
Graficos de la Nacién, 1929. 31p. 8.

Modern South America; a comprehensive survey based on 20 years of intimate
connection with the people, places, governments, industries, commerce, and

changing conditions of the growing nations of South America. By C. W. Dom-
ville Fife. Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott Company [1931?]. 320 p. illus. 8.

54 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The struggle for South America; economy and ideology. By J. F. Normano.
Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1931. 294 p. 8.

Vida, causas y efectos de la evolucién artistica argentina. Los Utltimos 30
anos. Por Carlos P. Ripamonte. Buenos Aires, M. Gleizer, editor, 1930.
249 p. 8.

Fabulas. 2*ed. Por Luis Andrés Ziniga. Tegucigalpa, Tipografia Nacional,
IG Blea PATER oe aes

Respuesta a las piedras: poesia. Por Luis Barrios Cruz. Caracas, Editorial
sinlitess: (1930 |= 073 ps 28°.

Les résultats de la premiere conférence de codification du droit international;
communication 4 l’Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques (séance du 15
novembre 1930). Par Alejandro Alvarez. Paris, Librairie Félix Alean, 1931.
36 p. 82.

La codification du droit international; exposé des motifs et projet de déclaration
sur les données fondamentales et les grands principes du droit international de
Vavenir présenté 4 1’ Institut de Droit International, 4 l International Law Associ-
ation, 4 Union Juridique Internationale et a l’Académie Diplomatique Inter-
nationale. Par Alejandro Alvarez. Paris, Les Editions Internationales, 1931.
60 p. 82.

A tentative bibliography of the belles-lettres of Porto Rico. By Guillermo Rivera.
Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1931. 61 p. 8.

Principios de régimen municipal. Por Rafael Bielsa. Buenos Aires, J.
Lajouane & Cia., editores, 1930. 231 p. 8.

Como se conta a historia de Colombo, de Cabral, da América e do Brasil. Por
J. M. Monteiro. Rio de Janeiro, Typ.-da ‘“‘Medicamenta,”’ 1931. 146 p. 8e.

José de la Luz y Caballero como educador. Por José Cipriano de la Luz y
Caballero. Habana, Cultural, S. A., 1931. 310 p. 12°. (Coleccién de libros
cubanos. Director: Fernando Ortiz. Vol. X XVII.)

Paraguay, its cultural heritage, social conditions, and educational problems.
By Arthur Elwood Elliott. New York, Teachers College, Columbia University,
Bureau of Publications, 1931. 210 p. plates. 8.

Historia de la organizacién constitucional. Por Juan A. Gonzalez Calderén.
Buenos Aires, A. Lajouane & Cia., editores, 1930. 3820p. 8°.

Antologia de la poesia femenina argentina, con referencias biograficas y biblio-
erdficas. Seleccionada y ordenada por José Carlos Maubé y Adolfo Capdevielle
(h.). Prélogo de Rosa Bazin de Camara. Cardtula y ex-libris de Sara Capde-
vielle. Buenos Aires, Impresores Ferrari Hnos., 1930. 509 p. 8°.

Del tiempo de raupa (folklore nortefio). Por Rafael Cano. Buenos Aires,
Talleres Graficos Argentinos L. J. Rosso, 1930. 475 p. 8°.

Zoraya, una vida de amor y santidad. Por Daniel Samper Ortega. Bogota,
Sociedad Editora de Obras Nacionales, 19381. 303 p. 8°.

During the past month the library has received the following
magazines for the first time:

Agricultor Moderno (Revista de Agricultura, Pecuaria e Avicultura), Rua
Barao de Itapetininga, 18, Sao Paulo, Brazil. (M.) Anno 1, No. 1, maio 1931.
46 p. illus. 7% x 10% inches.

Nosotras (panorama feminista internacional), Valparaiso, Chile, Casilla 3357.
Afio 1, No. 1, agosto, 1931. (M.) 8p. illus. 10% x 14% inches.

Revista del Museo Nacional de Guatemala (Seccién de Arqueologia), Guatemala.
No. 1, 1981. 16p. illus. 634 x 10% inches.

Boletin de la Sociedad Bolivariana de Panama, Imprenta Nacional, Panama.
(Trimestral.) Afio 1, No. 1, octubre de 1931. 111 p. 6x 9 inches.

COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY NOTES D0

Boletin de la Biblioteca de la Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito. (Q.)
[Vol. 1]; No. 1, enero-marzo de 1931. 69 p. 7x 10% inches.

Boletin de Estadistica y Jurisprudencia (Prefectura General de Policia), Impren-
ta y Encuadernacién de la Policia, Buenos Aires, Argentina. (Trimestral.)
Afio 18, No. 73, primer trimestre de 1931. 7 x 10% inches.

The Mexico City Post, México, D. F. (W.) Vol. 1, No. 1, November 14,
1931. 8p. ilus. 18 x 22 inches.

Ageus (Revista de Ciencias y Arte), San Salvador, El Salvador (érgano oficial
de la Asociacién General de Estudiantes Universitarios Salvadorefios). (Bi-mo.)
Afio 1. No. 2, septiembre-octubre, 1931. 58 p. illus. 9% x 13 inches.

Cultura Colombiana, Luis Enrique Osorio, Director, Apartado 852, Bogotd,
Colombia. (W.) [Vol. 1], agosto 6 de 1931. 8p. illus. 13%4 x 20 inches.

Revista de Educacién (Direccién de Educacidn Publica de Narifo), Pasto,
Colombia. Afio 1. Nos. 1-8, marzo de 1931. (Bi-mo.) 88p. 6% x 9% inches.

Cuadernos de Economia (mensuario de cuestiones sociales, econdémicas, finan-
cieras, estadisticas), San Salvador, Salvador. Vol. 1, No. 1, octubre de 1931.
16 p. 10x 14% inches.

Revista Textil (Textil Zeitschrift-Textil Magazine), Sao Paulo (M.) [Spinning,
weaving, knitting, dyeing.] Anno 8, No.1, September, 1931. 78p. illus. 9x12
inches.

Ariel (publicado por la Confederacién de Profesores de Chile), Casilla 4542,
Santiago, Chile. (Quincenal.) Afio 1, No. 1, 15 de octubre de 1931. 8 p.
illus. 11x 15 inches.

Boletin General de Estadistica (6rgano trimestral de la Direcciédn General del
Ramo). Quito, Ministerio de Gobierno y Estadistica. Afio 1, No. 1, mayo de
1931. 80p. 9x 13 inches.

El Constructor (6rgano mensual de la Escuela de Artes y Oficios), Apartado 936,
Panamdé. Afio 1, No. 3, noviembre de 1931. 36 p. illus. 8% x 11% inches.

Revista del Ejército, Marina y Aerondutica (6rgano del Ministerio de Guerra y
Marina), Caracas, Venezuela. Afio 1, No. 4, 31 de octubre de 1931. 109 p.
illus. 6 x 9 inches.

Heraldo Comercial (bajo el patrocinio de la ‘‘ Federacién del Comercio,” Carrera
7a, No. 337, Bogoté, Colombia, Afio 1, No. 1, 10 denoviembre de 1931. (Revista
quincenal ilustrada.) 32 p. illus. 9% x 12%4 inches.

PAN AMERICAN PROGRESS
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

The present economic situation has made all the nations of the
world more conscious of the importance of commercial factors in
international relations.

Indicative of this tendency are two conventions subscribed to by
Carte and Peru in Lima on June 18, 1931, whereby natural fertilizers
and fresh fruits from either country are exempt from Government
and municipal levies and from import duties, respectively, in the
other.

Significant, too, is the executive agreement between CHILE and the
Unitep States, signed on September 28, 1931, under which the two
countries agree to accord to the commerce of each other uncondi-
tional most-favored-nation treatment: The United States will extend
to the commerce of Chile the same advantages (customs duties and
other fiscal imposts, as well as import licenses and other measures)
which it gives to any other country, with the exception of the special
treatment accorded to its own outlying possessions, to Cuba, and to
the Panama Canal Zone. Reciprocally, Chile concedes to the com-
merce of the United States most-favored-nation treatment, including
the reduced tariffs applied to French merchandise by virtue of the
modus vivendi of May 22, 1931, between Chile and France. The agree-
ment, which may be terminated by either country on 15 days’ notice,
presupposes the willingness of the two Governments to enter into a
commercial treaty at an appropriate time in the future. Chile and
the United States have had no such treaty since 1850, when the
Convention of Peace, Amity, Commerce and Navigation conciuded
between the two countries in 1832 was terminated by the Govern-
ment of Chile.

At a meeting of the Governing Board of the American Institute of
International Law, held in Washington, October 29-31, 1931, Miss
Doris Stevens, chairman of the Inter-American Commission of Women,
and Prof. Jesse S. Reeves, of the University of Michigan, a member
of the Pan American Commission of Jurists for the Codification of
International Law, were nominated for membership in the institute
to fill the vacancies caused by the election of the Hon. Elihu Root to
the honorary presidency of the institute and the death of former
Secretary of State Robert Lansing.

The American Institute of International Law, organized October
12, 1912, and inaugurated December 29, 1915, during the second Pan

ec Be ) >) i S >
AGRICUBRURE3? 3233) 3 3 3 3 > Bd
9 3 reais Ses tig 9539955902 2 mays

American Scientific Congress, was founded to coordinate, through a
central organization in Washington and cooperating associations in
all the American Republics, the efforts of American jurists and pub-
licists for the development and codification of international law and
the generalization of its principles. Each Republic of America has an
affiliated society which appoints the national members of the insti-
tute. In Bouivia, for example, it is the Bolivian Society of Inter-
national Law, which met on September 21, 1931, and elected Sefiores
Daniel Sanchez Bustamante, Claudio Pinilla, Alberto Gutiérrez, Julio
Gutiérrez, and David Alvéstegui as the representatives of that country.

The names of Miss Stevens and Professor Reeves will be presented
to the institute for election at the next meeting in Buenos Aires just
prior to the Seventh International Conference of American States, to
be held in Montevideo in December, 1931. A committee was appointed
by the governing board to represent the institute during the confer-
ence and furnish any information or advice for which it may be asked;
its members are Dr. Alejandro Alvarez, Chile; Dr. Luis Anderson,
Costa Rica; Dr. Antonio Sanchez de Bustamante y Sirvén, Cuba; Dr.
Victor M. Maitrtua, Peru; and Dr. James Brown Scott and Miss
Doris Stevens, United States.

The Pan American Union has received word from the Mexican
Government that the meeting of the Seventh American Scientific
Congress has been postponed from February, 1932, until November,
1933. This decision was reached because of present world conditions,
which make it impossible for many nations to send special represent-
atives to the sessions.

———-- 2 _____

AGRICULTURE

One of the most important factors in the development of national
resources is that of adequately financing both large and small scale
agricultural activities. Of the 21 nations members of the Pan
American Union, many, including Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia,
Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Paraguay, and Venezuela, have estab-
lished by law national banks for that especial purpose, and others
have private or cooperative organizations which include agricultural
financing of some sort among their functions.

The newest national agricultural bank is that of Pmru, established
by decree law No. 7273 issued by the National Council of Government
on August 16, 1931. It was created to give to national agriculture
the long-term financial assistance which private banks were inherently
unable to offer. Its authorized capital is 20,000,000 soles gold, a sum
which may be increased by the directors with the consent of the
Government. Of this amount the Government will supply 5,000,000
soles in cash and 10,000,000 soles in Class C securities of the Central

¢ = °. C € as
c t ot OGc Lele
7 2 Qc € £ £
Fr So ey (e on ts

BSc: > So PEER EAR AMEPRICAN UNION
Reserve Bank (see BuLLETIN for December, 1931, p. 1268), and the
remaining 5,000,000 soles will be issued in 8 per cent bonds to the
public. The chief functions of the bank are to arrange for farmers
and cattle raisers loans whose security shall be crops, stock, and
equipment, and to issue agricultural bonds, although it is also author-
ized to carry on such other general banking operations as buying and
selling drafts and checks payable abroad and dealing in futures,
whenever such actions may be necessary to protect the bank and its
clients or to further their interests. The loans to farmers and cattle
raisers may include not only the money necessary for preparing the
soil, sowing, and harvesting the crop, but also a sufficient amount for
the subsistence of a man and his family, rental if he does not own the
land he cultivates, assessments and taxes, and insurance. Only in
exceptional cases will loans be issued for more than 50 per cent of the
estimated value of the crops or stock. The bank may, if the directors
deem it wise, require that additional security be pledged, in the form
of chattel or real estate mortgages. The terms on which advance
loans may be made vary in length; for crops, the maximum period is
two years; for livestock, five years; and for equipment, three years.

The value to a country of providing such banking facilities may be
seen from the following quotation, taken from the introduction to the
third annual report of the board of directors of the Agricultural and
Stock Raising Bank of Vennzuxnua for the fiscal year July 1, 1930-
June 30, 1931:

It may safely be said that there is no corner of the country devoted to our
fundamental industries where it (the bank) has not penetrated with its loans to
stimulate and sustain those who have dedicated themselves to such activities.
Our workers have seen that the Republic is concerned for their well-being: many
have had the radius of their activities increased and new and profitable possibili-
ties opened to them; others have found release from burdensome interest charges
and the possible tragedy of losing their property at the expiration of a given
period, prospects which made their work discouraging and futile; and many have
been literally saved from ruin.

But our laborers are not the only ones benefited by the bank, for its influence
extends directly or indirectly to other groups: to the national treasury, which
receives twice a year interest on 50,000,000 bolivares, and has seen its income
from stamp and registry taxes increase by the putting into circulation of
51,592,700 bolivares; to the treasuries of the individual States, whose income
from stamped paper has been proportionately increased; to business in general,
which has been stimulated in every department; to the entire country, in a word,
which has increased in wealth and found in these loans a remedy for the present
world crisis.

. . . The bank has taken favorable action on 1,086 requests for credit, granting
loans totaling 51,592,700 bolivares (this amount includes loans from the capital
supplied by the nation, from amortization payments, and from repayment of
some loans in full), for its original capital of 30,000,000 bolivares was increased
in 1929 to 50,000,000 bolivares. ... Of the total amount granted in loans,
40,606,700 bolivares were loaned to farmers and 10,986,000 bolivares to stock-
raisers. ... The bank has on hand at present 1,777,000 bolivares with which

AGRICULTURE 59

to attend to the petitions pending, which total 41,661,300 bolivares; action on
199 of these, for 12,729,800 bolivares, has been decided. The bank has paid to
the nation 2,958,806 bolivares in interest, and notwithstanding this expendi-
ture, . . . and the fact that it is inherently a nonprofit-making institution, it
has to-day liquid assets of 977,785 bolivares.

Coincident with the establishment of the Agricultural Bank of
_ Peru was the creation of the Board of Agricultural Promotion in the
same country by a law issued by the National Council of Govern-
ment also on August 16, 1931. The board was created in recognition
of the need for some body whose organization and functions should
enable it to attend to the credit requirements of agriculture and
stock raising. It is composed of the board of directors of the Agri-
cultural Bank, a delegate from the National Stock Raisers’ Society,
one delegate each from the societies representing the agricultural or
stock-raising interests in Chiclayo, Arequipa, Cuzco, and Iquitos, the
directors of the bureaus of agriculture, stock raising, and irrigation
of the Ministry of Promotion, and the director of the School of
Agriculture. The duties of the board include the main functions of
direct and indirect agricultural financing.

Cooperation in agricultural industries is becoming increasingly
important, as is evidenced by the growing number of organizations for
mutual action in that field. One has recently been organized in
Bolivia, another in Cuba.

The Chamber of Industrial Promotion was changed in Boniyia on
September 26, 1931, to a cooperative movement between indus-
trialists and agriculturists of the nation. The union is the result of
a unanimous resolution passed at the meeting of the last National
Agricultural Congress. It was felt that, as the national industries
represent an investment of 70,000,000 bolivianos and the agricultural
and stock-raising industries the even greater investment of 100,000,000
bolivianos, an association representing both interests would be par-
ticularly timely. The purposes of the chamber are both offensive
and defensive, as may be seen from the following aims taken from
the statutes: To protect by every legal means national industrial and
agricultural activities; to promote friendly relations between capital
and labor, creating to that end such tribunals of conciliation and
arbitration as may be necessary; to encourage industrial and agri-
cultural education by establishing trade schools, agricultural schools,
and experiment stations, publishing periodicals, and organizing fairs
and expositions; to prevent suits or other legal action between mem-
bers; to urge that all manufactured articles and products of agricul-
tural or stock-raising character show clearly their Bolivian origin; to
advertise Bolivian products abroad in communications with similar
chambers and in periodicals; and to propose and found general cooper-
ative organizations (such as insurance, savings, pension, and mutual
aid) for both members and their workmen.

60 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The organization in Cusa was founded especially to further the
interests of fruit growers and truck gardeners. More than 70 such
planters met on October 21, 1931, in the Department of Agriculture,
Commerce, and Labor to exchange opinions on the subject and to
form a cooperative society. This meeting was held in accordance
with a suggestion made them by Sefior Celso Cuéllar del Rio, a
national senator who is also a grower; in it he said the studies he has
made of the subject have convinced him that fruit and vegetable
exports from Cuba are not as important as they should be to-day,
but with the proper organization such products would soon become
the second most important export of the island. It may be added
that fresh lima beans from Cuba are now a delicacy on sale in markets
of the eastern United States, at least. While cooperative action on
the part of the growers can not alter the tariff and quarantine restric-
tions of importing countries, it can correct two of the handicaps under
which Cuban produce suffers—poor selection and packing of the
products, and the lack of organization for the adequate distribution
of the products in the country of consumption. A tentative organiza-
tion was established under the presidency of Sefor Eusebio Dardet,
and the group plans to meet in the near future for final organization
and intensive action.

Another aspect of agricultural activities was stressed at the meeting
of the Ninth Conference of Veterinary Inspectors held in October in
Durazno, Urueuay, to discuss problems of animal health and sanita-
tion in relation to the community and the direct and indirect effects
of sanitary control measures. The conference laid special emphasis
on preventive rather than curative measures, and at the closing session
passed recommendations whose subjects included: Dairy inspection
and the importance of municipal cooperation in the undertaking; the
prevention and control of specified cattle and other livestock diseases,
with the desirability of campaigning for a wider knowledge of the most
efficacious and least costly remedies; the establishment of portable
laboratories to serve especially those establishments authorized to sell
inspected milk; the importance of further studies in the degree and
period of immunity of vaccines and in new methods of introduction;
a bill prohibiting the introduction or breeding of Zebu cattle in
Uruguay; the establishment in the National Cold Storage Plant of a
laboratory for research in cold-storage methods; the advisability of a
bee quarantine, to prevent the introduction of bee diseases into the
country; and the desirability of the Bureau of Veterinary Inspection
being represented at the coming Cold Storage Congress, Buenos Aires.

In view of the resolution recommending the exclusion of Zebu cattle
from the country, it is interesting to note that on October 6, 1931,
the Ministry of Industries of Cotomsta issued a decree forbidding the
importation of Zebu sires into the Republic on the ground that Zebu
stock weakened rather than improved the Colombian breeds of cattle.

INDUSTRY

The Latin American Republics are essentially agricultural or mining
countries, manufacturing representing only a small portion of their
economic life. For some years, nevertheless, there has been a trend
toward industrialization in South and Central America. Natural
resources, available capital, and other economic considerations have
made this tendency more pronounced in some countries than in others;
in all, however, manufacturing has never failed to create interest, the
Governments and commercial associations in the various republics
having lent every possible encouragement to this movement. The
press has also played an important role in stimulating this desire for
more economic self-sufficiency. Editorial articles advocating the
establishment of industries on the basis of national raw materials are
common, and the inauguration of a new industrial plant, frequently
the occasion of a formal ceremony attended by the President of the
Republic and his cabinet, is always the object of considerable publicity
in the local papers.

The fact that the prices of the principal Latin American export
commodities—such as Brazilian coffee, Bolivian tin, Cuban sugar, and
Chilean nitrates—have been for some time at extremely low levels has
no doubt been an influential factor in the movement for diversifica-
tion in economic undertakings as a means of alleviating conditions
brought about in part, at least, by dependency upon one or a few
products. The decline in the export of the basic agricultural and
mineral commodities in which Latin America specializes has made it
necessary for the countries to reduce their imports of manufactured
commodities—since exports in the long run must pay for imports—and
brought to the fore national industries which can supply substitutes
for foreign’'merchandise. Several of the Latin American Governments
have raised the import duties on goods manufactured on a small scale
at home, and in some cases prohibited their importation temporarily.
Consequently many new industries have been established in Latin
America during the last two years which are turning out for local
consumption such merchandise as was formerly brought from abroad.

This change in the national economic structure, now in the process
of evolution, is perhaps most striking in the case of Cusa. For many
years the sugar industry has been the controlling factor in practically
every commercial and industrial activity in Cuba. It is easy to
realize how a progressive decline in the price of sugar since 1924 has
made drastic economic adjustments necessary. The Cubans as a
nation have been facing squarely this decline of their major industry
by entering into a well-conceived plan of diversification of agriculture

$9921—32— Bull. 1——_5 61

62 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

(see page 60) and the development of manufacturing industries to
produce those articles which they had been importing from other
countries with the proceeds of their principal cash product. The
result has been that Cuba is not only now raising increasing amounts
of such foodstuffs as potatoes, miscellaneous vegetables, corn, poultry,
and fruits, but has begun to manufacture an astonishingly varied
lot of necessities and even minor luxuries. Among these may be cited
dried beef, canned tomatoes and fruits, vegetable fats, shoes and
miscellaneous leather goods, men’s and women’s clothing, furniture,
construction materials of all kinds, soap, ink, paints, and paper and
paper products.

By scanning the Latin American daily press one can gather an idea of
how the movement progresses in various countries. For example, the
newspapers for September and October, 1931, bring reports of a num-
ber of exhibitions of national products. The Cotompran National
Industrial Exposition, containing exhibits from all the departments
of the Republic, was inaugurated at Bogota by President Olaya
Herrera on September 12, 1931. The exposition was held under the
auspices of the National Federation of Manufacturers and Producers
(Federacién Nacional de Fabricantes y Productores), an association
formed about a year ago to seek the reorganization of agriculture and
industry in Colombia in order to alleviate the economic crisis which
menaced the country.

Another exposition which has created a great deal of interest is the
First Mexican Traveling Exposition of National Products, organized
under the direction of Sefior Alfredo Garrido Alfaro. The ‘Train of
Progress,’’ as the exposition is generally known in Mexico, was
organized to acquaint the consuming public with articles produced
within the country, thereby increasing the demand for them and
giving a new stimulus to national industries. The train left Mexico
City on September 25, 1931, for a six months’ tour of the country,
during which period it will travel 8,000 miles and visit 38 important
cities. It is made up of 19 steel cars and a Pullman, the 19 cars
including a diner and a special car devoted to an exhibit of the
Ministry of Communications which shows the work of the National
Highway Commission, to be used as a basis for an intensive cam-
paign to promote tourist travel over Mexico’s new roads. During
the official inauguration of the exposition at the Buenavista Central
Railroad Station in Mexico City on September 12, the President of
the Republic, after congratulating the organizers and exhibitors,
offered the use of one of the steamships of the National Lines, so that
at the end of the tour the exhibits can be sent to other Latin American
Republics.

Another exposition held during the months of September and
October was the Prruvian Floating Sample Fair installed aboard

INDUSTRY 63

the 8. S. Urubamba of the Peruvian Steamship Co. Besides the space
devoted to Peruvian industries, the fair also contained exhibits of
the Ministries of Promotion and Foreign Affairs, the Peruvian Tour-
ing Club, the Museum of Archeology, the vocational training school
of Lima and the National Association of Journalists. There were
also aboard a native orchestra and a theatrical company, whose
programs were based on the folklore of Peru. The fair left Callao
on September 29, and after stopping at all the northern Peruvian
ports, arrived at Guayaquil, Ecuador, on October 7 for a three-day
stay, leaving October 10 for Panama.

Peruvian industries have been developing rapidly during the last
few years. Aside from copper and petroleum refining, the principal
industries are the manufacture of textiles, foods, tobacco, various
beverages, bottles, soap, lard, shoes, cement, and flour, and the tanning
of hides. Since Peru is favorably placed in regard to raw materials
and power supply and has a domestic market able to consume all that
the manufacturing industries of the country can produce for some
time, there is no reason why the present industrial trend should not
become even more pronounced. At the same time that the Peruvian
Floating Exposition visited Ecuapor, Guayaquil was holding its
Eighth International Sample Fair. The principal Ecuadorean
industries are the manufacture of cotton, wool, sisal fiber, shoes,
flour, cigars and cigarettes, sugar, alcoholic beverages, straw hats,
soap and candles, furniture, soft drinks and the refining of petroleum
into gasoline, kerosene and gas oil. In the exposition the stands
devoted to Ecuadorean food products, shoes, hosiery, and furniture
attracted special attention.

According to press dispatches three hundred skilled workmen are
employed in a factory at Santiago de CuiLte making street cars.
While the motors and some metal parts are imported, the rest of the
car is made at the shop from national products, and the total cost of
a car when completed is reported to be one half the cost of an imported
one. This is but one of the new industries that are being established
in Chile to take advantage of the abundant raw materials and power
resources, favorable climate, and adaptability to machine production
shown by the laboring classes. No detailed data on manufacturing
in Chile will probably be available until the results of the industrial
census now being made are published. The number of industrial
establishments in 1926 was placed at 7,573; they employed 84,872
workers and had an annual pay roll of 214,803,042 pesos.

The Uruguayan press announces the opening of a national industrial
exposition on December 1, 1931. Uru@uay is primarily an agricul-
tural and livestock-raising country; consequently its leading manu-
facturing industries are closely linked with these two great sources
of national wealth. Meat packing is perhaps the most important,

64 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

there being at present four large freezing establishments and a number
of smaller ones turning out jerked beef, canned meats, and other
animal products. Other Uruguayan industries derived from cattle
and sheep raising are tanning and the manufacture of shoes, leather
goods, and woolen textiles. Uruguayan factories are also producing
cement, bricks, tiles, flour, enamel wares, cotton textiles, soap,
furniture, glass, paper, beverages, matches, sugar, and cigarettes.
A new cooperative textile society has been formed in Montevideo
under the name Fabrica Uruguaya de Tejidos, Sociedad Andénima
Cooperativa; its provisional board of directors was elected on Sep-
tember 23, 1931. The General Motors Corporation has maintained
an assembly plant in Montevideo since 1926. The press announces
that one of the motor cars assembled at the Uruguayan branch has
been awarded a gold medal in New York by the engineers of the parent
company because of the high quality of the workmanship.

A report, dated October 9, 1931, by Assistant Trade Commissioner
J. Winsor Ives, of the United States Department of Commerce,
contains interesting information on Braziu’s paper industry. The
best indication of the unusual growth of this industry during the
last decade is afforded by a comparison of figures. At the close of 1919
there were only eight paper mills in operation, representing a tctal
capital investment of something in the neighborhood of 25,000 contos
(about $6,500,000), while according to figures compiled at the close of
1929 there were in that year 18 mills in operation with an aggregate
capital of 200,000 contos, that is, about $24,000,000. Ten of the
eighteen paper mills are located in the State of Sao Paulo, and it is
estimated that they are responsible for about 75 per cent of the
country’s total paper production, which in 1929 amounted to 70,000
metric tons. Estimates supplied by the Brazilian paper mdustry
indicate that the country’s 18 mills curtailed their production in
1930 approximately 30 per cent as compared with 1929.

Up to five years ago the production of Brazilian mills was restricted
almost entirely to wrapping and other low grade papers. Through
the adoption of modern machinery and improved production methods,
as well as by the employment of experienced technicians, unusual
progress has been made during recent years toward bettering quality
and variety in the output of these establishments. At the present
time good quality bond, glazed, and writing papers of Brazilian man-
ufacture are sold in the market in direct competition with similar
products of foreign origin. While it is true that the domestic in-
dustry has not yet developed to a point where it can supply a wide
enough range of papers to satisfy either the quantity or quality de-
mands of the market, there is a strong indication that the next five
vears will see-a further expansion in the industry through Govern-

LABOR 65

ment aid in the form of adequate tariff protection and encouragement
of the development of domestic pulp resources.

At the present time Brazil’s paper industry is dependent almost
entirely upon foreign sources of supply for pulp, the development of a
national pulp industry having been deterred principally by high costs
of transportation, and, to a lesser degree, by lack of sufficient capital
to exploit the industry on a commercially practicable scale. Surveys
made during recent years by Brazilians and various foreign foresters
and paper technicians indicate that the country not only possesses
a wide enough variety of wood and other vegetable matter to provide
pulp suitable for the manufacture of paper of practically all classes,
but that the potential resources of these raw materials would, if
exploited, prove adequate to supply the demands of the domestic
paper industry for an indeterminate period and at the same time leave
a large surplus available for exportation to other pulp-consuming
_ markets in South America.

The manufacturing industries already occupy an important position
in the economic life of Brazil. The textile industry, which is con-
sidered the most important, consists of 354 factories, with an approxi-
mate capital of $77,000,000. The latest official census taken in Brazil
was that of 1920; the data then obtained showed that there were at
that time over 13,000 industrial establishments in Brazil with a
capital of approximately 2,000,000 contos (conto then equalled
approximately $210), employing 275,512 workmen and having an
annual output of products valued at nearly 3,000,000 contos. Since
then several industries have progressed rapidly, principally textiles,
shoes, hats, furniture, beverages, tobacco, preserved foodstuffs, china-

ware, and glass.
oe oo

LABOR

As a result of action taken during the special sessions of the Congress
of Mexico convened on July 25, 1929, for the purpose of adopting a
constitutional amendment empowering Congress to enact labor legis-
lation for the entire Republic, a federal labor code has been passed
and was promulgated by President Ortiz Rubio on August 18, 1931.
Heretofore each State passed its own labor legislation in accordance
with article 123 of the constitution, and the jurisdiction of Congress in
labor matters was limited almost exclusively to the Federal District
and Territories. Under this régime several of the States passed
comprehensive labor codes, but in the majority such legislation was
fragmentary, and the federal Government itself issued few decrees on
the subject. Of these perhaps the only notable ones were those creat-
ing boards of conciliation and arbitration and establishing a weekly
rest period. Disputes not covered by enabling legislation were

66 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

frequently decided by federal or State boards of conciliation and
arbitration upon the basis of general principles established by the
constitution, but these decisions resulted in much uncertainty and
almost numberless interpretations of the rights and obligations of
labor and capital. With the passage of the new law, however, almost
every possible phase of the employer-employee relation has been fully
covered and a unified and advanced social-economic policy adopted
for the whole country.

Among the principal subjects treated in the new code are individual
and collective labor contracts; hours of labor; minimum wages; work-
ing conditions of women and children; obligations of employer and
employee; modification, suspension, rescission, and termination of
labor contracts; labor unions; strikes and shutdowns; workmen’s
compensation; adjustment of labor disputes by boards of conciliation
and arbitration; safety and sanitation measures; and administrative
machinery.

Under the general provisions of the law, the terms used throughout
the code are defined; the right of the individual to engage in the
profession, industry, or business of his choice, if it be legal, is formally
recognized; and regulations are promulgated requiring the employ-
ment of Mexican citizens in 90 per cent of the positions on both the
technical and regular staffs of every enterprise and the use of the
Spanish language in the issuance of orders and instructions to em-
ployees. The sale of intoxicating liquors and the maintenance of
gambling or assignation houses in any labor center, or within a radius
of 4 kilometers (kilometer equals 0.62 mile) if the center is located
outside a city, are prohibited.

The law further provides that with the exception of contracts for
domestic service; casual or temporary work not exceeding 60 days;
services In connection with specific work, provided the total wages to
be paid do not exceed 100 pesos; and agricultural labor other than that
of housed farm hands referred to in the Law on Endowments and
Restitution of Lands and Waters of March 21, 1929, all individual
labor contracts shall be clearly stated in writing.

Minors of either sex between the ages of 12 and 16 years may enter
into a labor contract only through their parents or legal representa-
tive; married women are free to enter into labor contracts and enjoy
the privileges thereof without the consent of their husbands.

In cases of failure, liquidation, attachment, or succession of a
business or enterprise, regardless of whether the worker continues
rendering services or not, the receiver or other person in charge
shall be under the obligation to pay within a period of one month the
compensation earned and recognized by the labor authorities: Every
employer engaging workers belonging to a union shall enter into a
collective contract with it when so requested.

LABOR 67

The collective labor contract, which is defined as any agreement
between one or several labor unions and one or several employers or
employers’ associations, shall also be executed in writing. It shall be
terminated only by the mutual consent of the parties; for reasons
expressly stipulated in the contract; by the failure or judicial liquida-
tion of the business; by the termination of the work for which the
labor was contracted; by the exhaustion of the raw material furnishing
the object of an extractive industry; by the total closure of the busi-
ness; by any physical or mental disability of the employer making
compliance with the contract or continuation of the enterprise impos-
sible; and by accident or force majeure. In cases of the termination of
the contract through judicial liquidation, the exhaustion of the raw
material, the physical or mental incapacitation of the employer, or
the closure of the business, the workers rendering services in the enter-
prise involved shall be indemnified with a month’s wages. In the
case of the total closure of the enterprise, should the employer either
directly or through third parties establish within one year a similar
enterprise, he shall be obliged to reemploy the same workers or pay
them an indemnity equivalent to three months’ wages. If, in case of
accident or force majeure, the enterprise is covered by insurance, the
workers shall be indemnified with a sum equivalent to three months’
wages as soon as the policy is collected. Further clauses of the law
dealing with labor contracts specify justifiable causes for their sus-
pension, modification, rescission, and termination.

The maximum length of the working day shall not exceed eight
hours for either sex. This, however, does not include domestic serv-
ice rendered in places other than hotels, restaurants, hospitals, and
similar institutions. The maximum length of night work, that done
between 8 p. m. and 6 a. m., is seven hours. Minors between the
ages of 12 and 16 years may work only six hours. When as a
result of special circumstances the hours of work must be increased
it shall not be for more than three hours daily nor more often than
three times a week. Women and minors between the ages of 12 and
16 years of age shall never be compelled to work overtime. All
workers shall be allowed one day of rest in every seven. Persons
who have been employed in one firm for more than a year shall be
given an annual vacation with pay; the length of this period shall be
agreed upon by the parties to the contract, but it shall not be less
than four working days. At the end of two years’ service the em-
ployee shall be entitled to at least six days’ vacation with pay.

Minors under 16 years of age and women shall not be employed in
night shifts, in places where intoxicating liquors are sold for immediate
consumption, or in unhealthful or dangerous trades save where, in
the opinion of competent authorities, sufficient precautions have been
taken to protect the worker. Expectant mothers shall not be com-

68 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

pelled to engage in any work involving great physical exertion three
months prior to childbirth; they shall be given a vacation of eight
days before and a month after childbirth and, if at the end of that
time they are still unable to work, shall be granted leave without pay.
Upon their return to work they shall be given half-hour rest periods
at various times throughout the day to permit the nursing of their
children. Every establishment employing more than 50 women shall
provide a nursery.

Wages shall be paid at the place of work except when expressly
stated to the contrary in the contract. The parties to the contract
shall fix the date for the payment of wages; payment to day laborers,
however, shall be made at least once every week, and to domestic
servants and other employees once every fortnight. Wages shall be
paid in legal tender and must be given directly to the worker or to
persons designated by him in writing before two witnesses to receive
it. Amounts deducted by the employer for debts, such as sums
advanced in anticipation of wages, overpayments,.the cost of errors
or losses, goods purchased from the firm, and other similar items,
shall not exceed 30 per cent of the amount received above the mini-
mum wage. Aside from these exceptions and cases of deductions for
labor union or cooperative organization dues or for savings accounts,
to which the workers expressly give their consent, no amounts shall
be taken from the wages, nor shall interest be charged on money
advanced. Double pay shall be given for overtime work. The mini-
mum wage in any industry in a given territory will be fixed by a
special commission on which the workers and employers of that local-
ity shall be equally represented. There shall be at least two com-
missioners for each group and one representative of the municipal
government, who will act as president, on each minimum wage board.

Employers must take adequate measures to prevent accidents; estab-
lish and maintain elementary schools for the children of their employ-
ees when the labor center is located more than 3 kilometers from a
town and there are more than 20 children requiring instruction; pro-
vide comfortable and hygienic dwellings for which they charge a
rental of not more than one-half of 1 per cent monthly of the assessed
value of the property; reserve, when the fixed population of a rural
labor center exceeds 200 inhabitants and is over 5 kilometers from
the nearest town, a space of not less than 5,000 square meters (square
meter equals 10.26 square feet) for the establishment of public mar-
kets, municipal buildings, and recreational centers; and allow their
employees sufficient time to vote. Those employing between 400 and
2,000 workers must pay all the expenses of an employee or the son of
an employee at a school, either in Mexico or abroad, specializing in
the technical, practical, or industrial phase of the business in which
the firm is engaged. Should there be morethan 2,000 workers

LABOR 69

employed, the employer shall establish three such scholarships. The
beneficiaries will be required to work for the employer for at least
two years upon their return.

Employers are forbidden to require workers to make their pur-
chases at any specified place; to accept money in return for employ-
ment or improved conditions; to oblige workers to resign from a
union or any other labor organization; to take a collection for any
purpose; to interfere with the religious or political views of their
employees; to carry without the proper permit firearms in urban
factories or shops; to employ the system of ‘‘blacklisting”’ persons
who have been discharged; and to visit the factory, shop, or other
establishment while under the influence of liquor or narcotics.

Workers who are victims of an occupational risk have the right to
medical assistance, medicines, and compensation. The death of the
worker as a result of a labor accident shall be compensated by the
payment of one month’s wages for funeral and other expenses and an
amount equal to his wages for 612 working days, these sums to be
paid in equal amounts to his dependent parents, wife, and children
under 16 years of age. In cases of incapacitation as a result of a
labor accident or occupational disease, only the worker himself will
have the right to compensation, and should he be mentally incompe-
tent payments shall be made to the guardian appointed by law. Com-
pensation for permanent total disability shall be equal to the wages
of the worker for 918 working days and that for permanent partial
disability to a percentage based on the amount which would have
been paid if the incapacity had been permanent and total. A table
of the exact percentages payable for different causes 1s given in the
law. When the incapacity is not permanent, the compensation shall
consist of the payment of 75 per cent of the wages which the employee
would have received had he been able to work.

Medicine and first aid shall be provided in the factory or establish-
ment for persons suffering illness or accident. Employers having
between 100 and 300 employees shall maintain a dispensary under
the direction of a physician. When necessary the worker shall be
taken to the nearest hospital or other place where he can receive
treatment. Persons employing over 300 workers shall maintain an
infirmary or hospital in charge of a physician. If, however, their
factory or other enterprise is within two hours’ ride from a hospital,
they may make arrangements for the treatment of their workers in
that institution. Should the sick person for any just cause refuse to
receive the medical aid provided, he shall not on that account lose
the right to compensation. Reports of all accidents must be made to
the proper authorities.

The law recognizes unions and other similar associations, and
establishes the rights of the employer and employee to organize such

70 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

bodies without previous authorization. For such an organization
to be legal, however, it must register with the board of conciliation
and arbitration of its district and with the Bureau of Labor of the
Department of Industry, Commerce and Labor. Labor unions are
forbidden to take part in matters of a religious or political nature;
to engage in commercial enterprises for the purpose of gain; to use
force in securing members; or to do violence to persons or property.
Minors under 16 years of age and toreigners shall not be allowed
to hold office in any labor organization. Strikes shall be limited to
the suspension of work; they do not terminate the rights or obliga-
tions of labor contracts. Shutdowns are licit only when the board of
conciliation and arbitration authorizes them as a means of maintaining
prices in time of excessive production.

Aside from these provisions, the law establishes labor standards for
sailors, domestics, railway employees, farm hands, and employees in
small industries, and gives detailed regulations regarding the duties
of labor inspectors and the membership and functions of the boards
of conciliation and minimum wage commissions. Although the law
was declared effective as of the date of its publication in the Diario
Oficial, August 28, 1931, certain of its requirements, such as the
preferential employment of nationals, the obligatory use of the
Spanish language, and the form and substance of labor contracts,
will not be strictly enforced for six months, in order to permit business
to be adjusted in accordance with these provisions.

ART, SCIENCE, AND EDUCATION

A rapid review of recent intellectual activities in various Latin
American nations will serve to illustrate the importance which is
given by present-day leaders to the vital subject of popular education
and the no less important matters of science and art.

In discussing cultural activities in ARGENTINA, special mention must
be made of the 1931 opera season in the Teatro Colén, Buenos Aires.
This magnificent theater is in every way the equal of the Metropolitan
Opera House in New York. The past season, managed by a commit-
tee representing the city of Buenos Aires, was both artistically and
financially a great success, the receipts totaling nearly 2,000,000 pesos.
The chorus, the orchestra, and the corps de ballet were composed almost
entirely of local artists. The latter, trained under the auspices of the
Colon Opera House, does not suffer in comparison with the most
famous in Europe. The Wagner season this year was conducted by
Otto Klemperer, and among the soloists were Frieda Leider, Maria
Rajdi, Lauritz Melchior, and Alexander Kipnis.

ART, SCIENCE, AND EDUCATION 71

An interesting event in the field of art was the recent organization
in Buenos Aires of a society called “Amigos del Museo,’”’ composed
of a select membership of art lovers, both men and women. The
object of the society is to foster the development of the national art
museum and its enrichment by gifts and bequests. The president of
the committee is Dr. Eduardo J. Bullrich, and it should also be men-
tioned that the Hon. Robert Woods Bliss, ambassador of the United
States, is one of the members.

Lectures on Paradoxical Aspects of Modern Life were given in Sep-
tember last by the Argentine professor, Jorge Prando Howard, speak-
ing under the auspices of the university in La Paz, Bourvia. Another
interesting lecture was that given by Sefior Félix Eguirro Zaballa, who
discussed the processes of public education in Bolivia before the
National League of Teachers and its guests. His theme was the
necessity of preparing children for a constructive part in society and
the consequent changes which should be made in the training of
teachers.

Among the art exhibits which took place in La Paz last October,
special mention should be made of the paintings of Sefior Victor Mar-
tinez Malaga, of Arequipa, Peru, shown under the patronage of the
Hon. Carlos Concha, minister of Peru in Bolivia. Sefior Martinez
Malaga displayed portraits, colonial scenes, and Indian types.

Worthy of all praise is the circular sent out by the Minister of Edu-
cation and Public Health of Braz to State authorities and school
principals concerning the conservation of national, historic, and artistic
monuments and the dissemination of information concerning them.
The circular asks for cooperation from State authorities in the ap-
pointment of a competent official or committee to prepare a detailed
historical account and description of each monument in the respective
States, to be accompanied by ample illustrative material. Frequent
inquiries from abroad, asking for detailed information on special mon-
uments, inspired the issuance of this circular; answers to questions
will be published in condensed form in the Bulletin of the Ministry
or in separate pamphlets if they prove of sufficient importance. A
general summary will also be printed annually.

The oldest of the scientific institutions of Brazil, the Geographical
and Historical Institute, whose history is intimately connected with
that of national culture, celebrated its ninety-third anniversary on
October 21, 1931. A feature of the meeting was a tribute of one
minute’s silence to Edison. The review published by the institute,
of which 108 volumes have appeared, is one of the richest sources of
national documentation; the last issue contains a history of Brazil by
H. Handelmann. The institute possesses an excellent library con-
taining an extensive collection of works on Brazilian history.

72 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The Fourth National Conference of Education, called by the
Brazilian Education Society, met in Rio de Janeiro, October 12 to 19,
1931. The principles of popular education were the subjects for
discussion.

The Republic of CoLtomsBia continues to maintain its proverbial
reputation for culture. (See EpucaTionaAL Bracons IN COLOMBIA,
pp. 30 to 38.) Among the various measures adopted by the Govern-
ment for the protection and spread of native art must be mentioned
the law signed by the President last October, by virtue of which monu-
ments and objects of archeological value throughovt the country,
but especially those recently found about San Agustin on the upper
Magdalena, are declared of public interest. The decree provides that
the temples, tombs, statues, stelae, carved stones, objects of gold and
pottery, and all utensils which are examples of pre-Colombian culture
and may be utilized for archeological and ethnological studies belong
to the ‘‘National Monument of the Upper Magdalena and San
Agustin.’”’? The Government will make an appropriation in future
budgets for further archeological explorations in the regions men-
tioned and for the purchase of objects for the National Museum of
San Agustin. The decree prohibits the sale and export of such
material and authorizes the Government to acquire the archeological
sites in the aforementioned regions for a national park.

By virtue of a decree signed October 5, 1931, by the President and
the Minister of Foreign Affairs, a national cooperating committee on
the Columbus Memorial Lighthouse has been constituted. The fol-
lowing gentlemen, well known in literary and financial life, compose
its membership: Sefiores Antonio Gémez Restrepo, Gustavo Michel-
sen, Julio Garzon Nieto, Arturo Jaramillo, and Daniel Samper Ortega.

University Day was observed in Santo Domingo, Dominican
ReEpvusuic, on October 26, 1931, on the three hundred and ninety--
third anniversary of the foundation of the University of St. Thomas
Aquinas. On this occasion Dr. Henriquez y Carvajal, president of the
university, recounted the history of this famous institution, which has
been the alma mater of some of the most famous Dominicans and has
exercised a marked influence upon the cultural life of the country.

A few months ago a number of members of the bar of Ecuapor
met in the Central University at Quito to organize a society for the
promotion of closer relations between the members of their profession.
The organizing committee is headed by Dr. Francisco Pérez Borja.

In the Republic of Et Satvapor the Ministry of Public Instruction
has created a library and exchange section for the purpose of distribut-
ing national publications in foreign countries and of receiving from
abroad books, reviews, pamphlets, and other printed material which

ART, SCIENCE, AND EDUCATION 7

will help to keep El Salvador in close contact with the thought of other
nations.

A parents’ association, started not long ago in San Pedro de Nonualco,
will cooperate closely with the schools of that place and help to meet
any material needs of the educational institutions. This is the first
society of its kind to be established in the country.

On October 21, 1931, the Child Welfare Society of Guatemala City
held a reception in honor of Gabriela Mistral, the distinguished Chilean
poet and educator, who for some days was the guest of honor of GuatTr-
MALA on her journey through Central America and Panama. In her
remarks on this occasion, Senorita Mistral spoke on the special prob-
lems of education connected with Indo-Spanish populations. She
praised the social welfare work of the Guatemalan women and also
stressed the importance of nutrition in the psychological development

of the child.

By virtue of a decree signed by the President of Paraguay on
October 13, 1931, the Ministry of Justice and Publie Instruction was
authorized to engage several scientists from the United States to
reorganize the School of Medicine.

On October 8 of last year Journalists’ Day was celebrated at the
University of San Marcos in Lima, Peru, in accordance with the
resolution of the National Press Association. This university, founded
in 1551, is said to be the first South American Cee to add to its
School of Liberal Arts an institute of journalism.

A travel seminar in the Caribbean was launched last winter by the
Committee on Cultural Relations with Latin America, New York,
under the direction of Dr. Hubert C. Herring, as an experiment in
bringing citizens of the United States into something more than casual
touch with the leaders of the Caribbean Republics. The second semi-
nar will be held from January 23—February 10, inclusive, from New
Work.

Programs will be given as follows:

On shore: In Porto Rico, a program of conferences and a field
trip, arranged by Gov. Theodore Roosevelt and Chancellor
Carlos E. Chardon; in St. Thomas, a program arranged by
Gov. Paul Pearson, of the Virgin Islands; in Santo Domingo, a
program arranged by the Dominican Committee on Cultural
Relations, of which Dr. Francisco Peynado is chairman; in
Panama, an optional program arranged by Mr. Charles Thomson ;
in Port-au-Prince, a program arranged by our cooperating com-
mittee, of which M. Abel Leger is chairman; and in Habana, a
program and field trip. On shipboard: Each day there will be
sessions on shipboard, with lectures and round-table discussions
on the history of the Caribbean Republics, the arts, economics,
politics, and international relations of the Republics.

7a THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

A few of the members will omit the visit to Panama and spend a
week in Santo Domingo and Haiti, motoring over the island and
visiting various inland cities and the Citadel of Christophe.

The faculty will include Lincoln Steffens, Chester Lloyd Jones,
Ernest Gruening, Thomas E. Benner, Leland H. Jenks, Samuel Guy
Inman, and Charles Thomson.

FEMINISM

While women have been permitted to assume duties in many a
field but a short while ago deemed the exclusive province of men,
their entrance into the diplomatic world has been comparatively
recent. Miss Lucile Atcherson, the first woman to enter the career
service of the State Department, was appointed in February, 1927,
third secretary of the legation of the UnirEp SratEs in Panama, a
position which she held until her resignation in September of that
year. At the present time, Miss Frances Willis is United States
vice consul in Valparaiso, Chile.

The United States, however, is not the only American nation that
has appointed women to represent it in other countries of this conti-
nent. The highest position to which a woman has been appointed in
the Diplomatic Corps of the Americas is held by Sefiora Delia Robles
de Andreve, chargé d’affaires of PANAMA in Cuba. When in October,
1931, her husband, Sefior Guillermo de Andreve, left his post as
Minister to Cuba to accept the portfolio of Justice and the Interior
of Panama, his wife remained in Habana to take charge of the affairs
of her nation in that Republic until his successor should be appointed.
Sefiora de Andreve, who had studied under President Alfaro in her
undergraduate days, was particularly pleased with the appointment
as an evidence of the progress of feminism in Latin America.

For the nomination of Miss Doris Stevens to membership in the
American Institute of International Law, see p. 56.

SUBJECT MATTER OF CONSULAR REPORTS

REPORTS RECEIVED TO DECEMBER 11, 1931

Subject Date Author
ARGENTINA
1931
Argentine provincial expenses and budgets for the year | Sept. 11 | A. M. Warren, consul at Buenos
1931. | Aires.
The Argentine Annual Livestock Exposition of the | Sept. 19 | Do.
Sociedad Rural Argentina. |
Section IX—Labor and Immigration, Review of com- | Sept. 30 | Do.
merce and industries, quarter ended Sept. 30, 1931.
Report on general conditions prevailing in Argentina, | Oct. 20 | Embassy, Buenos Aires.
Oct. 4 to 17, 1931. |
Copy of an article from La Nacion of Oct. 11 witha trans- | Oct. 22 Do.
lation of the same, covering a report concerning the
school census submitted by the president of the Na-
tional Council of Education.
Argentine provincial school budgets___.__-______________ Nov. 4 Do.
BRAZIL
Review of commerce and industries, quarter ended June | Aug. 20 George E. Seltzer, consul at Para.
30, 1931.
The completion of the Jerry O’Connell Dam at Bana- | Sept. 10 | Lawrence P. Briggs, consul at Bahia.
neiras, State of Bahia.
Farm-implement trade in northeastern Brazil___________ Sept. 14 | F. van den Arend, consul at Pernam-
buco.
Balance sheet of the Santos Municipal Administration | Sept. 17 | Arthur G. Parsloe, vice consul at
on June 30, 1931. Santos.
Review of commerce and industries, quarter ended Sept. | Oct. 20 | F. van den Arend, consul at Pernam-
30, 1931. | buco.
CHILE
Construction activities on thermo-electric plant for Val- | Oct. 9) Frank A. Henry, consul at Val-
paraiso. paraiso.
Proposed new industry for Chile—growing of hemp_____; Oct. 21 | Thomas D. Bowman, consul at San-
| tiago.
COLOMBIA |
Long-distance telephone service_________________________ Oct. 3 | H. D. Myers, vice consul at Buena-
ventura.
Review of commerce and industries, quarter ended Sept. | Oct. 20 | Carlos C. Hall, vice consul at Mede-
30, 1931. 1) Wbbuay,
HB) 0 eee em aE Rare ere Ra es CN A OT AR | Oct. 20 | Erik W. Magnuson, consul at Bar-
| ranquilla.
Review of commerce and industries, quarter ended June | Oct. 22} T. Monroe Fisher, vice consul at
30, 1931. Santa Marta.
Review of commerce and industries, quarter ended Sept. | Noy. 12 Do.
30, 1931.
Copy of Vol. II of Memoria del Ministro de Educacién | Nov. 12 | Legation, Bogota.
Nacional al Congreso de 1931. |
COSTA RICA
|
Copy of Serpientes Venenosas de Costa Rica______________ | Sept. 22 | Legation, San Jose.
Report on law governing official physicians in Costa Rica_ Oct. 28 | David J. D. Myers, consul at San
| | Jose. ;
Report on Costa Rica Informativa______._________________ | Nov. 13 | Do.
Report on Costa Rican currency circulation during Octo- | Noy. 19 | Do.

ber, 1931. |

THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Reports Received to December 11, 1931—Continued

Subject Date Author
CUBA
1931
First Latin-American trip of the amphibian airplane | Nov. 4} Knox Alexander, consul at Cien-
American Clipper, with Col. Charles A. Lindbergh fuegos.
as pilot.
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Review of commerce and industries, quarter ended Sept. | Oct. 20! Lawrence F. Cotie, vice consul at
30, 1931. Puerto Plata.
Excerpt from report on general conditions ended October,| Oct. 31 | Legation.
1931.
EL SALVADOR
SHUSUIKGRAML Teo OTOL Moye GBI). Sept. 28 | A. E. Carleton, consul at San Sal-
vador.
GUATEMALA
Nie wenotanialilaw eas sane ie eee Sate et Se eee ees Oct. 7 | G.K. Donald, consul general at Gua-
temala City.
HAITI
Review of commerce and industries, quarter ended Sept. | Oct. 30 | Donald R. Heath, consul at Port au
30, 1931. Prince.
Excerpt from report on general conditions in Haitifor the| Nov. 7 | Legation at Port au Prince.
period Oct. 1 to 31, 1931.
HONDURAS
Review of commerce and industries, quarter ended Sept. | Oct. 16 | Henry S. Haines, vice consul at
30, 1931. Puerto Castilla.
MEXICO
Official opening of Salta-Monterrey section of Inter- | Oct. 3 | Samuel Sokobin, consul at Saltillo.
Oceanic Highway (Matamoros-Mazatlan) in Mexico.
PANAMA
Excerpt from report on the general conditions prevailing | Sept. 22 | Legation, Panama City.
in Panama for the month of August, 1931.
Recent construction in Panama, G@ity-______-___________ Oct. 2) Herbert O. Williams, consul at
Panama City.
Excerpt from review of commerce and industries, quarter | Oct. 19 | Francis C. Jordan, vice consul at
ended Sept. 30, 1931. Colon.
BD) Oe Sette Set are st a (ee eR Ie Bye US ee. Oct. 26 | C. Burke Elbrick, vice consul at
Panama City.
PERU
Review of commerce and industries, quarter ended Sept. | Sept. 30 | William C. Burdett, consul general
30, 1931. at Callao-Lima.
Documents pertaining to the proceedings of the opening | Oct. 21 | Embassy at Lima.
session of the ‘“‘Instituto de Estudios Internacionales y
Relaciones Inter-Universitarias.”’
Tara in cura gee UT Cay] On eet eee ck ae es ate Oe SET eae WN Nov. 21 Do.
VENEZUELA
Excerpt from general conditions in Venezuela for Sep- | Oct. 5 Legation at Caracas.
tember, 1931.
ANON SSO Os MOR SWa ee Oct. 17 | Ben C. Matthews, vice consul at La
Guaira.
Excerpt from review of commerce and industries, quarter | Oct. 19 Do.
ended Sept. 30, 1931.
Slerovel rt Ie, Onmeiiie. 8) ok Nov. 5 Do.

SINNCAN GING SION®

ac (COSTAE CIS OOM SORA WIC JE CH AOR EL SALVA OR Ie

cS
6 " &
a FS
q
: can 2
: Se :
= z= Z. :
ee Oe :
= wt LL B U
ee oaas
aa o ee Volo : s
Bas 6 = Fad :
Bots? -<f’ “a 2
oS na | aes A
eo RE Z
4 oe Vf és Sates . 2 cD
% Z I Bae ane
$%% _
6% < : ee:
C= & :
eo ane
gee & ae : 5
IRIAN ONE SOITTSBONWICS CAO DINTOTIOS Cae ED WALLA ALT TED ON

uv
errrrrrerrrerrr rs <
= waa

GOVERNING-BOARD-OF-THE
PAN-AMERICAN
UNION

Mr. Henry L. Stimson, Chairman

Sefior Don Fruips A. EspiL,
1806 Corcoran Street, Washington, D. C.
Sefior Don Luis O. ABELLI,
2830 Forty-fourth Street, Washington, D. C.
Snhr. Dr. R. pre Lima E S1tva,
2437 Fifteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
Sefior Dr: MicueLCrucHacaTocoRNal,
2154 Florida Avenue, Washington, D. C. i
Colombia Sefior Dr; Fasro Lozano,
Hill Building, Washington, D; C.
Costa Rica Sefior Don GuILLteRMo E. GonzALez
1838 Connecticut Avenue, Washington, D. C.
Sefior Dr. Orestes FERRARA,
2630 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
Dominican Republic. Sefior Dr: RopERto DESPRADEL,
Woodward Building, Washington, D. C.
Sefior Dr. GonzALO ZALDUMBIDE,
1712 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C.
El Salvador Sefior Dr. Cantos Lrrva,
2601 Connecticut Avenue, Washington, D. Cs
Guatemala Sefior Dr: ADRIAN RECINOs,
1614 Eighteenth Street, Washington, D. O.
M. Dant&ks BELLEGARDE,
1703 Q Street, Washington, D. O.
Sefior Dr. Cétro DAvina,
1100 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
Sefior Dr. José ManveEt Pura
CASAURANC,
2829 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D, C.
Nicaragua Sefior Don Exie J. Hazera,
1711 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C.
Sefior Dr. Horacto F. AuFaro,
1535 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C.
Paraguay Sefior Don Pasto Max. YNSFRAN,
1726 Irving Street, Washington, D. C,
Sefior Don M: pz FreyrEe y SANTANDER,
1300 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. 0.
United States Mr. Henry L. Stimson,
Department of State, Washington, D, OC.
Uruguay Sefior Dr. Jacopo VARELA,
1317 F Street, Washington, D. O.

Venezuela Sefior Dr. Pepro MANUEL ARCAYA,
1628 Twenty-first Street, Washington, D. C.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ASStreet in Cuernavaca, Mexico.-.---2.-222-22- 2 == (Cover Ace
New Avenues of Cultural Approach Between the Nations of America____ a
By Henry Kittredge Norton.
Program of the Seventh International Conference of American States__ 89
The Guatemala-Honduras Boundary Arbitration______________________ 92
uaneAortillandessan. Martin’ 2 Vat 222 eS ee ee 96
By Beatrice Newhall, of the Staff of the BULLETIN OF THE PAN AMERICAN UNION.
Machwinterss Evie ine Brazil: 2900222 Soe ee 103
By Anyda Marchant.
Summer Schools of Spanish in the Americas________________________ 105
Latin American Foreign Trade in 1930—A General Survey____________ 112
By Matilda Phillips, Chief, Statistical Division, Pan American Union.
Cclumbus Memorial Library Notes__________________________________ 125
Pan American Progress:
Nee PS atl Olena ecstacy ye ure i eS 128
PACES TeH GT GUTS weeps 2 en ey MN BNO RE BI Sle, US pee ie Ee re 129
ARTIS Ctny peepee es techn ere din Na a Rua eau une oe En eS Sieh Maller 10. 131
Communications and Transportation.______________________________ 133
Art aociencerand Kducationzss 2.0) 2 Ve oe eS 136
Public Health and Social Welfare_________________________________ 141
INC COMO Gymnasts ena a te oR ene we ah Ns 2 Laem Id os en ar Ss Gil
Subject Matter of Consular Reports_________________________________ 152

(The contents of previous issues of the BULLETIN OF THE PAN AMERICAN UNION
can be found in the READERS’ GUIDE in your library.)

VNILNADUY ‘SHUIV SONHNE “IOLIdVO AHL

4 a" 15 48.9 ~ = oe Py 5 ~, — ~~~
SS'oecen 23007 MD DS S03 ) DP PIN Eee aS

WEEE We TRV
? ————— SSS
ee EN, =,

Webap:

Vou. LXVI FEBRUARY, 1932 No. 2

NEW AVENUES OF CULTURAL APPROACH
BETWEEN THE NATIONS OF AMERICA

By Henry Kitrrrepce Norton!

ERTAINLY there is need for them. There can not be too

many open ways for cultural knowledge, understanding, and
appreciation between the nations of America. For, despite the very
creditable work already being done, there remains a haze over the
Rio Grande and the Caribbean which distorts the view from either
side.

A recent journey across seven of the republics of the southern
continent has brought the writer into contact with ignorance, mis-
understanding, prejudice, misinformation, and mendacious propa-
ganda, all of which contribute to the South American impression
of the United States. Equally disconcerting is it to find on returning
to this country a similar concatenation of inaccuracies prevalent
in regard to the republics to the south. The general advantage of
more accurate information and wider knowledge is so patent as to
need no argument.

The North American picture of what we are pleased to call “Latin
America” is too well known. The simple truth about the tenor of
life in the southern countries, suggestions as to the impressiveness
of cities like Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires, Santiago, Lima, or Monte-
video, are met with surprised incredulity. The development of some
of the nations to the south, striking as it is, has been too far outside
the line of vision of the average citizen of the United States to have
crossed the threshold of his mind.

The traveler from the United States is still more astonished—prob-
ably because it is to him a newer phenomenon—at the prevailing

i Mr. Norton, a well-known historian and writer on international relations, recently completed a tour
of seven South American countries under the auspices of the Carnegie Endowment for International
Peace. The ideas and suggestions which he here expresses are the fruit of personal observations made
on that journey.—EDIToR.

78 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

conceptions of the United States among the peoples of the other
American Republics. We are all too likely to be regarded as boorish,
aggressive, money-mad imperialists, without a suggestion of culture.
We have by some strange dispensation of Providence captured the
secret of material power and are forever scheming to reduce the
lands of the Western Hemisphere which lie outside our present bor-
ders to the status of colonies and their people to serfdom.

It is on the cultural side that there is the greatest confusion. Dis-
cussion of our political policies with an informed and dispassionate
citizen of one of the southern republics discloses no particular antip-
athy to the fundamentals of our policy toward them. He may have
reservations on the Monroe Doctrine; he may condemn intervention;
but he finds both understandable in terms of national evolution, such
as has found even more violent expression among these republics
themselves. The development of trade between North and South
speaks for itself. And it is to be hoped that financial relations may
be satisfactorily worked out.

None of these matters would be a cause for concern to our southern
neighbor if he could be sure of the philosophy back of them. Our
political, military, economic, and financial power are threats to his
liberty, his culture, and all he holds dear, if they are to become the
instruments of an unmitigatedly materialistic and acquisitive people.
If they are under the control of a people whose material success is
tempered with idealism, with a love of the beautiful, with a desire
to be of some service to mankind, then our southern neighbor has
nothing to fear.

Now it happens that the general run of citizens of the United States
are quite human. They are materialistic; they are acquisitive.
These qualities are frequently reflected in the attitude or actions of
the Washington Government.

It also happens that the general run of the citizens of the republics
to the south of us are quite human. They, too, are prone to devote
their energies to the acquisition of material things. Such cities as
have already been mentioned are not built of dreams and music.
Although the level of satisfaction of material wants is not as high as
it is in the United States, that is readily explicable by the lack of
economic maturity. The southern republics are all of them at least
half a century younger than the United States and their development
has not proceeded as far. But there is little evidence outside of the
native Indian villages that the desire for material acquisition is any
less insistent in southern latitudes than in northern.

But the citizen of the southlands knows that his acquisitive ma-
terialism is tempered by a love of beauty. His admiration of art,
his rhythmic response to poetry, his craving for music, are to him

NEW AVENUES OF CULTURAL APPROACH 79

such immediate and present parts of his being that he can not think
of himself as being at all interested in material things.

It is very easy for him to conclude that his own existence is a
spiritual and idealistic thing compared to the mechanistic materialism
of his northern neighbor. But it happens that the northern neighbor
also has a cultural side. In the mass, social service is emphasized more
than are poetry or art or music. But even in these spheres, the
national contribution to the cultural capital of civilization is consider-

Courtesy of Laurence Vail Coleman

THE SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS, RIO DE JANEIRO, BRAZIL

able. And the national facilities for the appreciation of this artistic
heritage are probably unsurpassed elsewhere.

I refer to the plenitude of public libraries, art museums, symphony
orchestras, and other means of disseminating the opportunity for
artistic enjoyment. Even in the exotic realm of opera, we are hardly
behind other countries. Add to these items the untold endowment
of universities, colleges, academies, foundations, hospitals, clinics,
free dispensaries, sanitariums, children’s camps, and all the para-
phernalia devoted to making each generation healthier, wealthier,
and wiser than the last, the sum total of American effort in social
service, and we have a civilization which, however it may differ from

SO THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

others, can not be classed as wholly materialistic, nor wholly lacking
in culture.

Yet, by the curious coincidence of several factors, this side of the
life of the people of the United States has been as effectively concealed
from our neighbors to the south as has the richness of their cultural
life been concealed from us.

First, the upper classes in the southern republics became conscious
as their riches grew of a desire to return to the homeland—to Europe—
a phenomenon which has been exactly paralleled in this country.
Whether in Madrid or Lisbon or Paris, they were likely to find
interest conspiring with ignorance to belittle the accomplishments of
the United States. Europe remained for the Americans of the South
the repository of the world’s culture and they looked upon them-
selves as in a peculiar sense the heirs of Europe.

Second, our political aims, being born like the rest of the world’s
of our own interest, seemed to them disregardful of the rights and
liberties of less powerful peoples. A fear spread among them that
we might extend our supervision of Caribbean affairs farther to the
south. They missed completely the distinction between the super-
vision which the United States has undertaken in certain Caribbean
countries and our quite different relations with the southern continent.

Third, in our most intimate contacts we came to them as traders.
After the manner of traders, even those of the southern hemisphere,
we wanted to buy cheap and sell dear. We were frankly and eagerly
after money. And in the early days we were not always too scru-
pulous as to how we got it.

It is easy to see, then, how the citizen of a southern republic
received an unfavorable impression of the Americans of the North
and of their civilization. It is easy to see how he came to look upon
us as dollar chasers without a shadow of interest in the things which
to him meant culture.

This early impression it has been to the interest of certain factions
in his own country to keep alive. Even more it has been to the finan-
cial advantage of European competitors for South American trade
not only to keep alive all of the original antipathies but to add to
and intensify them to our undoing.

All such considerations enter into the problem of better under-
standing between the two Americas. The international fogginess
produced by these things must be blown away in order that North
and South may see each other as they are, the good along with the
bad. Neither is perfect, but imperfections themselves create sym-
pathy where they are but the background for tangible virtues.

The culmination of the postwar decade in the universal economic
depression has paved the way for a new understanding between the
peoples of America in a significant manner. In the North the younger

NEW AVENUES OF CULTURAL APPROACH 81

generation are questioning the validity of the dogma of isolation as
the sole salvation for the United States. They are growing into a
realization that their country has reached a stage in its development
where it can not keep up the old rate of progress alone. Its present
and its future are bound up with the rest of the world. In that
world the America to the South looms large.

In the South, too, youth is skeptical of the convictions of past
generations. It openly questions whether the Europe that centers
in Paris and Madrid is the sole repository of the world’s culture. It
queries whether new times do not demand new beliefs. Some of the
members of the rising generation, still clinging to the prejudices of
the past, attack the United States with renewed vigor and also, reach-

Se Se

LA MONEDA, THE PRESIDENTIAL PALACE, SANTIAGO, CHILE

ing out to a visionary future, embrace the doctrines and the practices
of Soviet Russia. A steadier majority questions both the old condem-
nation and the new damnation of North American culture. They
prefer to examine and analyze what has been done and what is
being done in the United States as well as in Soviet Russia before
rushing to extremes in premature decision.

Naturally this produces confusion. Periods of transition are
always confusing. But out of the interplay of skepticism and preju-
dice, of prophecy and dogma, of ideas and beliefs, there will emerge a
new understanding and a new appreciation between the peoples of
the North and South of the American world. It is to the interest of
all of them that this new relationship should be on a higher plane than
the old.

82 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

When we come down to the question of method, we come to grips
with a serious problem. The accumulation of national delusions is
so vast and the means of attacking it so meager that the task seems
impossible. In the record of what has been done we find both cheer
and discouragement. So much good has been accomplished. So
much more remains to be done.

Perhaps an incident or two will help to point the way.

It was in the library of one of the demigods of the Latin American
literary world. The ‘master’? had never been to the United States,
but with unbounded magniloquence he was expatiating upon our
shortcomings. I listened in silence, intent upon analyzing the motives
back of a diatribe of this sort. Not so a young fellow countryman
of the orator. He had spent the better part of a year traveling in the
United States and he could not let pass in silence strictures he knew
were wholly without warrant. He rose to his feet, and quietly and
respectfully, but with the most earnest conviction, explained to his
elder that the latter’s conclusions were rooted in error and urged him
to a greater knowledge before he indulged in further unfavorable
verdicts. The younger man, armed with first-hand knowledge, had
all the best of the argument.

Another day, another country. One of the most devoted physi-
cians I have ever met was pleading in tones of agony for help in
bringing home to his people what could be done in infant and child
welfare work. ‘I have told them of what you do in the United
States—I have seen it with my own eyes—but they will not believe
me; they don’t want to believe me. And they must; they must see
that these lives can be saved, made happier. They must see it. If
we only had a place here where I could take them and show them the
charts and diagrams you use to make things clear to people in your
exhibits in the United States. If I only had that, I could make them
see it.”’

One thing was invariable in all countries which I visited in South
America. The man or woman who had lived in the United States
for a time is always a staunch friend of the country. Almost without
exception such persons are better expositors of the good qualities of
our North American life than any of our own citizens could be. The
most frequent request from these foci of better understanding was
assistance in showing to their fellow countrymen the side of American
life which is not exported for commercial purposes.

The suggestion that this need be met by the establishment in one
or more of the South American capitals of a Casa Norteamericana
is worthy of careful study. It would be in a sense the embassy of
the cultural side of our life, as the local American Chamber of Com-
merce is the embassy of the commercial side, and the embassy itself
the representative of the political side. It would not only be the

NEW AVENUES OF CULTURAL APPROACH 83

center of the cultural activities of our citizens in the region, but
would serve to focus the attention of the country in which it might
be located on a more appealing side of our civilization.

Here in surroundings which might suggest the atmosphere of the
United States, as the Casa Italiana, the Casa de Espafia, the
Maison Frangaise and the Deutsches Haus in New York suggest
their home atmospheres, would be found exhibits of paintings, of
etchings, of architectural designs, of books and bindings, and of
applied arts. Here too would be found all of the available statistical
data on various social services, their aims, their methods, and their
results. Here would be an exposition of American life so presented

THE;MUNICIPAL BUILDING, LIMA, PERU

and kept up to date as to attract the interest of an increasing number
of the people of the neighboring country. The influence of such an
institution would be immeasurable.

An accompanying suggestion is that lecturers or exchange profes-
sors be sent to the various southern countries to discourse upon the
more attractive aspects of the North American character. But a
rather careful inquiry into the results of exchange professorships and
traveling lectureships leaves an unfavorable impression.

I found no enthusiasm anywhere for the exchange professor idea.
The South Americans look upon those who visit them in such a
capacity as propagandists and discount them accordingly, while our
own exiled fellow citizens squirm uneasily at their efforts to cater to

84 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

local prejudices and breathe more freely after they depart. The
marks of their passing disappear with amazing facility.

One difficulty is that of language. With all of our increase in the
number of Spanish courses, there are few indeed among our men who
have anything to say who can say it in Spanish. The Spanish in
our schools is largely of the Castilian variety, which differs widely
from the various idioms of Central and South America, just as the
English spoken in England differs from that used in the United States.
It is taught for the most part by Americans of heterogeneous descent
who have made it their ‘‘subject”’ for teaching purposes. The result
has about the same effect upon our southern neighbors as the English
taught by Japanese to the honorable Japanese schoolboys has
upon us.

Castilian Spanish properly spoken is understandable, notwithstand-
ing its pronunciation, in all Spanish American countries. The
dictionaries of what was until recently the Spanish “ Royal’? Academy
are their highest etymological authorities, except perhaps the erudite
work of the Colombian Rufino J. Cuervo, in so far as it has been
published and circulated. But each country has an idiom of its own,
as the vocabulary of England is not that of the United States or Aus-
tralia, and the living speech of Argentina, Chile, Colombia and Peru is
far more important than that of Spain for the future of this country.

The need of learning the South American variations of Spanish
and of having centers of accurate knowledge of the other American
republics in this country suggests the widening of an existing avenue
of approach between them and ourselves. A Casa Norteameri-
cana, a museum of American contemporaries, an exchange pro-
fessor, a traveling lecturer, is at best but a substitute for actually
bringing people from the southlands to this country. Foundations
like the Guggenheim and the Institute of International Education
are doing excellent work along this very line. Their success has been
so marked as to warrant the possibility of extending such activities
to the advantage of both the southern countries and ourselves.

Suppose that the next time any one of a dozen of our more impor-
tant educational institutions is seeking a professor of Spanish, it
should invite a man from one of the South American countries to fill
the chair for, say, three years. He should be a man of 35 to 45 years
of age and should have demonstrated his ability sufficiently to be
able to speak with some authority in regard to South American
affairs. He should speak sufficient English to be able to lecture
understandably before an audience here. It is of course much easier
to find a South American who speaks acceptable English than it is a
North American who speaks acceptable Spanish.

The chosen candidate would move with his family into the given
university community. He is not a guest, not a visitor, not an emis-

NEW AVENUES OF CULTURAL APPROACH 85

sary, not a propagandist—he is a member of the community, work-
ing and playing with the other members. His salary would be the
same as that of other professors in the particular university.

Suppose he were to give four courses each term. Three of these
might be to advanced Spanish classes in which he would discuss in
the idiom of his particular country, the history, the politics, the
economics, the culture, the art, the literature of his own and the
neighboring countries, their relations with each other, with the
United States, and with the rest of the world. His remaining course
might cover the same material in English for such students as were
not versed in Spanish and would naturally be supplemented by
lectures open to the public.

AVENIDA 6 DE AGOSTO, LA PAZ, BOLIVIA

At the end of three years he would return to his own country, his
place in the American university to be taken by one of his fellow
countrymen selected because of the same qualifications, this process
to be repeated as long as it proved satisfactory.

Meantime, other universities might do the same thing with men
from other countries until perhaps six or eight of the southern republics
were represented.

The apparent advantages of this plan are several:

It would mean that in time each of the important South American
countries would have in one of our universities a center of authorita-
tive information and dissemination of its aims and points of view.
Its representative would not become denationalized by permanent
residence in the United States. Every three years should see a new

86 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

face, a new presentation, and a new emphasis within the framework
of a permanent arrangement.

It would mean that the students of the Spanish language in the
United States would be learning and using the living tongues of
South America as spoken by South Americans instead of struggling,
as In many instances, with secondhand Castilian.

As regards both the material and the vehicle, then, this plan offers
the possibility of improvement over present methods, and a closer
approach to the South American countries through our universities.

Then every three years a South American who has lived in the
United States under normal conditions goes back to his own country
with a new and deeper understanding of our national aims and atti-
tudes. He goes back to his university, where he meets daily, among
the students, rabid critics and eager inquirers regarding the United
States. He does not offer to lecture them into understanding, but
by virtue of his personal knowledge and sincere assurance, he should
do much to correct the misunderstanding and traditional misinter-
pretation which are current.

Every three years another man is added to the number of those so
equipped until in time the faculty and student body alike should
become infused with a spirit of fair inquiry at least. This with suffi-
cient material upon which to form a judgment is all the United States
needs to rest its case with assurance upon the judgment of its Latin
American peers.

At both ends, then, we should have sources of accurate information
and the means of sympathetic interpretation and appreciation.
University life both North and South would be enriched and the
lines of understanding between the countries drawn closer.

The foregoing suggestions apply to all of the Spanish-speaking
countries but, for two reasons, Brazil is a special case. In the first
place, there is very little prejudiced criticism of the United States in
Brazil. In the second place, the Portuguese language is not likely to
be in such demand in our universities as Spanish. In addition, there
happens to be at the Catholic University in Washington a numerous
and valuable library of books in Portuguese donated by Dr. and
Madame Manoel de Oliveira Lima, Brazilians who devoted years to its
accumulation. Madame de Oliveira Lima now serves as its able
curator.

With Brazil, however, there is another possible avenue of approach.
Most of the educated Brazilians speak English—all of them speak
French. A suggestion which seems to be most worthy of consideration
is that we send to Brazil—not lecturers, for here as elsewhere there
appears to be little faith in the public lecture—but experts on some

NEW AVENUES OF CULTURAL APPROACH 87

phase of scientific or cultural activity in which the United States has
achieved some degree of leadership. Our summer vacation season
is the most delightful part of the year in Rio de Janeiro and two
months there should offer much to attract university professors.
The first month might be devoted to a study of the local aspects of
the visitor’s specialty and the second to a seminar with 10 or a dozen
Brazilians well qualified to study with him.

Both of these suggestions are predicated upon the one factor which
has produced the most commendable results in our intercourse with
our southern neighbors—the intimacy of real acquaintance. There is
nothing new in them except the extension to hitherto more or less
unexplored fields. They are but additional efforts to find the way
through the fog of misunderstanding which weighs so heavily upon
every person—be he from the South or the North—who is at all
concerned with the relations between the American nations. Should
these methods fail, there should be no hesitation about casting them
aside and trying yet others. For the road of Pan American under-
standing must ultimately be cleared of all obstructions.

‘CE6L ‘1OqUIEDEd UT SUPAUOD [IM SOjIG UBIIIOWLY JO VdUOLOJUOH [BUOT{eUIOJUT YJUOAGGTOY} e1eyM AIO OY JO UOTJONS V

AVODNUA ‘OACIAALNOW

ed cit

PROGRAM OF THE
SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
OF AMERICAN STATES

HE program of the Seventh International Conference of American
States (Seventh Pan American Conference), which will meet at
Montevideo, Uruguay, in December next, was approved by the
Governing Board of the Pan American Union at its session of January
6, 1932. Work in connection with the preparation of the program
was initiated more than a year ago when the Committee on Program
was appointed, composed of the Chairman of the Governing Board,
the Ambassadors of Cuba, Peru, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and Mexico,
and the Ministers of Uruguay, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Colombia.
At the same time a subcommittee on program was designated, con-
sisting of the Minister of Uruguay as chairman, and the Ambassadors
of Cuba and Mexico and the Ministers of Guatemala and Colombia.
In June, 1931, the subcommittee formulated and submitted to the
full Committee on Program, which in turn presented it to the Govern-
ing Board, a list of suggestions as a basis of selection for topics of the
program. This list was transmitted to the governments members of
the Pan American Union with the request that observations and
comments thereon be forwarded to the Pan American Union before
October, 1931. On the basis of the replies received the subcommittee
on program formulated draft agenda, presented to the Governing
Board at the meeting held on December 2, 1931. At that time the
session of January 6 was fixed for final approval and at this latter
‘meeting the program was adopted subject to such modifications as
the governments members of the Pan American Union may subse-
quently agree upon.
The text of the program is as follows:

JURIDICAL QUESTIONS

International law.

1. Inter-American copyright protection, and the possibility of reconciling the
Habana and Rome conventions.

2. Nationality.

3. Territorial sea.

4. International responsibility of States, with special reference to the denial of
justice.

5. The rights and duties of States.

6. Treaties and their interpretation.

94126—32—Bull. 2——2. 89

90 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

7. Consideration of the report of the Committee on Public International Law
of Rio de Janeiro on the general principles which may facilitate regional agree-
ments between adjacent States on the industrial and agricultural use of the waters
of international rivers.

8. Extradition.

9. Definition, duration, and reciprocity of political asylum.

Uniform legislation.

10. Consideration of draft conventions on uniform legislation relative to:

(a) Bills of exchange, checks, and other commercial paper.

(6) Bills of lading.

(d) Simplification and standardization of the requirements for powers
of attorney.

(e) Juridical personality of foreign companies.

(f) The losses caused by theft and pilferage of cargo in maritime com-
merce.

(g) Any other draft conventions on uniform legislation relative to com-
mercial and maritime law that may be formulated by the Per-
manent Committee on Comparative Legislation and Uniformity
of Legislation established at Habana by virtue of the resolution of
February 18, 1928, of the Sixth Conference.

Political and civil rights of women.

11. Consideration of the report of the Inter-American Commission of Women

on the political and civil equality of women.

ECONOMIC PROBLEMS

12. Consideration of the draft convention on customs procedure and port
formalities formulated by the Pan American Commission on Customs Procedure
and Port Formalities which met at Washington from November 18 to 26, 1929.

13. The inter-American protection of patents of invention.

14. Consideration of the recommendations of the Fourth Pan American Com-
mercial Conference relative to:

(a) Currency stabilization and the possibility of adopting a uniform
monetary system.

(6) Promotion of tourist travel.

15. Standardization of commodity classifications in tariff and commodity
nomenclature for statistical purposes.

16. Consideration of the resolutions of the Inter-American Conference on
Agriculture.

17. Consideration of the establishment of an inter-American economic and
financial organization under the auspices of the Pan American Union.

TRANSPORTATION

18. Inter-American fluvial navigation: Reports of the Governments on tech-
nical studies relative to the navigation of rivers and the elimination of obstacles
to navigation, and the possibility of connecting or bettering the connections which
exist between them.

19. Report of the Pan American Railway Committee.

20. Study of the regulations and of the penal provisions of the Convention on
Commercial Aviation signed at the Sixth International Conference of American
States.

SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE QO]

INTELLECTUAL COOPERATION

21. American bibliography:
(a) Exchange of information.
(6) Encouraging national and continental bibliographic effort.
22. Consideration of the results of the Congress of Rectors, Deans, and Edu-
cators, which met at Habana in February, 1930.
23. International cooperation to make effective respect for and conservation
of the national domain over historical monuments and archeological remains.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

24. Consideration of the establishment of an Inter-American Bureau of Labor.
25. Improvement of the condition of living of workmen:

(a) Promotion of safety in industry.

(6) Improved housing conditions.

26. Social insurance: Unemployment and practical forms of unemployment
insurance.

27. Results of national and international conferences on child welfare, with a
view to broadening the work of the Inter-American Institute at Montevideo.

28. Uniformity of demographic statistics.

29. Application to foodstuffs and pharmaceutical products exported to other
American countries, of the same sanitary, pure food and drug regulations which
are in effect in the country of production on all those commodities consumed
therein.

RESULTS OF THE WORK OF PAN AMERICAN ORGANIZATIONS

30. Consideration of reports submitted by the delegations on the action taken
by the States on the conventions and resolutions adopted at the International
Conferences of American States, with special reference to the Sixth Conference.

31. Consideration of a plan to secure the prompt ratification of treaties and
conventions and the early application of the resolutions adopted at the Inter-
national Conferences of American States.

32. Results, not specifically included in other sections of this program, of special
conferences held in the interval between the Sixth and Seventh International
Conferences of American States and of the permanent institutions established
by the international conferences.

33. Consideration of the reports of the Permanent Committee on Public Inter-
national Law and of the Permanent Committee on Private International Law,
established respectively at Rio de Janeiro and Montevideo by virtue of the
resolution adopted by the Sixth International Conference of American States on
February 18, 1928.

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCES OF AMERICAN STATES

34. Consideration of the extraordinary convocation of the International Con-
ferences of American States.

35. Participation in the Pan American conferences, and the adhesion of non-
signatory States to the conventions signed at such conferences.

36. Future International Conferences of American States.

RO AR naira aaa

AGNES

‘TE6T “GT Joque0eq ‘uolny ueoJJoMy Ueg ay} Jo SBoTIOULY OY} JO [[RH

TIVNOGIYL IVULIGUY SVYUAGNOH-VIVNELVAD q#Ht FO NOISSAS TYHOADAVNI

SRASNNRNRENS. Roce

Na.

THE GUATEMALA-HONDURAS BOUNDARY
ARBITRATION

N December 15, 1931, the Hall of the Americas of the Pan

American Union was the scene of still another significant act in
international relations. This was the organization of the Arbitral
Tribunal created by the treaty signed in Washington July 16, 1930,
by the plenipotentiaries of the Governments of Guatemala and
Honduras, for the purpose of terminating the boundary dispute
between those Republics.

This tribunal consists of the Chief Justice of the United States,
Hon. Charles Evans Hughes, as president, and Dr. Luis Castro
Urefia and Dr. Emilio Bello Codesido, distinguished jurists and
statesmen of Costa Rica and Chile, respectively, as arbitrators.

The impressive inauguration of the tribunal, which signalizes the
beginning of the definite settlement of this long-standing controversy,
took place in the presence of the Latin American diplomatic corps in
Washington and of officials of the Department of State of the United
States and of the Pan American Union.

The three arbitrators were seated on a dais in the front of the hall.
The origin and organization of the tribunal were first explained by its
president. The secretary read the aforementioned treaty and the
additional convention signed at the same place and time, which
stipulates in detail how the boundary decided upon is to be delimited.
Ratifications of both treaty and convention were exchanged in Wash-
ington on October 15, 1931.

The nations parties to the boundary controversy are represented by
two of the signers of the treaty which created the tribunal: Dr. Carlos
Salazar, a distinguished Guatemalan lawyer, and Dr. Mariano
Vasquez, an eminent member of the Honduran bar. Each of them
has served as Minister of Foreign Affairs of his respective country,
and has held other important administrative and judicial offices.

They are assisted by a competent corps of officials from their own
countries and by American legal advisors, as follows: For Guatemala,
Mr. Charles Cheney Hyde, Dr. Adrian Recinos, Dr. Manuel Eche-
verria Vidaurre, associate counsel, and Sefior Lisandro Sandoval,
associate engineer; for Honduras, Dr. Augusto C. Coello, Dr. Au-
gustine P. Barranco, associate counsel, and Sefiores Medardo Zuniga
and Félix Canales Salazar, associate engineers. Judge Frederick C.
Fisher is assistant to the president of the tribunal, Sehor Guillermo
Gonzalez, assistant to Dr. Castro Urefia, and Sefior Carlos Lee,

O4 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

assistant to Dr. Bello Codesido. Dr. Alfonso Carrillo is acting as
secretary to the Guatemalan commission, and Sefiores Arturo Marti-
nez Galindo, Miguel Paz Paredes, Hernan Coello Ramos, and Mariano
Vasquez, jr., constitute the secretariat of the Honduran commission.

In the midst of a profound silence the secretary administered the
customary oath of duty to the members of the tribunal. The presi-
dent then announced that the tribunal would take jurisdiction over
the previous question, formulated in Article I of the treaty, as to
whether the tribunal would function as the International Central
American Tribunal created by the convention of February 7, 1923,
to decide the boundary question, as Guatemala contended, or in the
character of a special boundary tribunal, as Honduras desired.

At a meeting held December 17, the tribunal received from
counsel for both parties their respective briefs on the preliminary
question, and with similar ceremony to that of the first day, the tri-
bunal met on January 8 to make public its decision. To the question
in the treaty of July 16, 1930, ‘‘Is the International Central American
Tribunal created by the convention of February 7, 1923, competent
to take cognizance of the boundary question pending between
Guatemala and Honduras?” the tribunal replied unanimously in the
negative, saying:

If the special tribunal, established by the treaty of July 16, 1930, should
undertake to act as the International Central American Tribunal, it would be
possible for either party, dissatisfied by its award, to insist that the award was
null and void because the special tribunal had not been ‘‘organized in strict
accordance”’ with the convention of February 7, 1923. Instead of the determi-
nation of the present dispute, there would thus be another dispute based upon
the express words of that convention.

Therefore, upon due consideration, acting as the special tribunal established
by the treaty of July 16, 1930, we answer the preliminary question submitted by
that treaty in the negative. This special tribunal, not being constituted strictly,
as it is not, according to the convention of February 7, 1923, has not the compe-
tence, as the International Central American Tribunal established by that con-
vention, to take cognizance of the boundary question between Guatemala and
Honduras; but it has, and assumes, complete jurisdiction to take cognizance of

and decide that controversy as Special Boundary Tribunal as provided by the
treaty of July 16, 1930.

In view of the decision handed down, the Special Boundary Tribunal
has assumed full jurisdiction to take cognizance of and decide the
controversy, in accordance with the procedure stipulated in the treaty
mentioned. Within 30 days after the announcement of the decision,
the agents of Guatemala and Honduras must present their cases,
proofs, and documents of any nature which they deem expedient for
establishing their points of view and claims as to boundaries. The
parties then have 60 days in which to submit to the tribunal their
respective replies, and 15 days more to challenge the proofs accom-
panying these replies. The tribunal will then proceed to pronounce

THE GUATEMALA-HONDURAS BOUNDARY ARBITRATION 95

its award, which must be executed within the time prescribed in the
additional convention to the treaty of July 16, 1930.

The career of Chief Justice Hughes and his qualifications for presi-
dent of the tribunal are well known to all his fellow citizens in the
United States. As Secretary of State of the United States he pre-
sided over the Nine-Power Disarmament Conference in 1921 and the
Conference on Central American Affairs in 1923, both held in Wash-
ington. Later he headed his country’s delegation to the Sixth Inter-
national Conference of American States. Moreover, as chairman of
the Governing Board of the Pan American Union while he was
Secretary of State, he took an active interest in the work of the Union.
His other contributions to the promotion of Pan American friendship
are many and important.

Dr. Luis Castro Urefia has long been prominent in Costa Rican
judicial and political circles. He has been both justice and chief
justice of the Supreme Court and on the occasion of the contro-
versy concerning the Bryan-Chamorro treaty relative to the projected
interoceanic canal through Nicaragua, he acted as counsel for his
country in the suit brought against Nicaragua in the Central American
Court of Justice. He has also been a member of the Costa Rican
Congress and was recently ranking member of the Cabinet as Secre-
tary of the Interior.

Lawyer, diplomat, and statesman, Dr. Emilio Bello Codesido has
several times held the portfolio of Foreign Affairs of Chile, has repre-
sented his country in Mexico and Bolivia as minister plenipotentiary
and has also been chief of the Chilean delegation to the assembly of
the League of Nations with the rank of ambassador. He has served
as delegate to various international conferences and has constantly
promoted the cause of Pan Americanism. In January, 1925, after the
Military Junta of September, 1924, had ceased to act, he was called
upon to preside over the Government Junta and thus for a time was
Chief of State of the Republic.

Mr. Benjamin Cohen, of Chile, who has been the efficient interpreter
and official of many international conferences, is serving as secretary
of the tribunal. ;

JUAN ZORRILLA DE SAN MARTIN

By Brarrice NEWHALL
Of the Staff of the Bulletin of the Pan American Union

N 1877 there arrived in Montevideo from Chile a young Uruguayan

of 22 with a book of his own poems under his arm. The youth was
Juan Zorrilla de San Martin, who, after having studied in three lands,
was returning home to enter his chosen profession of the law and to
win for himself international fame as writer, orator, educator, diplo-
mat, and jurist.

This famous poet of Uruguay was born in Montevideo Decem-
ber 28, 1855; he attended seminaries in Santa Fé, Argentina, and
Montevideo, and finished his education in the law school of the Uni-
versity of Chile, where he studied from 1873 to 1877. During
Zorrilla’s undergraduate days in Santiago many of his early verses and
his maiden efforts at prose writing were published in La Estrella de
Chile; it was a collection of these poems, under the title Notas de un
himno, which the budding lawyer brought home with him as one of
his most cherished possessions.

The public career of Zorrilla began with his appointment in 1878 as
judge in the Department of Montevideo. A few years later he became
a judge of the court of first instance but resigned to take up private
practice. In 1878, too, he founded the daily Hl Bien Piblico to find
an outlet for his facile pen and his strong religious convictions, and
during those years spent much time working on his epic poem Tabaré.

The composition of Tabaré was interrupted in 1879, however, to
permit him to write La leyenda patria, read at the dedication of a
monument commemorative of the independence of Uruguay. The
poem won this privilege by sheer merit; although its nonconformity
with the conditions of the competition made it ineligible for the prize,
its obvious superiority to the successful entries led the committee in
charge to invite Zorrilla to read his contribution also. Carried away
by the lyric beauty of the poem and its dramatic rendering by the
author, the public at once acclaimed it and insisted that Zorrilla be
awarded the prize. The popularity of the poem was immediate and
sustained; its author was so constantly in demand to read his poem
that in 1890 a humorous critic could remark of an evening’s enter-
tainment, ‘‘Dr. Zorrilla de San Martin did not recite La leyenda
patria.”

During the Quebracho Revolution, Zorrilla de San Martin, who had
bitterly attacked the Government, retired to Argentina, but in two

JUAN ZORRILLA DE SAN MARTIN 97

years he returned and was elected Deputy to the national Congress for
the term 1887-1890. During this latter period his masterpiece,
Tabaré, appeared (1888), fulfilling the promise of La leyenda patria
and assuring its author of an enduring place in the field of letters.

At the expiration of his term of office as Deputy, Zorriila de San
Martin began his short career as diplomat, in the post of Minister of
Uruguay to Spain and Portugal, and later, to France also. In 1898 he
was sent on a special mission to the Holy See. In that same year he
returned to his country, to continue his work as teacher, begun in the
university in 1880; he was professor, at different times, of such widely
different subjects as litera-
ture, international law, and
esthetics. Events abroad
in which he participated as
a member of Uruguayan
delegations include the
Centenary of Independ-
ence celebrations in Buenos
Aires and Santiago, Chile,
in 1910, the International
Commission of Jurists in
Rio de Janeiro in 1912, and
the inauguration of Presi-
dent Gondra of Paraguay
in 1920; he also served as a
member of The Hague
Tribunal. In his own
country, besides being
founder and president of
the Uruguayan Institute of
Geography and History From “Criterio”, Buenos Aires
and member of the Uru- JUAN ZORRILLA DE SAN MARTIN
guayan Society of Inter- A portrait of the great Uruguayan poet by ‘‘ Elsa”’
national Law, he was
Government representative on the board of directors of the Bank of
the Republic. In 1926, in connection with the celebration of the First
Centenary of National Independence, the house in which the venerable
poet had lived for over a quarter of a century was bought with money
raised by popular subscription, and formally presented to him.
After his death on November 4, 1931, his body was accorded the full
honors of a military funeral and laid to rest in the National Pantheon
beside those of the famous heroes whom he immortalized in verse.

In addition to the poetry already mentioned, the published works
of Zorrilla de San Martin include Huerto cerrado, 1898; Resonancias

OS THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

del camino, travel essays, 1894; Conferencias y discursos, 1904; La
epopeya de Artigas, 1910; and Sermon de la paz, 1924. Conferencias
y discursos contains speeches delivered in Europe and America, on
such varied occasions as the four hundredth anniversary of the dis-
covery of America, the meeting of a congress of pedagogy, the dedica-
tion of a new women’s prison, a literary gathering. On the printed
page, without the magnetic personality of the author, the eloquence
often seems slightly exaggerated; yet the depth of feeling can not be
denied, as in the following quotation from a speech delivered at the
banquet tendered the President of the Republic, D. José Batlle y
Ordéfiez, October 1, 1903:

I have just crossed for the first time, gentlemen, the hills of that rolling region
in the north of my native land, which is after all but a larger expression of my
native city. Once I descried on the horizon a grove of palm trees which the
train was slowly leaving behind as they quivered on the crest of that distant hill.
Then I was told that they were the palms of Soto, and a pensive, sadly luminous
glow broke, like an aurora borealis, from the depths of my tangled memories. . . .

That was the scene of the conflict: those palms, at once the symbol of peace
and the emblem of glory, weep their long elegy in the wind; they weep for all
those fallen in battle, whether on the one side or on the other; they do not dis-
tinguish between the slain in their never-ending, almost maternal lamentation,
which issues from the depths of the sacred soil of our fatherland, rises with the
growing tree, and is diffused between heaven and earth by the musical murmurs
of suppliant leaves.

The intense feeling for Uruguayan national history which marks
these paragraphs was typical of Zorrilla. As Gustavo Gallinal has
said (Inter-America, December, 1924):

Zorrilla de San Martin has consecrated a great part of his life, almost all his
activities as a writer and a citizen, to creating, shaping, and invigorating the
national sentiment. This is the purpose of Vabaré, an evocation of the national
landscape, an elegy on the unsung races that sowed their bones in our native soil;
and for the same purpose was written La epopeya de Artigas, an epic of the
nation’s historical formation; La leyenda patria, born of the same purpose, sings
the miraculous resurrection of the year 1825 and of ultimate independence. This
trilogy is what is fundamental in his work; in it, the soul of the poet of the national
tradition rises like a triple spiral of incense burned on the civic altar.

La epopeya de Artigas, an historical biography in two stout volumes,
is more than a chronological account of the life and death of the
Uruguayan hero; it is a vivid interpretation of the man and of his
followers, of the era in which they brought the Eastern Shore of the
Uruguay into being as a separate and independent republic. So
vividly does it portray the character of the national hero that when
the Government of Uruguay commissioned the Italian sculptor
Zanelli to design the bronze monument to Artigas now standing in
the Plaza Independencia, it recommended that he study this book
before undertaking his work.

THE ARTIGAS MONUMENT, PLAZA INDEPENDENCIA, MONTEVIDEO

The sculptor of this monument was inspired by Zorrilla de San Martin’s v

ivid biography of the Uruguayan
national hero,

100 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

But had Zorrilla written nothing more, his fame would rest secure
upon the two poetic works, La leyenda patria and Tabaré. Both are
intensely Uruguayan in subject and scene, both deeply romantic in
feeling, but where the one is based on the glorious struggle for independ-
ence begun in 1825 under General Lavalleja and the ‘‘Thirty and
Three,” the other deals with the Indians and the early Spaniards.

La leyenda patria, as has been said, achieved an immediate popu-
larity which has been, in a certain measure, its undoing. As one
author has remarked, during the 50 years which have passed since it
was written, there has been hardly a single citizen, great or small, who
has not learned by heart some of its declamatory passages. Constant
quotation has made its noble images seem hackneyed, and dulled
the appreciation of the poem as a whole. Starting with a description
of the country lying prostrate under the invader, the poet sings of
the arrival of the heroic band of Thirty-Three, the two great battles
which won independence for the Republic, and his belief in the future
of his nation. The poem has been called romantic, but that was
partly because it appeared before the romantic movement had en-
tirely disappeared, partly because the lyric beauty of the lines is so
unusual. In reality it is rather in the classical tradition, recalling in
places the work of Olmedo; at times it has a biblical savor, as in the
lines apostrophizing the Battle of Ituzaing6:

Ituzaingé! . . . Lord God of battles!
Master armipotent of Sabaoth!
Who on that day in Thy content didst grant
Palms to the martyr, to the warrior laurels;
Thy name I utter
With that of my loved native land;
Speak, Lord, to Thy son,
Let Thy heralds tell the intrepid people
The divine legend of their sires,
For the poet’s lyre is impotent
And trembles, mute in its passion,
Under the crushing weight of memories.

The unquestioned masterpiece of Zorrilla de San Martin is the epic
poem Tabaré. Romantic in subject and treatment, lyrical in expres-
sion, it is one of the few enduring expressions of a native theme in the
literature of that period; other works of the kind exist only as historical
data.

The plot of the story is typical of its class. Tabaré, the protago-
nist, is a mestizo, the son of a Charrtéia cacique and a captive Spaniard.
The sight of Blanca, the sister of the chief of the local Spanish settle-
ment, recalls to the lad the Christian mother who sang to him songs
no other Indian boy ever heard, and, influenced by those memories,
the blue-eyed Indian worships the maiden in silence from afar. At
the instigation of the new cacique, Yumandu, the villain of the piece

JUAN ZORRILLA DE SAN MARTIN 101

who has seen and become enamored of Blanca, the Indians attack the
Spanish colony and Yumandt carries off Blanca. She is promptly
rescued by Tabaré, however, who kills Yumandd to deliver her from
the evil designs of the savage. But before the hero can return her
to her own people, he is slain by her brother, who, believing the
mestizo responsible for the raid, headed an expedition to save his
sister. The poem ends with Tabaré mutely dying in Blanca’s arms,
‘like his race, like the desert, like a tomb abandoned by death—a
tongueless mouth, a heavenless eternity.”

It is the portrait of the hero that is at once the strength and the
weakness of the poem. Tabaré can be considered neither as a repre-
sentative character nor as a symbol. He is a purely imaginary
figure, and true epic heroes are of either real or legendary substance.
But as the mestizo played a minor role in the early history of the
continent, there was no figure available about whom to develop such a
poem. As asymbol, too, Tabaré is not entirely successful. A purely
Indian hero would not have served the poet’s purpose; he needed an
exceptional rather than a typical protagonist, and Tabaré, in whom the
Christian and pagan were in constant conflict, fitted that requirement.
Therefore the protagonist, though the very fact of his mixed origin
makes him a romantic hero par excellence, can not possibly be con-
sidered a typical native American, one who should “incarnate our
America,” as Zorrilla said in the prologue.

Yet had Tabaré not been a mestizo, feeling himself alien to both
civilizations, a great part of the originality of the work would have
been lost, and the poem, in spite of its beautiful imagery and lyric
lines, would probably have come to be considered, after the first
flush of novelty had worn off, just another of the poems on native
themes that flourished in that period.

Anatole France has called Zorrilla the Longfellow of Uruguay.
But the resemblance begins and ends with the fact that both poets
wrote of their own woods and rivers. With Evangeline, as Carlos
Roxlé points out, Fabaré has nothing in common; the pastoral
scenes of the former are the antithesis of the dramatic background of
the latter. Hiawatha, it is true, deals with Indian customs and
with life in the open forest, but as a human being its protagonist is
both possible and probable, while that of Tabaré is, while possible,
most unlikely. As the story progresses, Hiawatha grows through his
natural experiences into an almost mythical and fabulous person,
but Tabaré remains throughout a solitary homeless wanderer, with
no hope of happiness during life nor after death.

It would be surprising if, in so lengthy a work, the inspiration of
the author did not occasionally fail. Tabaré is not free from dull
and prosaic passages, yet the haunting beauty of the cradle song or

102 THE: PAN AMERICAN UNION

the dialogue between Blanca and Tabaré, the vividness of the portrait
of Yamandt, more than compensate for occasional lapses. Miss
Alice Stone Blackwell has retained the lyric quality of the original in
her moving translation of the cradle song,' one stanza of which reads:

Sleep, sleep! If when you wake you do not find me,

From far away I still shall speak to you.

A sunless dawn will on your lips leave softly

My kiss invisible, as light as dew.

Sleep, they are calling;

Sleep, night is falling.

The reputation of Tabdré has perforce suffered in the more than 50
years since it was first published, by the inevitable change in literary
tastes. The superficial critic, seeing only the outmoded form in
which the thought is cast, straightway condemns the content; he
does not stop to consider that the author may have expressed therein
universal and essential values understood and appreciated by widely
separated generations. And as Alberto Zum Felde said in his recent
book of literary criticism, Proceso intelectual del Uruguay:

In spite of everything, Zorrilla de San Martin can not be denied the credit of
having written the one historical poem on a grand scale extant in our literature.
And, notwithstanding its grave defects, Tabaré will continue to occupy an im-

portant place in our national letters until there comes—if indeed there does come—
another to improve upon and supersede it.

1 Published in ‘‘Some Spanish-American Poets,’’ translated by Alice Stone Blackwell, D. Appleton
& Co., 1929.

MIDWINTER’S EVE IN BRAZIL
ST. JOHN'S EVE OR VESPERA DE SAO JOAO

By Anypa MarcuHantT

HEN the European colonizers took their traditional festivals

to tropical and subtropical countries they found a natural
obstruction to contend with—the climate, with its seasons turned
wrong way to. Christmasin December became a midsummer holiday,
and St. John’s, which in Europe was midsummer’s eve and a very
important feast in all medieval Christendom, became midwinter’s eve.
In Brazil, falling as it did on the shortest day of the year, June
24, it provided the people with a great midwinter festival of re-
ligious and seasonal significance. The weather is then, theoretically
at least, at its coldest for the year, and fires, the most outstanding
single feature of the St. John’s Eve celebrations, are welcome.

The feast was always, In its very nature, more of a country festival
than a city one. It was the occasion for the fazendeiros to invite
their city friends out for the fireworks and banqueting—sometimes
prolonged for days—the invitation to be reciprocated on New Year’s,
which was celebrated more in towns, with balls and routs. The
festival has lost much of the glamor and lavish splendor which
characterized it in its heyday in the time of the Empire, when the most
representative life of the times was that on the huge coffee fazendas,
worked by slave labor. Around it clustered a wealth of folklore,
custom, and tradition bearing on the intimate and vital things of life—
birth, marriage, fortune, death—and it became the supreme occasion
for family reunion and cheer.

Before the day itself, long poles were set up in gardens and in front
of houses to indicate that there would be a celebration in honor of the
saint. These poles carried either small flags with a picture of Sao
Joao or a figure of the saint. The popular explanation for these and
for the so very thorough association of fire with St. John is to be
found in a folk tale which claims that it was by means of such a pole,
with a fire at its base, that St. Isabel (Klizabeth) announced John’s
birth to St. Mary. In the towns, street venders sold fireworks,
sweet potatoes, sugarcane, green corn, and card to be roasted in the
bonfires. On the fazendas great stores of fireworks were collected.
Like Christmas it was an occasion of good will and good cheer; and
it was the custom for the fazenda slaves all to have new clothes for

103

104. THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

St. John’s Eve. On the eve huge bonfires were built in the court-
yards, and every guest was supplied with fireworks. The coals of
the bonfires were considered sacred, and were sent to friends, for
whoever received them was sure to live another year. The fazenda
slaves had their festivities in the open, it being one of the features of
the occasion for them to perform their native African dances on the
wide coffee terreiros or drying fields. In Sao Paulo, where it can
grow cold enough for frost, the great fires sometimes lighted around
the coffee fields to protect the crops, provided an additional festive
note at this time of the year.

Though a midwinter holiday, St. John’s had a great deal in common
with the harvest festivals of the temperate zone. For instance, the
poles with the flags or figures were decorated with harvest produce,
for the Brazilian June climate is more nearly like the northern autumn
than the northern winter. Also it was the most miraculous night of
the year; and midnight was the most miraculous hour. Thus one could
tell one’s future with a glass of water which had been passed in the
sign of the cross over the bonfire and had then had an egg broken
into it. Water possessed certain virtues before sunrise, and it was the
custom to take a St. John’s Eve bath, as the water had then miraculous
and curative powers. If one’s faith was sufficient, one could jump
through the bonfire without hurt. The person, while leaping over
the fire, would shout:

‘““Awake, St. John!’’ And a chorus would answer:
St. John is asleep,
Do not awaken him, no!
Give him pinks and roses,
And sweet basil too!!

The woods at this time are ablaze with flame-colored pyrostegias
(P. ignea, Pers., and P. venusta, Miers), the gorgeous and short-lived
blossoms of which appear like myriad fires to the glory of the favorite
saint, and so have come to be known as St. John’s Flower or Flor de
Sao Joao.

1§. Joao ’sta dormindo,
Nao acorda, nao!
Dé-lhe cravos e rosas,
E mangiricao!
From ‘‘Festas e Tradi¢gédes Populares do Brazil’? by Mello Moraes Filho

SUMMER SC OOESs OF SPANISH IN THE
AMERICAS

EW indeed are the persons among the American reading public

to whom Mexico has not become well-known ground in the last
few years through books and articles by Carleton Beals, Ernest
Gruening, Anita Brenner, Frank Tannenbaum, and Stuart Chase, to
mention some of the many authors who have written on Mexico.
Even children have had the pleasure of visiting the market of Cuer-
navaca with Mrs. Dwight Morrow in search of The Painted Pig, so
charmingly drawn by Count René d’Harnoncourt. And _ nearly
20,000 New Yorkers visited Diego Rivera’s exhibition of paintings
and frescoes during the first nine days it was open in the Museum of
Modern Art, beginning December 23 of last y ear.

But no book, no picture, however vivid, can give the same experi-
ence as one’s own travel and study. Hundreds of American teachers
and students of Spanish have found in the National University of
Mexico Summer School, whose twelfth session will be held from June
29 to August 20 of this year, friendly contact with citizens of another
American Republic, excellent classes in Spanish and a wide range of
allied subjects, a view of the culture of a country settled a hundred
years before our own, and a glimpse into the remarkable indigenous
elvilizations which the Spaniards encountered at the time of the
conquest. Some background courses, such as that in the history of
Mexico, are given in English for the benefit of students having only
an elementary knowledge of Spanish. Summer school credits are
accepted by many colleges and universities in the United States.

The altitude of Mexico City—7,500 feet—gives it a cool and de-
lightful climate in summer. While the city is extremely modern in
many respects, the attraction of magnificent colonial architecture
and of exotic ways is also present. Excursions are arranged by the
summer school authorities to places of interest, including the great
pyramids at San Juan Teotihuacan; Puebla, whose churches glitter
with patterned tiles on fagade and dome; and Taxco, so picturesque
an old town that it has been made a national monument.

For complete information regarding this summer school and special
railroad and steamship rates, inquiries may be addressed to the

1 There is no summer school of Portuguese on this continent. The University of Coimbra, at Coimbra,
Portugal, however, offers elementary and advanced courses in Portuguese in its summer session, beginning
about July 20 and lasting through August, concerning which interested persons may inquire of Dr. J.deS.
Coutinho, Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C., or of Dr. J. Mendes dos Remedios,
University of Coimbra.

94126—32—Bull. 2——3 105

106 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

A PATIO OF THE SUMMER SCHOOL BUILDING, MEXICO CITY

Since 1925 the sessions of the summer school of the National University have been held in the famous “‘ Casa
de los Mascarones”’ (House of Masks), a beautiful example of colonial architecture.

Director de la Escuela de Verano, Universidad Nacional Auténoma
de México, Ribera de San Cosme, 71, Mexico, D. F.

A “Seminar in Mexico” will be held in Mexico City, as in the past
seven years, under the auspices of the Committee on Cultural Rela-
tions with Latin America, from July 3 to 23. This is not a summer
school of Spanish, strictly speaking; its purpose is, through lectures
delivered and round tables conducted by Mexican and American
authorities, to give, In some measure, a comprehension of Mexican
problems and culture to citizens of the United States. No language
can, of course, be thoroughly studied without some degree of such
comprehension of the countries where it is spoken; in the case of
Spanish, this background extends to 18 Republics in this hemisphere,
as well as to that newest of European Republics, Spain. The mem-

SUMMER SCHOOLS OF SPANISH IN THE AMERICAS 107

bers of this year’s seminar will be offered the first opportunity to
stay at the committee’s casa in Taxco. This house is for the use of
people in the United States who wish to visit Mexico and live in a
typical Mexican village. It is fully equipped, has a large garden, and
is able to accommodate eight people at one time. Dr. Hubert C.
Herring, 112 East Nineteenth Street, New York City, is executive
director of the seminar.

A STREET IN TAXCO,
MEXICO

At every turn of the narrow,
cobblestone streets wind-
ing through Taxco, a pic-
turesque scene is brought
into view. Excursions to
Taxco are planned by the
summer school of the Uni-
versity of Mexico, and by
the ‘‘Seminar in Mexico,”
which has a house in the
town.

The University of Guatemala is this year for the third time hold-
ing a summer session for foreigners. To step into the cloistered patio
of the university building transports the student into the realm of
Spanish-American culture, which he is privileged to explore under
skillful guidance. Although the definite curriculum for this year
has not been announced, it is to be presumed that the courses will
include, as in former years, Spanish, the history, geography and litera-
ture of Central America, the history of Guatemala, and native folk
dances. Lectures will also be given on various subjects, especially
the Maya civilization, of which imposing remains are to be seen at

108 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

ANTIGUA, GUATEMALA

The National University of Guatemala had its beginning in Antigua, the old capital, in 1676, when it was
founded as the Pontifical University of St. Charles. The university in its present organization dates
from May 31, 1928.

Quirigua, on the way by rail from Puerto Barrios to Guatemala.
These great carved stele and enormous bowlders, one of which has
been called the most perfect work of art of pre-Columbian America,
rise impressively against a background of tropical forest.

Guatemala City itself is not old as Spanish-American cities go,
haying been founded about 1780 after the once magnificent capital at
Antigua had been almost demolished by earthquake. The bluest
of skies, mountains towering in the distance, and churches with beauti-
ful baroque altarpieces are among the charms of this city, set almost
a mile above the sea and therefore enjoying a comfortable climate.

Information concerning the summer school at the University of
Guatemala may be secured from the Guatemalan consulates in New
York and San Francisco.

Plans are being made to inaugurate in July, 1932, a summer school
at San Marcos University in Lima, Peru, ‘“‘the City of the Kings.”
‘“‘Nearly a century before John Harvard delivered his handful of
books in Cambridge to found the first seat of learning in the United
States,” writes Mr. William A. Reid, foreign trade adviser of the Pan
American Union, ‘“‘the masters at San Marcos in Lima had grown old
and infirm in educational service. Earthquake and siege have again

SUMMER SCHOOLS OF SPANISH IN THE AMERICAS 109

and again damaged or destroyed the buildings of this institution, but
its work, started in 1551, continues to the present day, modernized,
improved, and enlarged in many ways. Spain’s greatest university
of ancient days, that of Salamanca, appears to have been the model
for that of Lima. A royal charter came from Emperor Charles V and
his mother, Queen Juana, rooms were secured in the monastery of
Santo Domingo, and the work of education in the New World was
systematically begun. To-day the University of San Marcos main-
tains schools of law, medicine, literature, theology, and_ political
science, courses which have been pursued not only by many of the
past and present leaders in Peruvian life, but by those of other nation-
alities who are proud to call San Marcos their alma mater.”

THE UNIVERSITY OF SAN MARCOS, LIMA, PERU

The oldest university of the New World, founded in 1551, is to inaugurate in July of this year a summer
school for foreigners. The statue at the left is of a former rector, Bartolomé Herrera.

The summer school will be conducted in the same way as those
held in the United States, i. e., there will be a six weeks’ session with
daily periods for each course during five days of the week. The
courses offered will include elementary and advanced Spanish, Latin
American literature, Peruvian archeology and one on current Latin
American affairs (politics, sociology, and economics). Arrangements
will be made for the students to visit the Amazon Basin, also his-
torical Cuzco, famous as the capital of the Incas.

The summer school at Lima will offer an exceptional opportunity
to study at the oldest university in the Western Hemisphere. The
climate is cool in July and August, as it is winter in Peru at that time.
Moreover, the voyage offers the opportunity of seeing the Panama

110 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Canal, one of the most marvelous of man’s works, and possibly of
touching at ports in several different countries.

Those interested in this summer school are requested to communi-
cate with the Institute of International Education, 2 West Forty-fifth
Street, New York City, for further details.

Within the territory of the United States there is a Spanish-
speaking island which serves as a link between North and South
America. This is Puerto Rico, whose university at Rio Piedras will
conduct in 1932 its eleventh summer session. Waving palm trees
and groves of bamboo give its beautiful campus a tropical aspect.
The summer school, which will open this year about July 1 and close
by the middle of August, has had many noted professors on its fac-

MQQAR

A CORNER OF THE CAMPUS, UNIVERSITY OF PUERTO RICO

The University at Rio Piedras will conduct its eleventh summer session in 1932.

ulty. The courses, as formerly, will include elementary and advanced
work in Spanish language and literature. The credits granted by this
university are accepted by a large number of institutions in the United
States. Further information may be obtained from Mr. A. 8S. Pe-
dreira, University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras.

That there are many excellent courses and even special summer
schools of Spanish in the United States goes without saying. The
summer schools in Mexico, Guatemala, Peru, and Porto Rico are
briefly described here for the benefit of those who wish to combine
travel with study, to ‘‘see America first,’’? in a more extended and
correct sense than that commonly used, to have the advantages of
hearing Spanish constantly spoken, and to enjoy a Spanish American
cultural environment. ‘‘The real bonds between nations,” as Goy.

SUMMER SCHOOLS OF SPANISH IN THE AMERICAS feta

Theodore Roosevelt of Puerto Rico well said at the Fourth Pan Ameri-
can Commercial Conference, ‘“‘are groups of citizens with intimate
friends and acquaintances within the borders of their neighbors.”’

In closing this brief notice, a word of warning must be said against
enrolling in any school or joining any party without first being con-
vinced that it is of a responsible character. In some cases very
alluring promises have been made in advance notices of summer
schools, promises which have not been fulfilled owing to the incompe-
tence or unscruplousness of the group leader. It behooves the pros-
pective traveler, therefore, to satisfy himself by personal investigation
as to what he may expect, and thus save himself not only great
annoyance but serious inconvenience and financial loss.

THE PAN AMERICAN UNIO

112

‘0g euNns popUd IWOA [VOST A 1

EIT ‘262 ‘8— TPE ‘G28 ‘0ZZ | FSS‘619‘6%G | LPS ‘OLO‘S+ =| 272 ‘O9E ‘EPL | O88 ‘GPE ‘THT | 096 ‘ETS ‘OI— | PIF Soh ‘LL PECHOOGASSine Retna WARN eae. Ue enn T 1 B[ONZ09 A
LBL ‘962 ‘O-+ TSP ‘CLL ‘261 FOL ‘G16 ‘F6L 88% ‘EP ‘8+ OLL ‘868 “FOL LEG ‘99% ‘96 90¢ ‘Gg9 ‘¢— 199 ‘E18 ‘26 OTSO0GRSG steas raise pies Pape Ft he Rinte EEE Aensniy),
TSO ‘€1Z ‘09— | LTS ‘092 ‘BFL | 89926 ‘60G | F8Z‘6L9°LE— | ODE “ESh ‘96 P89 ‘ZEO ‘FET | 294889 ‘2s— | LIZ “206 “es FSOROROR OL aemh a ectan Ra esi mk cben isp ie fie crane inetd LO cl
CLL ‘SHE ‘T+ LES ‘OP ‘8 G9S ‘06 ‘9% 98T ‘S69-++ 6ST ‘TS ‘eT $16 °SS0 ‘ET 98g ‘0S ‘I-+ SLT “S89 ‘FT GOGH PC HEC eeie a shines osamE ER CS? oC WL ETT AVNBCICT
888 ‘8hZ ‘G— 66S ‘G6 ‘8% LIP ‘PLL PS 960 ‘820 *I— 808 ‘621 ‘OT FOE ‘L0G ‘LT GE8 ‘OLT F— 126 ‘962 ‘GT COO WLOGRO Ike pal aetoare ee ie meni ati lee os ree ae eee lopeno gy
GTS ‘898 ‘G1— ZGT ‘€8z ‘OLT LOP ‘TS9 ‘Ch POF ‘SEL ‘ET— | $6z ‘28 “60 182 ‘990 ‘82T 128 ‘629 ‘T9— | 698 ‘S96 ‘09 OSDSGSGHEG ea ais Sats pao eco ea ~-BIQuIO[oOD
egg ‘108 ‘FHI— | 6aF ‘ZOL ‘TEs $86 ‘00 ‘OLF GPS ‘HES ‘LTI— | 626 ‘T19 ‘TOT ILP ‘OFT ‘61% $10 ‘292 ‘9%— | 008 ‘060 ‘OLT TG GRO Gila einen ater cnranic vale Bea nieer maemo aw erfues foe) =) i82 (6)
601 ‘G0 ‘FOE— | T8L ‘wGz ‘19g 068 ‘2S ‘TL8 8F0 ‘Z8c ‘IFI— | G98 ‘020 ‘FTE E16 ‘ZS ‘CCF 190 ‘€%6 ‘Z9T— | 916 ‘TST “Ese GED OME Oat lioes ae TE ee | Eo ls Sema ae ane [ize
£28 ‘088 ‘8I— TS0 ‘682 ‘8¢ PL8 ‘691 ‘LL ZS9 ‘80 ‘FI— | 116 ‘690 ‘LE 69S ‘ZOT ‘TS ILL ‘868 ‘b— PEL ‘61 ‘IZ COGS GONOCMercs inane es Pein eres a ie en ee ee BIAT[O
6IL ‘089 ‘8hF— | OTe ‘889 ‘ZIE‘T | GeO ‘69z ‘TOL ‘T | OFS ‘OSh ‘6zE— | SCO ‘TR89 ‘c6e 109 ‘TET ‘SZ6 ELT ‘OST ‘6IT— | 19% ‘200 ‘LTL POTS CTR OCR Meee riecen oe =o Be cate EO al en vulyuesly
00 ‘9TZ ‘ZOE— | LIL ‘TL0‘896 LOT ‘282 ‘O13 ‘TL | B62 ‘LTS ‘88T— | 8z8 Sz8 “0%S 08g ‘EPs ‘602 828 ‘S6I ‘FIL— | 686 ‘SHS ‘LPF Dik) APY sorpqnded UeBolIouULy 910 N

Z9G ‘G16 ‘9— S6T ‘986 ‘9% GGL ‘196 ‘88 99% ‘645 ‘G— 199 ‘PPL ‘FI. G88 ‘ESL “OT 963 ‘968 ‘F— 929 ‘Th8 ‘ZI PAWN tat all ieee aug marr Th cee tee eto ee yey
188 ‘P89 ‘@I— 090 ‘T8Z “8& TP6 ‘GOP ‘OF 9S9 ‘FST ‘G— IP8 ‘TSS ‘ST LOF ‘982 “8% G2z ‘008 ‘L— 61Z ‘606 ‘ST PPP ‘662 ‘GS woe orqndey WeorurUno
886 ‘T6L‘891— | 186 ‘298 ‘6Z8 G18 ‘FS9 ‘88F £60 ‘620 ‘SOT— | 699 ‘OTP ‘L9T ZOL ‘BEF ‘CLE GPS ‘Z9L‘ES— | 896 ‘ZS ‘ZOT CUTS CI GROG sae lean ae ee a ea th STD, eqn
29S ‘198 ‘6— 866 ‘60 ‘1% O6P ‘IGP ‘8% POP ‘TF8— 800 ‘ZOE ‘€ ZO ‘EFL “FP 890 ‘0g ‘I— 066 ‘22 ‘LT SOB Gleam ear ey ox ST ine ere en ne aee vueUue
ZS9 ‘P81 ‘TI— POL ‘LL ‘16 9F8 ‘198 ‘88 908 ‘298 ‘T— $09 ‘08 ‘9T O16 ‘L6T ‘ST 98 ‘LTE ‘6— 069 ‘9F8 ‘OT OSGNCOTROGees ail Tera ties Lee aR BOLY BISOD
BFS ‘PST ‘9— SIL ‘STS ‘OT 996 ‘699 ‘2 89T ‘629 ‘o— 8G8 ‘She ‘8 92S ‘G18 ‘OT 080 ‘Gz9 ‘e— 098 ‘221 ‘8 OFF ‘262 ‘TT Oe eS BL ea ee TIBET BNBVAIVOIN,
6FG ‘289 G+ OFS ‘LIT ‘GP 160 “O8F “68 290 ‘209 ‘T-++ 81 ‘ILI ‘9% 991 ‘698 ‘F% 161 ‘80 ‘T+ 821 ‘OF6 ‘ST TEGLOOSS HL os IPS Pleas ee ee See svinpuoH
€8Z ‘£99 ‘6— 00S ‘260 ‘92 E82 ‘GGL ‘GE 166 ‘892 F— 008 “999 “ET L6¥ ‘STP ‘81 98% ‘06 ‘b— 000 ‘98F ‘ZT GOCHO PSs Lileat cae aceon eens element ae IOPVATRS [Hh
809 *G1Z ‘GI— 882 ‘TS0 ‘OF 963 ‘168 ‘SG ITP ‘OSE ‘T— 818 ‘219 ‘8% 66 ‘826 ‘FG 160‘GZ6‘ST— | 026 ‘ELF ‘9T LOOKG6 CSO Cons ners a nee tee Ie B[BUIEYeNf)
e99 ‘Tie ‘72st¢— | ger ‘ocr POPS | SIT ‘Sez ‘ORFS | Ege ‘6Z6 ‘GOF— | CFs ‘LEE ‘Bzsk | 8z9 ‘OTE ‘“Gezs | zee ‘cee ‘9IS— | 80% ‘680 ‘GLTS | OBPTSP‘T6I$ | OOTXO TAL

— 0S8b0.100p — 9svo100 “ — 0SB0100p
10 + osvolouy O€6T 6261 Io + ana 0861 6261 10 + osvo10Uy 0861 6261
solqyunoy)
OPBIY UBIOIOJ [C407 sq10d xo sqioduy

AAAUAS TVYANAD V—OS6I NI AGVUL NOWMUOA NVOIYANV NILVI— TI 91"

LATIN AMERICAN FOREIGN TRADE IN
[930.4 GENERAL SURVEY

By Mariupa PHILLIPs
Chief, Statistical Division, Pan American Union

Part I

HE total foreign commerce of the 20 Latin American republics
in 1930 was $4,034,003,801. Compared with the preceding year
there was a decline in both imports and exports. The following
statistics demonstrate the distribution and relative changes: 1929,
imports, $2,452,317,696; exports, $2,945,255,229; total, $5,397,572,-
925; 1930, imports, $1,920,817,650; exports, $2,113,186,151; total,
$4,034,003,801. A decline in imports is shown of $531,500,046, or
21.6 per cent; in exports of $832,069,078, or 28.4 per cent; or a
decrease in the total foreign trade of $1,363,569,124, or 25.2 per cent.
These decreases were attributable in large part to the world-wide
decline in the price of crude materials and foodstuffs and the curtailed
buying power resulting therefrom.
The following table shows the commercial movement of Latin
America for the past 10 years:

All Latin America—10-year table of foreign trade
[Values in thousands of dollars, i, e., 000 omitted]

Imports Exports | Total trade

Year Imports Exports |Total trade Year
MOD Tees ts es 2, 039, 223 2, 031, 524 4, 070, 747 || 1926__________ 2, 316, 266 2, 670, 445 4, 986, 711
O22 pee ae Ee 1, 616, 438 2, 108, 110 35724, 548) || 1927-2 2, 311, 836 2, 888, 279 5, 200, 115
USPS e Bua sae 2, 012, 272 2, 451, 325 4, 463, 597 || 1928__________ 2, 393, 652 3, 029, 663 5, 428, 315
A 24s set ace 2, 108, 546 2, 905, 813 5, 014, 359 || 1929__________ 2, 452, 318 2, 945, 255 5, 397, 573
O25 eee 2, 412, 485 2, 802, 115 5, 214, 600 | 198022222202 1, 920, 818 2, 113, 186 4, 034, 004

DISTRIBUTION OF TRADE

The relative share of the leading commercial nations in the import
and export trade of Latin America in 1929 and 1930 is indicated in the
following statistics, all figures being from Latin American official

sources:
All Latin America

[Values in thousands of dollars; i. e., 000 omitted]

| Per cent of total
Country 1929 1930

1929 1930
ASTID OT ESN (GO Leal) ees ar eo eh AR a Je a Sata al | 2,452, 318 | 1, 920, 818 100. 0 100. 0
WWmitedekeined omvate en Se oat an ogee 366, 672 280, 553 14.9 14.5
Gian Commeee een Sue turin eae) Men ei Shee a UE ae lnammt26651 95, 210 eal 4.9
Germany yas ae eee et SI Ee Te Ley See ee ke | 265, 516 210, 607 10.8 10.9
LWIMiTe CES ta teste aiea es BON s eae Sa AES ee |___950, 159 675, 833 38. 7 | 35. 1
EM OLUSI (EOLA een spams eke ON ee le SY 2,945,255 | 2, 113, 186 100. 0 | 100. 0
Wmitedekine dom ctcses ii. Neel ie oa ee 546, 647 428, 849 18.5 20. 2
TV psnat Leh a see RP A ep ogee ee ge ae 183, 686 123, 885 6.2 5.8
Germ ative eee ean en Dn Ds Re Siew el a See 238, 710 163, 261 8.1 Tot
Witited’Stateseemuan eine tobe Ramee te 2h Petey 5k soe es 1, 001, 648 706, 522 34. 0 33.4

114 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION
Dividing the countries into two groups as in the main tables pub-
lished herewith, we have the following results:

Latin republics in North America

[Values in thousands of dollars; i. e., 000 omitted]

Per cent of total
Country 1929 1930 7

1929 1930
Imports x (bolas eee ees em ater cane tel ee 561,444 | 447, 245 100. 0 100.0
AUD oR OL SGhatexa Lopate ase eters Ane ee Se ee eee 39, 147 28, 721 6.9 6.4
SHURA Ce cetera ae rare ca Des ef AN AN ISR Nat eas Oe. lh ceed sea Re 24, 345 19, 461 4.3 4.3
(Gia ria ots ate ee Se ae ee ee ae eee ee 36, 677 30, 695 6.5 6.8
WimLtedeS tales ome ene pes ea eke yee Le 362, 617 277, 445 62.8 62. 0
BR OLtSy (total) = eee eens ee aeeene a Cee eaae ne 709, 344 | 520, 826 100. 0 100. 0
Winitedeiingd one te eee ak See ae ae A 87,397 | 73, 636 12.3 14.1
BEM EAT Gwe Sc ce PO RE EAR ae Sy ge Ne 30, 712 25, 817 4.3 4.9
GG rar Tay REA ee esr ee A Ee one eb leae a8 ie. a4 48, 348 | 38, 652 6.8 7.4
MCE AES CATES Ween inter secre ey Aa ce eel Vie ee teeny eee 443,163 298, 736 62.4 BY/58}

South American republics

[Values in thousands of dollars; i. e., 000 omitted!

Per cent of total
Country 1929 1930

1929 1930
J fray OLY BUSH (CRONE) ee et ee pee aS Oe pe eee i 1, 890, 874 | 1, 473, 572 100. 0 100. 0
[Ura ch eh rn gp res pees ie es eee oe a 327, 524 251, 812 eS 17.0
RESTA] CG senate saan Seat NUN ay Sue exert ag DO 102, 306 75, 748 5.4 5.1
Crerm aye Seneca ts oe ae 5 See Car ere ney uniter ae kee oul 228, 839 179, 911 TAA 12.2
(WMI CGS Lat Cs ay eaee eae a epee Se I ee ae 597, 542 398, 389 31.6 27.0
EEX DOTES! (UO Gall) eee ee eed ee ee ea Nee eee 26235 N02 al eel 5 9243860 100.0 100. 0
Winit ede kang dom: Se at eee ene eee ee ae ae 459, 250 355, 213 20.5 22.3
IRE COR Res Biers meee ie tite crn Sen WM gt See ee an ORE Sea 152, 974 98, 068 6.8 6. 1
Germany ee Risse se ae ee es ee eee! 190, 362 124, 608 8.5 7.8
WmitedsStates see a aes ae mig nee) Cel RO pre 558, 485 407, 786 24.9 25. 6

TRADE OF THE INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES IN 1930 COMPARED WITH THAT OF 1929

The trade of the individual countries in 1930 as compared with
the previous year, by imports and exports, and increases and de-
creases, is givenin Table I. In addition to the trade of each country,
the table shows grand totals for the republics of North America,
including the countries from Panama north, for the South American
republics, and for all Latin America.

The distribution of trade for each republic as among the four
leading importing and exporting countries is shown in Tables II and
III, grand totals being given for the northern and southern groups
and for all Latin America.

A brief survey of the trade of each Latin American republic for
1930, with comparative figures for 1929, follows:

LATIN AMERICAN FOREIGN TRADE IN 1930

Latin Repustics In NortH AMERICA

MEXICO

115

The value of the foreign trade for the year 1930 reached a total
of $404,426,453, being a decrease of $82,311,665, or 16.9 per cent.
The value of the imports ($175,089,208) decreased by $16,332,282,
or 8.5 per cent, and the value of exports ($229,337 ,245) by $65,979,383,

or 22.3 per cent.

Distribution of forergn trade—four principal commercial countries

[Values in thousands of dollars, i. e., 000 omitted]

Per cent of total
Country 1929 1930
1929 1930
TP OGESH (EO ta) Bes he ee tes eee he EE ei se 191, 421 175, 089 100. 0 100. 0
Win fede keine doris eee Nes Pah 2 RES 12, 824 10, 390 6.6 5.9
TAVERN OD) 1 Se RS Se Nica ee oe a ae Me ee ef pe Dee ee 9, 627 10, 207 5.0 5.8
(GROTTO ae Se 15, 371 16, 448 8.0 9.3
LUMIGCCES Gates Beieseae oe SE ee eee end A et eS eS 132, 302 119, 435 69. 1 68. 2
BIE WOLES;(COfAI tee ere Se ten 295,317 | 229,337| 1000) 100.0
(Umit edeksin sd oms=s222 se a ed 30, 343 27, 446 10. 2 11.9
TEIMGD = sci oN Sn IO ey RR ee 11, 474 9, 819 3.8 4.2
Germany a a a a a RN, Sg eS ne a EE 22, 429 16, 347 6 Tal
LW EC ES tates see ke ee anos a ete se Las 179, 336 133, 756 60. 7 58. 3
Principal imports and exports
[Thousands of dollars]
Commodity 1929 1930 Commodity 1929 1930
Imports (total) ___--_______ 191,421 | 175, 089 Exports (total) --__------__ 295, 317 | 229, 337
Mineral products___-----_-_----- Ade O84 B24 834uOllyereecsenee sane. ber ee 46,928 | 36,962
Vegetable products___------__--- DAAGS34 hee 448i bea diet en Roepe ae eh 42,256 | 31,666
Textiles and manufactures_______ 20, 708s || Pil Gos) jl) Cayo. 44,469 | 31,019
Animals and animal products__--| 20,106 | 19,268 || Petroleum, heavy and light_-_-__- 16,403 | 14,375
Chemicals and drugs_-_____--____ 1) ZVES |) IIB} THY ||| Cason == 6, 251 7, 234
Automobiles, including chassis_-| 12,186 | 10,475 || Lubricants_-___-___-_-_-___-_-_- 6, 085 4,727
Machinery and apparatus ---__-_- 28, 344 (1) OWE) Koy soe eae ea 2, 591 4, 638
Kerosene ei 2-222. Soasee aaa 4,104 3, 697
Gasioilee ese e lee ea ee 3, 257 2, 759
Asphalteaose sae ee 4,975 4, 047
Coficeeas sees see as eee 16,093 | 13,778
AROMA TOCS! 52 ee eee ee 4,921 8, 041
lenequen! +. S262 22 ee ees 16, 132 7, 636
Fresh and dried fruits_-___--_-__ 4,189 5, 281
Chiclesiee as. aera sae 5,075 | 4,474
Cattles es ee Ree ae ae 3, 405 4,113
1 Comparable data unavailable.
GUATEMALA

Guatemala’s total foreign trade in 1930 amounted to $40,051,788,
showing a decrease of $15,275,508, or 27.6 per cent as compared with
1929. Of this total, $16,473,970 comprised imports and $23,577,818
exports. Compared with the previous year, imports show a decrease

116 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

of $13,925,097, or 45.8 per cent, and exports of $1,350,411, or 5.4 per

cent.
Distribution of foreign trade—four principal commercial countries

[Values in thousands of dollars; i. e., 000 omitted]

Per cent of total
Country 1929 1930
1929 1930
Um POGUES (tO tal) ee ee ee ee oe Sy 30, 399 16, 474 100. 0 100. 0
UW iran XG b TEG BAYER Koy aot ec ee Ee eee sia 8 eR 2, 881 1, 372 9.4 8.3
MRSA CO ee es ea ea alae Nee es Se ae ae ea 1, 097 473 3.6 2.8
GE RINT ay Se CE REE 2 RS aha ae See ye Ne 4, 206 2, 052 13.8 12.4
WUMIbed SS bates eee ees et ae a erst ans ee eee sl 16, 925 9, 539 55. 6 57.9
EI SDORESH (LO tal) =e a ate re Unter een dess Kee real 24, 928 23, 578 100. 0 100. 0
Oran EOI avo eXO Koy doe eee ee ROE re OE Ni ae a 157 712 .6 3.0
UN Be WAY OSS a ee Re Sees en Bee pea es SRR ere ee eae te 78 493 53 2.0
German yeaa Seo eh ee Se eR etn ee ee ees aL] 9, 928 8, 290 39.8 35. 1
(WMI CCCNS ta teses= 2 eae ee ee ee aa 11, 400 9, 210 45.7 39. 0
Principal imports and exports
[Thousands of dollars]
Commodity 1929 1930 || Commodity 1929 | 1930
1]
aM pPOTESK(LOta|) = 30,399 | 16,474 | AEXOLESE(LOLal) =e 24,928 | 23,578
Cotton textiles and manufactures 3, 598 2, 324 | COflee ses 2a aS ae RE eee eens 19,093 | 19,354
HOOdspLOdUCtS === nee 3, 950 -(9B3. it IBM = eS 3, 212 2, 437
Chemicals and drugs____________ 638 472 Na@hicless= 223 sa ee 320 587
Petroleum and products_-__-____- 1,175 Bail Wena oysy so 868 209
Tronrand (steele == esse 1, 650 8420) Sugars: 32222 Sect et Soa 334 162
Agricultural and industrial ma-
Chinenya a sae eee ae 1, 594 771 |
Skis OOGS= fetes ea eo ee 937 419 |
FAUTLOIU OD ICS ener nee ene 504 247 |
}

EL SALVADOR

Foreign trade in 1930 amounted to $26,092,500, of which imports
accounted for $12,436,000 and exports $13,656,500. A decrease in
the total trade of $9,663,283, or 27 per cent is indicated. Imports
decreased by $4,904,286, or 28.2 per cent, and exports by $4,758,997,
or 25.8 per cent.

Distribution of foreign trade—four principal commercial countries

| Values in thousands of dollars; i. e., 000 omitted]

Per cent of total
Country 1929 1930
1929 1930
TM POLESE (CO tal) ees eee ee ea a Te ae 17, 340 12, 436 100. 0 100. 0
Winitedwikein ed omar eae eee el ae eee ee ee 2, 556 1, 566 14.7 A2E5
IEA GC eI wea ST DH Sn Sh abe er 1,011 677 5.8 5.4
GeriniTaryeee eae NS Oe a oe eA See aes 1, 413 1, 100 8.1 8.8
United S tates® + Sn = os se Cs See ace ee ee 9, 051 5, 864 Spt Al 47.1
AEXOLESH (CO Gall) ees ars ee ee ere eee ah eee 18, 415 13, 657 100. 0 100. 0
WimitedeRane donates es meee ae an een eu eae Bees NED 214 74. Si 5B
IPA COCS ERA Ee PR AAPL Jar ats oe eee es a Ae 340 662 18 4.8
Germanye oes se ae tenes ty a nee ee ee a Neer 5, 852 4,010 Bu, 7/ 29.3
WnItediS Tales esa tee ee So ee at Coe a AE ee a ie 3, 961 3, 198 21.5 23.4

LATIN AMERICAN FOREIGN TRADE IN 1930 1a A

Principal imports and exports
[Thousands of dollars]

Commodity 1929 1930 Commodity 1929 1930
Imports (total) _____------- NEYO [7 ZR I) Iberia = see ek Ee 248 176
; ——_——_|———— | Leather and leather goods_______ 273 172
Cotton piece goods___-__-_-___-_-- | 1,686 1674, \eHertilizerss === == tee eee 217 89
Inongandistecla sas) 2=2—- =e ae tt 1, 888 LOS 5M || BC Meese s aa == sae eet eS SESS 210 60
Machinery and apparatus_-___-- 1, 501 8008 —————— —
Mimeraloilse= 2222822 ee esse S12 729 721
Wiheat ours sess. eee ak 863 663 EXPOGESN (tOtal) saa 18, 415 | 13, 657
HUI CR ee eR eee ee Oe 393 §21 a
Cottonbyarna=— eee 357 AQO We Oflee sy sues See Seat eee ee 17,045 | 11, 957
Chemicals, drugs, and medicines_ 633 AG ORE SUC artes <5 ie te =e Ree el ee 907 773
Automobiles and accessories _-_-- 784 Gillss. || leWeraveoqbal = = ee a 199 196
Bags for coffee and sugar __--_-__- 287 201 | EB al San eee eer ee eee ae 111 71
Silk fabrics (natural and arti- Cottonberawe aso Se oe Sane es 18 39
SEUUGEIEE De G ec 284 INS Yay HN | ANG Hex Ws ete oe eo eee See 29 28
(Werte reer er ey 280 TSE Ny ASHCRRAN Ye Vay ise es ei ee 11 26
HONDURAS

The foreign trade of Honduras in 1930 reached a total value of
$42,117,346, registering an increase of $2,687,249, or 6.8 per cent
over the previous year. Imports, amounting to $15,946,128, re-
corded a gain of $1,085,197, or 7.3 per cent, and exports, valued at
$26,171,218, increased by $1,602,052, or 6.5 per cent.

Distribution of foreign trade—four principal commercial countries

[Values in thousands of dollars; i. e., 000 omitted]

Per cent of total
Country 1929 1930 ==
1929 1930

AH ORESY (LO tall) esate ec Sardis AS at Se ee 14, 861 15, 946 100. 0 100. 0
rie de Karn g dlommiemee Seay ve ee ee eee ee oe re BE 838 931 5.6 5.8
TEN REO as ra i le le ey See 296 360 1.9 2.2
(Germ anny eee ee eer ee net San a een ne ee 632 730 4.2 4.5
WMTtedkStabeswesses tes hn fell ee See a ee 11, 563 11, 886 77.8 74.5

PEPXORUS CKO Lally) 2 ayes aha Oe ala ener on 24, 569 26, 171 100.0 100. 0
nage Gear ool OTe ee ee Oe ee er a JU oe ie 1, 979 1, 953 8.0 7.4
APSTPELT (CO Weenie testcase tt SE Ine Nl Dae na MEAS es LS ay Tes 60 110 .2 .4
(Gre rein eh maya aes 8 Ree ea oe LE ee See 2,947 3, 509 11.9 13. 4
WmiMnted gs tates Manis cee et ees an Ma UE ea 18, 273 19, 352 74.3 73.9

Principal imports and exports
[Thousands of dollars]
Commodity 1929 1930 Commodity 1929 1930

Imports (total) _...________ 14,861 | 15,946 IBGOOMUE? (WON seo ke 24,569 | 26,171
@ottonitextilesstes see 2,411 D, Dial Ii) BAGO. see eS 20,869 | 22, 981
Iron and steel manufactures _-_-_- 1, 006 12228 le Silverbullionmas= === =e = eee 1,482 | 1,062
Maneraltoiseasea ose eae 1, 074 SIO OUe Aree eee Hee Pena ee 575 | 555
Machinery and apparatus_______ 626 739i RO@ Oftee men ee oe ree 525 | 402
Ready-made clothing____________ 801 AGB. IH) GNOORCCO, Weiss Fes be ee 216 242
GTI Hera eee eee ee aS 690 Sar lO OconUtsmee as yeme ce neue ee 153 202
Chemicals, drugs, and medicines_ 527 Sail Gi Garsoe seen ee bee mee cme te 117 153
Boots and shoes_______-_________ 408 A ORM atuleme qos eet wank SdH 198 147
Wikteat fl ous se See a es ee 392 327
RIC Onan es Se Ee 8 eee Se 187 206

THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

118

‘0g eUNL pepUe SIBOA [VOST A z

“poyeULyySEL 1

ose ‘Thr ‘Or | 206 ‘F2z‘TS | 160 ‘eel ‘8 | 461 ‘90G'2 | 206 P96‘ | OPa‘e80'€ | O16 PER '6 | BI GOW IT | Ph iGcP iLL VAGHOOCERRILE 7g = “Macmieieye) «aa emen ee aTan g BlONZ0U9 A
G22 ‘808 ‘8% | 698 ‘S06 ‘OE | 0ZL ‘98 6 E8080 OL | 69h 109 ‘g 666 (809 F 882 (009 ‘SL | Goh OFZ ST | T99 ‘E18 ‘26 WOTSG0GnS6inc, Ulineecoe eS ae SESE Ope ees eee Aensni yy)
£98 ‘886 ‘02 | 912 ‘992 ‘TE | 9F6 FFT (9 968 ‘P09 2 684 ‘TCL “T 98S ‘168 ‘G PIP ‘400 6 OG ‘Z8E IT | L412 208 ‘89 PSGROPO UG Lie Oc Seas BE ST an ken hee cia nied
G86 ‘LES ‘% GPO ‘STS % £98 ‘STE T L8G ‘89% ‘T P60 (288 £96 ‘002 SF0 ‘800 °% EPP EO ‘TL 8LI ‘S89 ‘FI. COOP SPRGTN a (EST Ce TREE GRE St a ae AVNBeIe T
GOL ‘L8T ‘¢ ET ‘636 '9 918 (199 ‘T 020 ‘FI O6P ‘E28 | GSP OGL G60 ‘LZE 820 ‘6E6 'f 1G ‘062 ‘21 CCOGLGG: Clee Silarae ses oa ema Renee nae lopenoy
OLZ ‘189 ‘2% | 918 ‘80E‘99 | To 'FPS*2 | SCO ‘229'2T | £00 ‘F9G '€ | 866 '806 19 | P0919 'L =| Oh OPO LT | 698 (996 09 OBOSSSSACCI elie apse he eae noeemae eae iNT BIqUIO[OD
9€8 ‘080 ‘2G | 199°LFE ‘69 | 709 6LL ‘82 | T8L ‘81h ‘OE | Ser ‘OGG '8 020 ‘19 '8 992 (900 96 | 646 TI8 PE | 008 ‘060 ‘OLT CTC HGSR OG Itt | Sami eee oe ee ie ee ea etre e)i00 fe)
G6L ‘ZOT ‘19 | OFT ‘S68 ‘Szr | 000 ‘998 ‘8 | 489 ‘282 ‘2 | OL ‘SLL ‘CI | 906 ‘660 '°%S | P9L‘SI6 ‘8h | 620 ‘EF6 ‘6L | 916 ‘IRI ‘Ege LG RTOR ORs Witten eee OL ar ete Re ete [ize
£92 ‘006 ‘G 020 ‘062 ‘8 G28 ‘6L8 989 ‘egg *E G0z ‘999 828 ‘GES 999 ‘6S '€ GCE ‘BSS ‘F FEL ‘61% ‘TZ GCOEMUSONIT. eatin eel oc eT eo a St eee BIATIO_
000 ‘000 ‘Sst 1] 069 ‘6SE ‘0zz | 000 ‘000 ‘881 | ZZF ‘660‘96 | 000 ‘000 ‘OF 1 | 982 ‘ELT ‘TS | 000 ‘000 ‘2Z11} BLL “60F ‘LPT | 19% ‘200 “2TL PUP SECT SIGS rat | oo aes oie ee vie ead aoe ee ae eulyuesLy
0°29 8 29 forte G9 €'P Sipe. 210), 69 0 00T QL00IS Se ee ea ae S}1OduiI Jo 4009 Jog
1OL ‘FFF ‘412 | 8h6 ‘919 ‘zg | BOF ‘S69 ‘OE | TL ‘9L9‘9E | TPP ‘TOF ‘GT | OG8 PHE'FZ | 6P9'OZL ‘8% | ZEE“LPL ‘GE | 682 ‘SHS ‘LPF AIG) SAD EY sorqndoed uvoeury YI10N

892 ‘000 ‘6 OPT ‘TPO ‘ZL T2e “SSL 80F ‘S88 PSL ‘8G8 ‘T Z86 ‘986 606 ‘CLT ‘T 969 ‘TPS ‘OL COOL ee | eae oe Ge a ebay ee RE eH
886 ‘GPS ‘8 88% ‘LSP ‘ST { 919 SLT I 126 ‘9FE IL§ ‘989 PLL S68 | 8BE ‘68E T 61% ‘626 ‘ST TU POG LS GCC Rtas | RRS ee eee arrqndey WeoruruL0
PIZ ‘218 ‘16 | FES ‘0SO‘2ZZE | S26 ‘ZOE ‘9 89F ‘LLP 2 908 ‘POF “G ZIL ‘686 ‘8 EPI ‘098 8 169 ‘020 GI | 89% ‘Zoh ‘OT CUMS CRO sana |laeias aon Oo ee nee geen es Sane res eqng
816 ‘848 ‘OL | Sh8 ‘PST ‘SL LEE ‘660 1 £68 ‘22S FOG ‘TE OOF ‘P99 'T 688 ‘989 ‘T 026 ‘292 ‘LT SSO UGG le a lleaee se aie a See ea ee vueUe gy
G8P ‘OOF ‘¢ TLL ‘T89 ‘6 9G¢ ‘Tee ‘T ZG8 ‘TES ‘6 SPL FILE PIE ‘209 912 ‘STE ‘T 802 ‘ESS °% 06S ‘9F8 ‘OL GEOMCO TOC tual es seo es eee a a BOY BISOD
G19 ‘820 ‘¢ 8&2 “688 ‘2 066 ‘G80 ‘T COL ‘LEG 188 ‘GbE 669 ‘862 908 ‘G22 ‘T 09 ‘SLT ‘8 OPPS GUM TUre ne tasige p seca ate eons sean ensvIvol N
OTS ‘S88 "TT | POE ‘89g ‘IL 5 06S ‘TE9 | 2GL ‘698 6LE ‘G6 GOL 'TE6 | L08 LES 821 ‘9F6 ‘ST TCOHOOS HIN torn line tee ean oi ekac pa ara seinpuoy
G69 ‘E98 ‘G 826 ‘090 ‘6 S61 ‘O0L ‘T £26 ETF 1 120 ‘229 882 ‘O10 ‘T 186 ‘999 ‘T GSP ‘GG % 000 ‘98h ‘ZI GSEROP Sea TR aw alinnt pe oe rote eee Cait regia IOPBATRS [H
L88 ‘889 ‘6 886 ‘926 ‘OT | OTS ‘190 % ITZ ‘906 F P96 CLP TF “260 ‘T LL8 118 1 TL6 ‘088 % 0L6 ‘ELF ‘9T HGOREGESOGS ealltaoa ne el eh ee ee epeuleyeny)
£69 ‘PEF ‘BITS! SEF ‘Ok ‘ZETS| 29% ‘SPP ‘OTH | BSL ‘OLE ‘STS | 9E2 ‘90% ‘OT$ | 19 ‘9z9 ‘64 | 8FO ‘OBE ‘OTS | 120 ‘P28 ‘ZIS | 802 “680 “G2TS | OB ‘TGP ‘TOI$ jo OOTXO TA

O86I 6261. 6261 0861 6261 O61 6261 O86 6261
ee | = soltyunogy
$97819 poyIUy AUBULIOY) dou mopsury peu SOIIJUNOD [[B ULOAJ [BIOL

SAIMLNNIOOD TVIOUUWWOO DNIGVAT WOU SLYOdNI NVOIYHINV NILVT

SLUOdWIAaqVuaL JO NOILLNATYLSIG— II °1¢*L

119

LATIN AMERICAN FOREIGN TRADE IN 1930

‘0g eUNL pope SIvad [BOSTA |

PSs 0 FE Lil 18 8g Go, c0G i O00Or ~——Ss«| (0 00T AS aaa ee eae nee ane $110dx9 JO 1009 19g
ELE ‘GCS ‘90L | GOT ‘8F9 ‘100 ‘I | 626 ‘09z ‘e9T | FO8 ‘602 ‘8Ez | Gzz ‘G88 ‘Ez | 219 ‘G89 ‘ERT | SEP ‘BFR ‘8zh | OSz ‘29 ‘OFS | TST ‘ORT ‘ETL ‘z | Ezz ‘Gea ‘GEG ‘z |-------- “solfqnder 0Z au} JO [RIOT

€92 ‘996 ‘FE | OLF ‘8F8 ‘OF P96 ‘6S ‘F O8T ‘T68 ‘9 098 ‘E18 ‘% 118 ‘612 ‘F 989 ‘G66 ‘6 P96 ‘640 ‘% LBL ‘998 ‘EFT ORS RG RED Ems rena ber meth asm as 1 B[eNZeueA
1¥0 ‘190 ‘8 160 ‘269 ‘TL 486 ‘C0 ‘El | SEP ‘Tee "FI | G29 'FL8 CI | 699‘eTe ‘IT | 006 009 FE | STE 'GEZ ‘ZZ | ~OLL ‘868 “POT LECROOY 0G ml naae ieee Serine mac Deer ba anaes AvnsnIy,
OTL ‘986 “28 | 0F0 ‘089 ‘FF 986 (FOG 'L | P8E COTS | GEL 'E98T | ZL9'Z89T | G86 “TRB “LT | B8T 29S ‘FZ | 00E ‘eSh ‘96 PRG RCE ON eile | eapiie ti aac pela Uae ae cee ned
GPG “GZ 80F ¢ O10 “eT 182 ‘061 EPP ‘802 ISS ‘G6F 928 “GE G90 ‘LP 6ST T9d ‘eT SAS ND Skene | etat eae gene ie weep os ae AenSBleg
886 ‘“F09 ‘2 096 ‘G82 “2 €6F ‘OST ‘T G08 ‘E10 ‘T CF6 690 ‘T ITF ‘6 LEE ‘0S | 199 “F9F | 808 ‘621 ‘OT VOCDLOG SLI gts | cine sean gras wR Gre Iopenoy
€1Z (966 “88 | PES ‘oes ‘cb 0S8 ‘OF9 ‘E PFO ‘919 °% PE9 169 888 (SS 068 ‘966 ‘€ 020 (258 (S 866 ‘228 ‘60T LS EECOOG Cis | saan o> see ea ae a ee ee BIGUIO[OD
162 ‘960 Th | 669 ‘988 ‘OL GE0 ‘269 ‘ZI | LF ‘190 FS | OEL “EEL ‘6 186 ‘601 (ZT | PRE “PEL "ES | 289 ‘962 ‘LE 626 ‘T19 ‘TOT TVEOWUNOLGavea lost), ect Spare pag ae Ree Ey te)
aco (80F LoL | 109 6&2 61 | $96 Te9'8e | ERC ic88 ‘GE | 96 228 sz | Yer ‘eco‘OG | ROB ‘GTO'sz% | Loo ‘0G9‘62 | G98 ‘OL0 ‘PIE | E16‘ege ‘eGh —|===7 77 [2elg
£96 ‘908% | GEL ‘EIT 2 898 “918 TOL “869 G8E 681 G26 T9T 68 PPE 8c | Ih9 C9F BE | L16 ‘690 ‘LE BOSE COLAO sae ete eerie ROKR BIATOR
088 ‘$99 ‘L9 | $89 ‘TSL ‘06 GIP EES ‘so | 799 ‘ERG ‘6 | 298 ‘P68 ‘6e | STO ‘EFS ‘c9 | O18 ‘GeO ‘ZTZ | BIF ‘209 ‘262 | Sc0 ‘TSO ‘ceS MOOMNGILG CER jase essere ae ae Sas eurjues.y
€ 2g F C9 PL 89 GEV coi aan, Tree cara l 0:00r GROOT acon eae | hae Sap ge ce ere yes $1100 x0 JO JU99 18g
89E ‘9EL “86% | FOL ‘E9T ‘Eh | ESP ‘cS9‘se | FOG ‘ZFE ‘Sh | ESa‘ZT8‘6z | 292 ‘TIL ‘OE | O26 ‘cE9‘e2 | R62 ‘968‘28 | BzB ‘ezg‘oze 099 “SPE 60L =| ----- sorqnde. uvoeury ION

Og6L 6261 O6T - 6261 OS6T 6261 0861 6261 O86 6261
Aijunog
$91849 peqiug AUWPULIO4) eouel iy, Wopsulry poy SOL1JUNOO [TB 0} [e101

SHIHLNNO0O TVIOUFAWINOO ONIGVAT OL SLUOdXA NVOIUANV NILVI

SLYOdXa _aAadVUL AO

NOILNGIELSIG— TIT 919%

120

NICARAGUA

THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

In 1930 the total foreign trade of Nicaragua amounted to $16,515,718,
a 27.1 per cent decrease from the previous year’s figure of $22,669,966.
Imports decreased from $11,797,440 in 1929 to $8,172,360 in 1930, or
30.7 per cent, and exports from $10,872,526 to $8,343,358, or 23.2 per

cent.

Distribution of foreign trade—four principal commercial countries

[Values in thousands of dollars, i. e., 000 omitted]

Per cent of total
Country 1929 1930
1929 1930
Mp ORES. (GOLA) es a Se eee ee SS ee en A 11, 797 8, 172 100. 0 100. 0
Wmited Kein gd om 2222 oe ee aan ee ee ee 1, 276 799 10.8 O27
SEUTENTA COMM ie ec Sepa ME OE eS eo a a SR Bea eee Sr 346 248 2.9 3. 0
(GN Sirio aha WON NE So, Cee ik ren a ad eee eee er ee 1, 086 736 9.2 9. 0
AUOSTUT ESS tea eee as es eee le NO ieee ee eke 7, 390 5, 024 62. 6 61.4
EX POLESS (COLA) Maser te lg eo eee eee 10, 873 8, 343 100. 0 100. 0
AU aH oli Saya tego Kopaa te Sn meee Oe eas Cs De eee a 399 290 3.6 3.4
IATA CG See eta at 2, Se Rips Syne rope Se SE ele alee 894 1, 128 8.2 13.5
(Glermla ny Se ae ee at Sane ae 1, 298 972 11.8 11.6
LUTATCC OES TAL CSS et ese eae patie tea eR es ian ae ae raat 5, 754 4, 150 52.9 49.7
Principal imports and exports
(Thousands of dollars]
: | :
Commodity 1929 1930 || Commodity 1929 1930
MP OTESE Oval) =e ee 11, 797 8, 172 | Petrolewmien ssa aoe eee 172 137
| Vegetables and products- ------- 163 118
Cotlontgoods ===s3.2 2, 103 1, 298 || —S——
Moodsproduciss=se a eee ae 1, 602 1, 215 || Fp OLtS i (bOtal) sae 10, 873 8, 343
Iron and steel manufactures_-____- 902 578 || ——=
Chemicals, drugs, and medicines- 531 3534] AC OM CCS aa a ak eet Sey ese 5, 903 3, 792
Silkee OO MSs Ea eee a ee 574 apy lll Idehoews so nae 1, 985 2, 239
Leather and manufactures_-_--___- 467 292 || Woods (cabinet and dyewoods) - 1, 340 595
Liquors, wines, and other bev- GON CES Hae SUN Routes pian eR 434 425
Crapesuat = tieuk ae cook shee 492 240M ASU Cae eee wt oe a ee 238 366
Gasolimes: ses sess s Seer ee aes 257 209 || Hides and skins_________________ 146 123
Paper and manufactures-_--_----_- 218 A Bei Go) sok rae les nO Se 247 94
Meat and meat products-_-------- 187 149
Fibers, vegetable, and manu- |
fACTUITES Ole sees See 226 142

COSTA RICA

Costa Rica’s foreign trade in 1930 reached a value of $27,177,194,
showing a decrease of $11,184,652, or 29.1 per cent. Imports were
valued at $10,846,590 and exports at $16,330,604. Compared with
1929, imports show a decline of $9,317,346, or 46.2 per cent, and ex-
ports of $1,867,306, or 10.2 per cent. .

LATIN AMERICAN FOREIGN TRADE IN 1930 i204!

Distribution of forergn trade—four principal commercial countries

[Values in thousands of dollars; i. e., 000 omitted]

Per cent of total
Country 1929 1930
1925 1930
= |

IMA OLUSs WhO LAN) Seer Pee I oe Le ee See ae 20, 164 10, 847 | 100. 0 100. 0
United Kingdom 2, 554 1,315| 12.6 12.1
INT AGO 5S ee 507 314 255 2.8
(Gernmaniya22 2) 2 oe 3, 532 1, 332 17 122,
UI eGE States Eee eee Coen HL Are eae eee ose a 9, 682 5, 400 48.0 49.7
Exports (total) 18,198 | 16, 331 100.0) 100.0
United Kingdom 10, 292 | 9, 668 56.5 | 59.2
ETA CC mee eee eed eee Le yew ct I Se | 64 =, 36)
Germany i 1,979 | 1, 624 10.8 | 1D. i
United States 5, 050 4, 202 Tee 25m

Official statistics of imports by commodities for the year 1930 are
not yet available, but information from unofficial sources tends to
show that the decrease in purchases will be found principally in the
general merchandise classification, in articles of luxury, and in
materials and machinery for public works.

The principal exports for the years 1929 and 1930 were as follows:

Principal imports and exports

(Thousands of dollars]

Commodity 1929 1930
TESS MOVES) (HOUR) Ss Se sh ne ere 18, 198 16, 331
(Cofiec wee ees Seas et ae SS ar ass ee ely es SP ook es ee Se 12, 226 10, 419
ESN CDN aS eee ee osten ree ueeP RR e e w e e e ere k S2 4, 584 4, 376
(CC eee ig arp Ree ee he ae Re ee OS Re ee 985 966
CEO) CAEN CLES illo Tee tees roel ace es Seeger gS CU pale Sar NR SE ee UE LAE Sed ek eed 139 226
SEF ELLNN LC eee eee Meert ere ne WN Gh OE PTS ge Ok ON De ave AOS As 8 TA ole oe ee 116 83
TRITAG KASS copra SF 2 I ee ee ee an se ieee ee pe eee 57 65
PANAMA

The value of the foreign trade in 1930 was $21,059,928, registering
a decrease of $2,361,562, or 10 per cent,from 1929. The value of
imports ($17,757,920) decreased by $1,520,068, or 7.8 per cent, and
the value of exports ($3,302,008) by $841,494, or 20.3 per cent.

Distribution of foreign trade—four principal commercial countries
[Values in thousands of dollars; i. e., 000 omitted]

Per cent of total
Country 1929 1930 =

| 1929 1930
Tm ORESH (iO tall) ese are eee Oe ee es ee 19, 278 17, 758 100.0 100. 0
Wirt de Keri oo OTe eee ee Cee Sp ea a Ss a et 1, 636 1, 654 8.4 9.3
IMPROVES =e Sats 1 ee ic ea awe eee CE OS Nee 532 523 Qu 2.9
(GiGTEIDI GT eB RA ie I i ae ee ee ee 1, 029 913 583 5. 1
\UTMIIOGl Steyn sc se ee em ee A as oe ee ee 13, 154 10, 879 68. 2 61.2
BEX OLUSE (LOA) See See ee pee aN Roe ee 4, 144 3, 302 100. 0 100. 0

(Wan tecWkeini com sewaeoe mes else nea nes ae are st 54 34 1.3 1.0
ESAT CO bere neem own SR etna steer a peor ee eee 22 4 ae) ul
(Giomione nny oe ee Se ea NE en ee 45 24 10 oT
NOMITCS CES CATES mae eet ee aerate pa Er 8 yin tae. SRE Se 3, 902 By 1a 94. 1 | 94.5

94126—32— Bull. 2——4

122

THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Principal imports and exports

[Thousands of dollars]

Commodity 1929 1930 Commodity 1929 1930

mp ORISA (bOtal) ane 19, 278 | 17, 758 || EO LISE (COA) ae 4,144 3, 302
Tron and steel and manufactures_| 1, 487 HLA S| ES NTT ET eS eee ee 2, 941 2, 008
Cotton textiles and manufactures_| 1, 428 LAS CACAOSS Bo <2 nee crete aes Sete orem 471 831
Machinery and apparatus_-______ 1, 412 TOZ0N I MCOCOnUTSE =e a = enn 304 185
LR Go ee ea cea Gea aL ee 464 O9GH ING ae Gles lg Ces eee ee 130 80
\AVOS RAO DUES oe ae 548 4545 || eerilla cums seers aaa 50 42
PACU OTN Oi CS eee en 492 390i lmiVicot hero tsp cere mein anes men 37 19
Automobile accessories__---_-___ 161 A Gis 2 ee a ae eee ee 25 12
Automobile tires= ==_=---2--_-_- = 201 173 ||
Condensed and evaporated milk_ 380 291 |
Boots and shoes_-________-____-_- 519 279
NOT Get eA eters cesta Se pacha eee 278 212
Building lumber_________-_______- 419 210 ||
Patent medicines_______________-_ 259 198
C@emente seen eee 208 186 |)
UNCTOSEN CES eae Smee ee SS eee 162 160 ||

CUBA

The total foreign trade of the republic in 1930 aggregated $329,862,-
937, consisting of imports to the value of $162,452,268 and exports

of $167,410,669.

The total trade decreased from that of 1929 by

$158,791,938, or 32.4 per cent. Imports decreased by $53,762,845, or
24.8 per cent, and exports by $105,029,093, or 38.5 per cent.

Distribution of foreign trade—four principal commercial countries

[Values in thousands of dollars, i. e., 000 omitted]

Country

NENT.) CO wien area i a Say Spine OE aoe eater e EUS
(Germany cea etal seer ee ase SN am tay oy eee

Per cent of total
1929 1930
1929 130

216, 215 162, 452 100.0 190. 0
12, 021 8, 860 RR 5.4
8, 990 5, 465 41 3.3
7, 477 6, 103 3.4 3.7
127, 051 91, 872 58.7 56.5
272, 440 167,411 | 1000 100. 0
34, 242 25, 470 12.5 15.2
5, 818 4, 047 21 2.4
2, 251 2, 181 8 1S
208, 754 116, 074 76.6 69.3

LATIN AMERICAN FOREIGN TRADE IN 1930

Principal imports and exports

[Thousands of dollars]

123

Commodity 1929 1930 Commodity 1929 | 1930
| |
Imports (total)____________ 216, 215 | 162, 452 BEXTOON GSN (Ota) eee 272, 440 | 167, 411
Cotton manufactures____________ sy Ball |] Hs}, AOA) If Swear 204, 849 | 105, 203
IBTEACS UU Seeman ee eee eae 25, 037 | 21,612 || Tobacco, unmanufactured______ 26,513 | 24, 293
Meat and meat products________ ii} 44E || — ile} Byes || MI@lbSR Ess = es 11,674 | 11, 407
Wimeralollse sas ose en a 10, 166 9, 017 || Cigars_________ 10, 678 8, 110
Weretablesm ves: 2c Non 10, 807 7,609 || Copper ore 1, 851 1, 934
Machinery and apparatus 10, 288 7, 604 || Pineapples 1, 183 1, 660
Manufactures of iron and steel___| 11, 482 PAD Oe PES CI VTA OS eee aes aes Se oe eee we 1, 515 1, 542
SUP AAR Sas heel a 8, 454 GH8s0n||Cattleshid esse eee nen eee 1, 665 1, 409
Chemical and pharmaceutical SWONSCS aesce sat eas as 939 956
[DEO GIUCiShe eens na 7, 042 GHOS 2 MELON ery eine wee so ay RN eee aaa 646 654
Milk, condensed_________________ 4, 527 3, 689
Automobiles, passenger__________ 3, 927 2, 259
Pine, unplaned__________________ 2, 740 1, 821
(COfie ewer ei le i esti 3, 560 1, 734
Boots and shoes_________________ 1, 819 829

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

The Republic’s total foreign trade in 1930 reached a value of
$33,781,060, being a decrease of $12,684,881, or 27.2 per cent as com-

pared with 1929.

Imports to the value of $15,229,219 decreased by

$7,500,225, or 32.9 per cent, and exports of $18,551,841 decreased by

$5,184,656, or 21.8 per cent.

Distribution of forergn trade—four principal commercial countries

[Values in thousands of dollars, i. e., 000 omitted]

Per cent of total

Country 1929 1930
1929 1930
ima pORUSH (LO tal) eke se seo eels SS oes keel ee ee 22, 729 15, 229 100. 0 100. 0
Warne Cis Kerang Gl rates tats Sa Ne ea ae a 1, 389 896 6.1 5.8
VERE TAC a2 A oe Jes ee Me 586 347 2. Be)
(Germvaniypespte ee Sass RO ea hy ets EE OVE Sh cud ADU a 1,176 729 out 4.7
IWTMNGEGES Hales eesetea tL tae ie RE Seat Sibae ae Bee ee 13, 457 8, 546 59. 2 56. 1
TE PRP OGESA (KO LAL) ee ts a eed on ee SS pl ee 23, 736 18, 552 100. 0 100. 0
(Ofnanitieel J Keating Wore ay pee ls Ces SE aa pe eta S Eee ek eae 8, 903 7, 329 37. 5 39. 5
TBE OR ONS Sag eee ear eee ee pS 2, 743 2, 457 11.5 13. 2
(QiGIETT OES S a Se sy SS ae NE ees Cee Se 940 698 3.9 3.7
HWAMIGECA S tales seca Mina rea. Shee bo ce See ness rea ome 5, 427 4, 368 22.8 23. 5.

124

THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Principal imports and exports

[Thousands of dollars]

Commodity 1929 1930 || Commodity 1929 | 1930
imports (total) == 22,729 | 15, 229 || Exports (total) _--_________ 23,736 | 18,552

Cotton manufactures -_----_---_- 3, 263 2365 ||MSURAL Sse aes a= seem eel eee ee ea 12, 291 10, 167
RICOEUR oe ees 2,115 II GPE | ol OF Very Nie erie tee er em eet 3, 870 2, 710
Oilssimiineralla eee eee 1,948 it, B45a| Cotlees--- 22 Se 2: ee ee 2, 444 1, 483
Tron and steel and manufactures_| 1, 400 hay ||) Iieent WOORCCO = 3 on ese 1,381 1, 032
Machinery and apparatus --_---- 1, 460 135 RIVEOLASS Smee aa nena re eee 689 745
INTGe RAGS ee eal e Sae peers 613 (fee |i} TSHDIERECR NAS) = = 931 743
iWihtea titi oui a ae en eo 746 536m |SC ons Ses eae a ee eee 437 299
Chemical and pharmaceutical

DLOMUCTSE seas Wee eae 662 508 ||
Hides and skins and manufac-

GuresiOltle eles ae eee 764 444
TIGA, Gees RaW ete ene ie 784 428
Wood and manufactures-___-_-_- 731 362 ||
BS tree eee ee cee 462 339
Paper and manufactures_________ 537 323
Silk and manufactures___________ 567 291
Automobiles 443 176
IMfeatSe=2 arn aa Sian eee ee 274 170

HAITI

The total foreign trade in 1930 amounted to $26,986,193 as com-
pared with $33,961,755 in the previous year, a decrease of $6,975,562,

or 20.5 per cent.
$14,144,567.

Imports in 1930 were $12,841,626 and exports
The decrease in imports amounted to $4,396,296, or

25.5 per cent, and in exports, $2,579,266, or 15.4 per cent.

Distribution of foreign trade—four principal commercial countries
[Values in thousands of dollars, i. e., 000 omitted]

Per cent of total
Country 1929 1930
1929 1930
Tuma OGLS TCL O.ball) meres Ae ae ee ee eee 17, 238 12, 842 100. 0 100. 0
Winite dekern pd ores se ee sees ee ee ee Ss a Ih, 7) 937 6.8 7.2
DSW LYS oe I es od ee Be nee pine Ee Oe he 1, 354 848 7.8 6.6
(GGT amy eas Str See (ease eens ent a Neen ee el eee 755 553 4.3 4.3
IN ICE GES Gay G CS ee ee oe ay ea US ea eet 12. 041 9, 001 69.8 70. 0
FH XWOLLSYCCO ball) Mee ae ee Se ae ae Re es Ee 16, 724 14, 145 100. 0 100. 0
NONE e KGa Gl O Tras 2 eras Say eh AE Ores Eee on 815 660 4.8 4.6
TEN SW Gt 5s AS ae a eens 2 pe La ame 2 cee es 9, 247 7, 033 a 49.7
(GiGiman hanes seat rec tye eee ier emai a te teem ee sede 2 682 996 4.0 7.0
(UMIbe GES ta tesssss we seas ness ee oe eS ee 1, 306 1, 305 7.8 9.2
Principal imports and exports
[Thousands of dollars]
Commodity 1929 1930. | Commodity 1929 | 1930
Imports (total)\=2-=== = 17, 288 | 12,842 Ex ponisy (total) 2 s=—=— =e 16,724 | 14,145
Cotton and manufactures________ 3, 114 Bi l59 oC OTeeea t= se ee Scie es See 12,899 | 10,406
IWiheatMounesa-'s2—sa22 25 eee 2, 995 15267 kCOvtOn a ees See ee ae oe ee 2, O71 1, 572
VIET ALOT] s Bee es ee 991 9398 SU Sarin ss Se Snel Ae ee 211 594
Tron and steel and manufactures_ 1, 224 GS aI Pa Brora novo ol ee ee 502 488
Meat and meat products _______ 850 5897 |(h@acaoe seis te ses ae 237 395
Machinery and apparatus_______ 814 BEC |! Cronumbaing. - = oe ee 137 195
Soa plese eee eee eeepc ae nee 635 HD || IMI@EREES_.. 5-5-2 see 5k 125 115
J i) ne eo Ses a ees eae 660 513 || Cottonseed cake____-__-_________ 177 104
Automobiles and trucks____-____ 509 SOS iil MUERO MI Gye 2 Oh eta i BL oe eee 112 60
Chemical and pharmaceutical
RO GUCTS Vesa et eee 352 338
Hides and skins and manufac-
LL Bs Ss a a re 359 280
Ri C622 eee te Ee Se eae eee 529 192

COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY NOTES

Honor to ‘‘Hugo Wast.’’-—Word has reached the Pan American
Union that Dr. Gustavo Martinez Zuviria has been appointed director
of the National Library in Buenos Aires. He succeeds Dr. Carlos
Melo, who was appointed to fill the vacancy caused in 1929 by the
death of Dr. Paul Groussac, director of the library for over 40 years.
Readers of the BuLuETIN are perhaps better acquainted with Dr.
Martinez Zuviria under his pseudonym of ‘‘Hugo Wast,” the name
signed to his well-known novels Desierto de piedra, Flor de durazno,
Pata de zorra, Valle negro, and others. The last named has been
published in English under the title Black Valley.

Brazilian Inbrary School.—By decree of November 11, 1931, Dr.
Getulio Vargas, the Provisional President of Brazil, reestablished the
Library Science School in the National Library in Rio de Janeiro,
which was suspended September 6, 1922. The new school will be
under the guidance of the director of the library. The subjects of the
2-year course include: Bibliography, paleography, diplomacy, history
of literature, iconography and cartography, and technical library
work.

Accessions.—During the past month the library added to its shelves
215 volumes and pamphlets, the major portion of which are official
publications. Among the nonofficial books, the following are espe-
cially noted:

Paliques de ayer (crénicas). Por Victor H. Escala. Caracas, Lit. y Tip.
Vargas, 1931. 308 p. 12°.

Don Hermégenes Pérez de Arca, 1845-1902. Por Santiago Marin Vicuna.
Santiago de Chile, Establecimientos Graficos Balcell & Co., 1931. 211 p. 12°.

Barros Arana, educador, historiador y hombre publico. Por Ricardo Donoso.
Santiago de Chile, Universidad de Chile, 1931. 337 p. 8e.

125

126 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Estudios médicos, sociales y morales. Tomo 1, Estudios médicos. Por Gui-
llermo Puelma. Santiago de Chile, Soc. Imprenta y Litografia Universo, 1931.
409 p. 8°.

Legislacién de minas de Chile. Por Germén Nienhuser R. [Contains a copy
of the Chilean mining code translated into English, 1930.] Santiago de Chile,
Imprenta Lagunas & Quevedo Ltda., 1931. 443 p. 8°.

Velut wmbra. Coleccién de poesias de Abel Gonzalez Gonzalez. Iquique,
Imprenta Tip-Top, 1931. 193 p. 12°.

Bibliografia de don José Toribio Medina (1923-1930). Por Guillermo Felii
Cruz. Santiago de Chile, Imprenta “La Tracci6n,” 1931. 108 p. 122.

Reflexiones de un argentino de la nueva generacion. Por Julio V. Gonzalez.
Madrid, Imp. de J. Pueyo, 1931. 247 p. 12°.

El instituto social de la Universidad Nacional del Litoral. Su rol universitario,
errores que corrige y anhelos que satisface. Por Rafael Araya. Rosario, Imp.
JaBe Ravan 9305s 2695p. 16°.

Index Colombia. Anuario ilustrado e informativo dela Reptiblica. Publicado
por Index Colombia Co., Director: Ignacio M. Sanchez Santamaria. Edicién
correspondiente a 1929. Barcelona, Tip. La Académica, Herederos de Serra y
Russell. 165 p. illus. 4°.

Palabras y obras. Por Nicolés B. Amuchastegui. Rosario [Argentina], R. T.
Sudrez, 1931. 159 p. 8°.

Introduccién a la historia de la cultura en Colombia. Sinopsis del desarrollo
cultural de este pais e interpretacién de sus causas y dificultades. Datos sobre
orientacién filoséfica ibero-americana. N¢émina de algunas publicaciones co-
lombianas importantes. Ciudadanos extranjeros que han contribuido notable-
mente al progreso de esta Reptiblica. Obra publicada por Luis Lopez de Mesa.
Bogota, 1930. 203 p. 8°.

La biografia de Gloria Etzel. Por Luis Lopez de Mesa. Bogota, Editorial
Minerva, 1929. 173 p. 8°.

El solterén. Por Arturo Mejia Nieto. Buenos Aires, Talleres Graficos
Argentinos L. J. Rosso, 1981. 182 p. 12°.

Ceremonial publico. Por Adolfo J. de Urquiza. Madrid, Talleres Graficos
Herrera, 1932. 560 p. 8°.

Visién de Andhuac (1519). Por Alfonso Reyes, Madrid, Indice. 1923.
64 p. 8.

El hombre de la selva, farsa en tres actos. El amo de todos, cuento teatral en un
prologo y dos actos. Teatro de Princivalle, tomo 4. Montevideo, Editorial
“La Facultad.” 184p. 8.

Bolivar, extracto de la vida y la obra del padre de la patria, para ninos de
escuelas primarias. Ediciédn hecha con motivo del primer centenario de la
muerte del Libertador. Por Camilo Jiménez. Caracas, Lit. y Tip. Vargas,
1930.- 104p. illus. 8. -

Fourth Pan American commercial conference. Pan American Union, Wash-
ington, D. C., October 5th—-13th, 1931. Final act (with annexes and a summary
of the work of the conference). Baltimore, The Sun Book and Job Printing
Office, Inc. 1931. 150 p. 8°.

Al margen de Centro América. (Misceldnea escotufistica.) Por E. Martinez
Lépez. Tegucigalpa, Tip. Nacional, 1931. 216 p. 8.

COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY NOTES 7

During the month the library received the following new periodicals:

La industria nacional colombiana (Revista mensual, érgano de la Asociacién
de Industriales de Medellin), Medellin. (M.) [Editada en “La Imprenta”’
Editorial.] Vol. 1, No. 2, octubre de 1931. 32 pp. illus. 9 x 11% inches.

The Student of English. (A magazine devoted to the interests of Latin Ameri-
can students of English.) Apartado 1093, México, D. F. (Bi-mo.) Vol. 1,
No. 1, January-February, 1932. 14 p. 8 x 10 inches.

Boletin del Touring Club Peruano, Casilla 2219, Lima. 4 p. illus. 13% x
17 inches.

El Agricultor (Organo oficial de la Confederacién de Camaras Agricolas y
Ganaderas de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos). (Semi-mo.) Av. Uruguay No.
35, México, D. F., México. 24p. illus. 8 x 11% inches.

Habanero. (Times of Cuba Daily), Calle San Lazaro 95, Habana, Cuba,
No. 1, December 16,1931. (D.) 8p. illus. 12% x 19 inches.

PAN AMERICAN PROGRESS
LEGISLATION

In many countries the provisional government has taken special
interest in the revision of its national codes, with a view to making
the nation function along modern lines as smoothly as possible.

By decree No. 20348 of August 29, 1931, the Provisional Govern-
ment of Brazru created State, regional, and municipal consultative
councils; for the purposes of the decree the provisions for the Federal
District are the same as those for the States. Cities whose size and
importance warrant, are to have municipal councils; others may, at
the discretion of the Federal Interventor, be grouped in zones for
which regional councils shall be appointed. The councils shall range
in size from three or more for the municipalities to five or more for
the States, and the members, who will serve without pay, shall be
so appointed that a wide range of interests shall be represented. The
duties of the councils shall be to report on the legal and equitable
redress possible for the acts of interventors; to give advice on problems
submitted by the authorities to which they are responsible; and to
suggest to the proper officials such measures as they may deem wise or
necessary. Until the question has been submitted to the proper
council, interventors and mayors may not impose new taxes or modify
existing ones; contract internal loans or issue securities of any kind;
increase the number of employees or create new positions if either
procedure increases the budget; grant public-service concessions or
alter existing ones; settle suits out of court, or pay money on account
of claims until the matter has been decided in court; offer tax exemp-
tions or subsidies not included in the budget. Without the previous
consent of the consultative council, no State or municipality may
contract a foreign loan; issue vouchers to be used as currency; revgke
or declare invalid any concession which may be declared illegal or
contrary to the public interest; or modify or repeal its constitution
or organic law. Regulations for local administration are also included
in the decree, which went into effect on October 24, 1931.

The Civil Code of Peru required that all marriages should be per-
formed according to the rites of the Catholic Church; this was amended
by law of December 23, 1897, to provide a civil ceremony for non-
Catholics. The Council of Government, on October 8, 1930, made the
civil ceremony described in that law obligatory for all marriages per-
formed henceforward in the Republic. In order to avoid the occur-
rence of any situation not specifically provided for in the laws as they

128

AGRICULTURE 129

then stood, on August 22, 1931, decree-law No. 7282 was promulgated
to summarize and amplify the regulations for marriage in Peru.

The special features of the new law are as follows: Besides birth
and residence certificates, the contracting parties must also present a
health certificate and, in the case of foreigners, documents attesting
that there is no legal impediment to the marriage. Peruvians who
are widowed or divorced must show documents proving that they
may legally marry again. All the necessary papers must be shown
to the official performing the ceremony at least eight days before the
marriage is to take place, when the license will be issued in the city or
cities of residence of both parties. The decree-law permits the waiving
of certain requirements in special cases, provided that they are com-
plied with after the ceremony. An urgency marriage when one of the
parties is at the point of death may be performed only to legitimatize
natural children; such marriages will be considered void, however,
if the dead husband should leave other natural children by another

woman.
——_<_<< 0-0 ——_—_

AGRICULTURE

Many American nations have recently been faced with the problems
arising from world overproduction in their chief products. When
such questions are agricultural, the need for new markets and the
importance of self-sustenance have encouraged the already marked
tendency of the farmer or stock raiser to diversify his activities.

In the United States, for example, the average citizen thinks of
turkey as a winter delicacy, especially plentiful at Thanksgiving and
Christmas times. Until very recently, turkeys were as seasonable in
this country as fresh vegetables a generation ago. Thanks to modern
methods of refrigeration, however, the people of the United States
have long been able to enjoy fresh fruits and vegetables without re-
gard to the calendar; when the local supply was past, the crops of the
South and far West were rushed to their markets and later, with
improved transportation facilities, those of other countries to the
south—Cuba and Mexico, even Chile and Argentina—were made
available. To the long list of out-of-season foodstuffs that the United
States imports from the other Americas, the native turkey has now
been added. From June through September, 1931, 311,173 plump
fowl, weighing over 4,500,000 pounds, have entered this country from
ARGENTINA and found a ready market. Since the turkeys are avail-
able at a period when there is no competition with the native product,
many of the best restaurants have been quick to take advantage of
the added opportunity to please their patrons. The quality of the
birds and the care with which they are prepared and packed has done
much to make them popular. The United States, however, in not
the only country to which Argentina is sending turkeys. England

130 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Courtesy of Coldwell & Cia

ARGENTINE TURKEYS
Raising turkeys for export is a new industry of Argentina, large numbers being exported to the United

States and other countries. Upper: Fine turkeysina pen. Lower: During four months of 1931 Argen-
tina furnished the markets of the United States with 311,173 birds.

imported over 100,000, weighing nearly 1,350,000 pounds, during
the first 10 months of 1931, and neighboring countries also purchased
a few, approximately 1,000 pounds. The success of this enterprise
opens to the Argentine farmer a new and profitable field.

Another experiment is being carried on in the republic which, if
successful, should add materially to the nation’s resources. The
breeding of fur-bearing animals in a state of semicaptivity, a prof-
itable industry in Canada and parts of the United States, has been

INDUSTRY es

started in the Territory of Neuquen with the introduction of four
pairs of silver foxes. The experiment calls for a comparatively
large initial capital, but if the animals can become perfectly acclima-
tized, as seems to have been the case with the first foxes imported, a
new and profitable occupation for settlers in the southern regions of
Argentina should be developed.

In Brazit the state of the international coffee market has been an
important factor in the increased interest in other agricultural re-
sources of the country. Oranges have long been an important crop
in many sections of the country, but the amount of fruit exported has
been small. During the agricultural season 1928-29, for example,
over 5,000,000 boxes were grown, but fewer than half a million were
exported. Yet the exports of oranges have increased greatly in the
last five years; in 1927, only 318,000 boxes were exported from the
entire nation, while 787,000 boxes were exported from Santos alone
during the first nine months of 1931. Since 933,000 boxes were
shipped from Rio de Janeiro during the first 10 months of the year,
it was Officially estimated that the exports for the whole year would
be at least 2,000,000 boxes. It is true that the rate of exchange has
been a factor in the 1931 orange exports, but more important have
been certain Government regulations which brought about an
improvement of the quality of the fruit intended for export.

The Bureau of Agriculture of Paraguay is doing a great deal to
increase the knowledge of modern agricultural methods and to intro-
duce new crops. Soy beans and sunflower and sesame seeds have been
sent to all rural schools for cultivation in the school gardens. Com-
plete instructions for the cultivation of the crops accompanied the
seeds, which were sent out with a dual purpose to introduce new crops
throughout the country and to train school children in gardening.
Seeds have also been sent to the experiment stations and schools of
agriculture throughout the country for especial acclimatization
studies. In an experiment station conducted by a private company
near Puerto Casado, some 47 different varieties of wheat have been
planted, in order to determine those best suited to use in developing
the vast stretches of uncultivated lands in that region which are a
source of potential wealth for the nation.

ee oo

INDUSTRY

Although agriculture and mining are predominant in Mexico, since
its independence the Republic has striven to become a manufacturing
nation and for that purpose has always maintained a protective tariff
and in general followed a policy of protection to local industry.

132 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

To-day Mexico ranks among the three foremost industrial nations of
Latin America, Mexico City and its vicinity and Monterrey, the
chief railroad center of the Republic, being the two most important
Mexican manufacturing centers. While the larger Mexican indus-
tries represent investments of foreign capital, the principal increase
in manufacturing in Mexico during recent years has been in small
plants financed almost entirely by national capital. The preliminary
results of the 1930 industrial census show 48,500 industrial establish-
ments with a capital investment of 1,004,644,745 pesos, employing
249,129 workers. Of the 141 branches of industry listed, those in
which the capital invested is over 5,000,000 pesos are as follows:

ae Numb

of indus- oye umber
Product or industry trial es- Caps of erie

tablish- ees
ments !
Pesos
HB EC Gr1 Cap AINSI al a NE ee ae eee 520 | 290, 049, 253 8, 143
@ottonibexstilesks a= = eee eee ae anes ee see ee 542 | 126, 653, 855 38, 678
Siganandsal colo ee serteetseees se unre kn imeens 2o ee Pee A eee 137 | 91, 708, 475 14, 290
@icaretiestanGicigars== === eee ae ee en ee eee 140 | 34, 993, 646 3, 837
HHenequenshibersplan tS=ps- es hee ee i Ee 269 | 30, 624, 090 5, 432
Iibiarereet hovel Mi oraee yar OW = 2| 29,405, 510 621
SBTC Wen eS seat ee ee eels eee eae See ares ee eas eae ee 30! 29, 359, 589 2, 542
MTO MOU Gri OSes tee ate | a eae ea ee ss Ne eh NES SI eae eo 109 | 24, 432, 893 3, 828
Grainger rit See ons © ss ee ee ER ee ee Se DE ee a eee ae Se ae 334 | 22, 657, 642 1, 887
Woo letextil esr tl Se see ee ee ee ee eee ae eae 1,322 | 20, 613, 044 5, 051
Say ean aa ea eee st Sema See es ee eee etl ee Ms 355 | 18,551,919 2, 043
Tianhe Goel Iho OW ee oe eS Ee ee ena 655 | 15, 294, 768 3, 549
DRANG Of SE ae I a le ie Se 7 | 15, 228, 980 2, 207
Coficemillss=== ee ae st Pea wee eS ore SE 413 | 14, 787, 062 3, 356
Weretablevoilsess2 = Se see Mi ait Oe ee ES ee ee 109 | 13, 348, 899 1, 064
Bakeniesiand) pas thyss OSs ee sae sees eee eae ee 3,513 | 11, 816, 277 7, 648
SOS eee a os a te ano Ne Sat ae oleh a NR 3,200 | 11, 445, 012 9, 392
Via chinesho PS] sana ts ea ee i ee eel See 953 | 11, 085, 910 9, 119
CO toMy OTIS Sess eS ie eS Sat ne Sa Se SER ahs Ve re eS 144 | 10,170, 847 2, 810
BrowMesuearan drums. 2: sss tk Ok eee ee a Snes Ioan ee eee 3, 866 9, 835, 130 35, 012
TEarts ee eee a er on ort Do Seen by ee ee oe a aera ens ac ale, 113 | 9,779, 144 4, 301
@ementscse a= 2" ae 05a SS Sere Ba ee ae eee oa ee eae 5 9, 632, 770 1, 307
MATIN CTI GS e eect alien Se AO OSs ae Se es ee eee 1, 427 8, 353, 420 2, 954
i cCesplamtsee= susan eee hee ee ee Ee IAS ee a Cais even Ne 441 7, 670, 949 974
@henticaliproductsS se s==- 222 =. tae ee ee ee ois seen ae 23 7, 293, 236 561
INDxtamMalmill SS seca ee Se Se Se ae oe See 3, 471 7, 022, 075 5, 468
HHPXI1O | OS [iOS om eee he = me sere a ered A ea Se ne pe ee eee 8 6, 952, 781 389
UTM Or) Var Suse os eee le Le eee Nee es A ee 147 3, 157, 271 2, 511
Wit CHESS eee ae BS She oe 8S ee ee oe Ee 16 5, 498, 863 1, 668
Chrrneininarr arael CHloinGts Sao ss a 4, 555 5, 460, 711 5, 500
JULte cher smi Smeets es Seth eae Sy eee Ue i ee eee ee 4 5, 122, 538 1, 683
Glo (hin eeeen ewe tea tenr ON Ia Tah eau 2 can hn yee Fee 2,484 | 5, 085, 899 5, 020
|

1 Estadistica Nacional, organ of the National Statistical Bureau, says in its issue of September, 1931:
‘* For the purposes of the census any enterprise, large or small, producing one or more articles was considered
as an ‘industrial establishment’; consequently the same industrial establishment may appear several
times in the directory if it produces more than one article. The above definition presupposes an absolute
differentiation in the industries which does not exist in practice, since many establishments in the Republic
produce articles of various classes at the same time.”

COMMUNICATIONS AND TRANSPORTATION

Airways.—The last gap in the system of airways which connect all
but 2 of the 21 republics of the Western Hemisphere was closed on
November 3, 1931, when a flying boat of the Pan American Airways
landed in the harbor of Buenos Aires, thereby inaugurating a pas-
senger, mail, and express service between Rio de Janeiro and the
Argentine metropolis. This extension of service by the Pan American
Airways completes the establishment of an airline down the entire
7,500-mile trade route between the United States and the key cities
of Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina. The route extends from Miami
through the islands of the West Indies, crosses the equator at the
Amazon River, and then parallels the South Atlantic coastline to the
principal eastern cities of the southern continent. As shown in the
accompanying map, another trunk line starts from Brownsville, Tex.,
spanning Mexico and Central America, to Panama, following the
west coast to Chile, and crossing the Andes to Argentina and Uruguay.
The direct line across the Caribbean Sea to Colombia and Venezuela
completes the basic routes of this network of 18,500 miles of airways,
to-day considered the largest air transport system in the world.
Bolivia and Paraguay, the two interior republics not linked by the
Pan American Airways system, have air connections through services
from La Paz to Arica, Chile, and from Asuncion to Buenos Aires.
The capitals of Paraguay and Argentina were formerly connected by
the French Aéropostale Line, which was discontinued on April 19,
1931. Since January 1, 1932, this route has been under the bureau
of civil aviation of the Argentine Government, which also hopes to
create a service linking Buenos Aires with the Bolivian air services
already operating from the Argentine border through Cochabamba to
La Paz and towns in the northern and eastern part of Bolivia.

The Government of Brazit has inaugurated an air-mail service
between Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo. Military planes leave the
capital on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays at noon and arrive at
Sao Paulo three hours later; the return trip is made on Tuesdays,
Thursdays, and Saturdays. It has been announced that the army
air-mail service will be extended 745 miles into the interior of the
country, penetrating as far as Goyaz. Another service under con-
sideration is that from Rio de Janeiro to Bello Horizonte. In addi-
tion, an extension of the present line from Rio de Janeiro to Sao
Paulo is to be made to Curityba, the capital of the State of Parana,
and it is intended to establish eventually an air-mail service from Sao
Paulo to Matto Grosso,

133

KINGSTON

SAN LORENZO 4
seein ise < A
yy PORT OF

SPAIN

MANAGUA

GUAYAQUIL
FORTALEZA

TALARA
NATAL

PIURA

PIMENTEL,
PACASMAYO
TRUJILLO.

LIMA

AREQUIPA CARAVELLAS

NOS suAnL

RIO DE JANEIRO

—C) OVERNIGHT STOPS

OVALLE e SCHEDULED STOPS
PORT AU PRINCE IS OVERNIGHT

‘STOP. SUN. AND WED. EASTBOUND
DURING WINTER SEASON.

SANTIAGO Be ; :
CHO MONTEVIDEO
PAN AMERICAN AIRWAYS
SYSTEM

BUENOS AIRES

Courtesy of Pan American Airways (Inc.)

AN INTERNATIONAL AIR TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

Map showing routes of the Pan American Airways.

COMMUNICATIONS AND TRANSPORTATION 135

The Government of the Republic of Panama has acquired an air
fleet consisting of an amphibian, the 3 de noviembre, and two air-
planes, the Constitucién and the Republica, which are being used to
carry the mail between Panama City and the towns in the interior.
The service was inaugurated on November 28, 1931, the auniversary
of the Independence of the Isthmus from Spain, a special postage
stamp issue being placed on sale by the Government to commemorate
the occasion. Two routes are being flown, one along the Pacific
coast, stopping at Taboga, Chorrera, Bejuco, Anton, Penonome,

‘Aguadulce, Santiago, David, and Puerto Armuelles; the other along
the Atlantic connecting Panama City with Colon and Bocas del Toro.
Five young Panamanian aviators have been commissioned as officers
in the national police force to pilot the planes.

Highways.— Although Mexico is planning to lessen Federal expend-
itures during 1932, Government officials realize the importance of
continuing highway construction. According to a statement recently
elven out for publication by the chairman of the National Highway
Commission, Sefior Vicente Cortes Herrera, Mexico will spend dur-
ing the present year 18,000,000 pesos (about $6,480,000) on its road-
construction program instead of the 8,000,000 pesos which were
originally assigned for that purpose in the 1932 budget. Despite
unfavorable economic conditions, the Federal Government intends to
complete before 1933 two great trunk highways—the Mexico City-
Nuevo Laredo Road, and that from the national capital to Guadala-
jara, the Republic’s second largest city and the capital of the State of
Jalisco. The road from Mexico City to Nuevo Laredo is an important
link in the Inter-American Highway. It was provisionally opened to
traffic on May 11, 1931, in view of the need for communications in
that part of the country, and in order to use the provisional road as
a means for the transportation of materials and machinery to be
used in the construction of the permanent surface. Since its opening,
intensive work has been carried on for the completion and improve-
ment of the temporary portions, so that the entire road may be trav-
eled upon at any time of the year. The Government’s augmented
1932 budget also includes oiling the greater part of the road from
Mexico City to Acapulco, a picturesque Pacific coast port which the
early Spaniards used as their New World base for marine commerce
with the Orient.

For the fiscal year ending June 30, 1932, $15,000,000 has been
appropriated for road construction in the Republic of Cupa. Cuba
already has a splendid system of modern highways covering nearly
the entire island. The great Central Highway, stretching from Pinar
del Rio in the western part of the island to Santiago on the eastern
extremity, connects all important commercial centers and is becoming
more popular with tourists each year. Of the 1931-32 appropriation

136 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

$1,000,000 is to be expended in the construction of a new highway,
about 12 miles long, connecting Habana with the town of General
Machado, where an airport is located.

Telephones.—The longest telephone line in ARGENTINA was in-
augurated on September 15, 1931. It connects the cities of
Mendoza, Province of Mendoza, and Concordia, Province of Entre
Rios, and has a total length of 1,433 kilometers or approximately
890 miles, divided into several sections as follows: Mendoza-San
Luis, 167 miles; San Luis-Villa Mercedes, 62 miles; Villa Mercedes-
Rufino, 168 miles; Rufino-Rosario, 175 miles; Rosario-Santa Fe,
111 miles; Santa Fe-Parana, 21 miles; Parana-Villaguay, 105
miles ; Villaguay-Concordia, 81 miles. Four different companies
participate in the new telephone service, the Compania Argentina
de Teléfonos, the Compafiia Telegrafico-Telefénica Nacional, the
Sociedad Telefénica de Santa Fe, and the Compafiia Entrerriana de
Teléfonos de Parana y Concordia. These companies own 17 tel-
ephone exchanges in the Province of Mendoza, 13 in the Province
of San Luis, 36 in the Province of Cordoba, 36 in the Territory of
La Pampa, 62 in the Province of Santa Fe, and 79 in the Province
of Entre Rios.

A long-distance telephone service connecting the capital of Cotom-
BIA, Bogota, with the Republic’s principal port in the Pacific, Buena-
ventura, was inaugurated by the Compafiia Telefonica Central on
October 1, 1931. The line is 357 miles in length and serves 28 cities
and towns. The inaugural ceremonies of the international telephone
service between CoLtomBia, ARGENTINA, CHILE, and Uruguay took
place at the Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs at Bogota on November
26, 1931.

A similar ceremony also took place in Asuncion, PARAGUAY, on
the occasion of the inauguration of a radiotelegraphic service with
Buenos Aires, ARGENTINA, on November 17, 1931.

Radiotelephonic communication between the Unirrep States and
BrRaAzIL was inaugurated on December 18, 1931, with ceremonies in
the office of the Secretary of State in Washington and in the Brazilian
Foreign Office in Rio de Janeiro.

—_——___<_<<§ 0 ¢- __-

ART, SCIENCE, AND EDUCATION

In ARGENTINA, where public education has long been an object of
close attention, projects for modern educational development continue
to be adopted and put into effect. Among the various reports recently
made public may be noted that of the National Council of Education
on the state of public instruction during 1931. It contains a table
giving the figures on expenditures for public education, which range

ART, SCIENCE, AND EDUCATION 137

from 27,086,220 pesos paper for the Province of Buenos Aires, with
its 2,126 schools, to 347,588 pesos paper for La Rioja, which has only
18. The National Council of Education further states that because
of present economic conditions it is impossible for the Government to
carry out all its plans for public instruction, but suggests that pro-
vincial authorities should take certain steps, such as the introduction
of short courses, to prepare the way for future progress. The report
states that public primary education owes its present development to
the Government’s foresight in assuring revenues for this specific
purpose, the most important being the inheritance tax which has been
adopted by various Provinces. Of the 2,108,286 children between
5 and 13 years of age throughout the Republic, 510,754 are not in
school. School attendance in the Province of Buenos Aires is com-
pulsory for children from 8 to 14 years of age. In Jujuy, La Rioja,
Santiago del Estero, and Tucuman, the age is from 7 to 14 years.
The republic of Costa Rica has always taken great pride in
the national interest in education, and figures published by a leading
newspaper of the capital show that there has been no diminution in
that interest. During the 1930 school year more than 50,000 students
attended the public schools throughout the country, an increase of
nearly 15,000 over the enrollment in 1920. The number of schools
has grown during that decade from 411 to 505, and that of teachers
from 1,346 to 1,875. The teaching profession is attracting the young
people of the nation in larger numbers, for there were 689 students
in the normal schools in 1930, more than twice as many as in 1920.
Early in November, 1931, the Ministry of Public Instruction of
GUATEMALA sent a notice to all heads of families, explaining at some
length the purposes of Parent-Teachers Associations and urging
cooperation with the work of the ministry. There are two important
functions which the ministry feels the Parent-Teachers Associations
should perform, one of serving as a consultative body, the other of
collaborating with the school authorities in carrying out approved
educational methods. The ministry is also encouraging the organiza-
tion of teachers into groups for the study of educational problems.
A similar interest was displayed in the neighboring Republic of Ex
SALVADOR, where a National Parents Association was created by
decree of the President issued on November 4, 1931. The association
was founded especially to complement kindergartens and primary
education throughout the country by considering the particular prob-
lems of the children, the teachers, and the school. There will be a
central council located in San Salvador, departmental and district
councils for the larger political divisions, and one or more local councils
in towns that are not district capitals. Each council will be autono-
mous in dealing with the problems peculiar to its own territory, but
9412632 Bull. 2-5

138 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

all will be under the jurisdiction of the central council in matters of
general policy and finance. The decree provides that the chief
executive officers shall preferably be women, since the school is con-
sidered to be the lengthened shadow of the home. For the welfare
of school children, the councils are urged to provide suitable recreation
on holidays, promote sports, provide school meals, keep track of health
conditions, arrange for proper medical care when the parents are
unable to furnish it, and encourage special training for gifted students.
Full cooperation is to be given the teacher, personally and profession-
ally, and any attempt to inject politics into school administration
vigorously combated. School buildings are to be inspected to insure
their being kept in sanitary condition, profiteering in school supplies
is to be prevented, and educational and patriotic school celebrations
are to be encouraged.

In Peru the interest of the Council of Government in educational
matters is manifest in the decree issued on October 3, 1931, designed
to give stability to the teaching profession by the creation of coun-
cils of investigation. The councils are consultative bodies whose pri-
mary function is to safeguard the rights of the teacher, especially
until after the legislature shall have finished its revision of the Organic
Law of Public Instruction. There are to be one central council and
several provincial councils, on which will be represented educational
authorities, teachers, and parents. To the councils will be referred
by the proper authorities all cases dealing with the transference of
teachers from one school to another as a disciplinary measure, their
suspension, or their dismissal.

The desire to further education is by no means confined to the
governments of the respective American republics. In Hartt, for
example, there was formed in November an organization called “The
League for Instructing Illiterate Laborers.’”’ Members of the league
will give free courses of 40 lessons, the classes to be held three evenings
a week, to all laborers who wish to learn to read and write. The
courses will be given not only in Port-au-Prince, but in any other city
or town where there may be a demand for them, and the league will
not disband until its aims have been fulfilled.

Another evidence of interest in special fields of education was the
opening in Mexico Ciry on November 13, 1931, of the School for
Specialists in Cooperative Organization, founded by one of the lead-
ing political parties. The course of study, an intensive one of six
terms of two months each, was designed to train those wishing to
become organizers, technical advisers, or directors of national coop-
erative societies. The fact that the school opened with an enrollment
of 98 students shows the importance of the subject to the public mind,

ART, SCIENCE, AND EDUCATION 139

Student organizations are increasingly influential bodies, especially
in Latin American nations. It is therefore quite natural that the
National Student Federation of Mexico should be the recipient of
many requests for information from university students in Central
and South American countries who wish to continue their education
in the northern republic. The foreign students were particularly desir-
ous of learning what recognition the Mexican universities would give
to degrees granted by institutions in other countries. The federation
has submitted the question to the University Council, and it seems
probable that the course hitherto followed will not be changed, that
is, credit will be given for work recognized in the student’s native
country, but in addition the Mexican requirement in national history
and geography must be fulfilled.

A Pan American Student Conference, to which students from all
the American nations have been invited, has been planned for April
11 to 14, 1932, at the University of Miami, Coral Gables, Fla. The
conference will close on Pan American Day, with exercises inter-
American in character.

On August 13, 1931, Provisional President Uriburu issued a decree
establishing the ArGuNTINE Academy of Letters, to be composed of
20 members. The new organization has four functions: To unify
and direct studies of the national language and literature; to have
jurisdiction over all literary prizes granted in the Republic; to stimulate
the national theater to be an important factor in popular education
and culture; and to guard the correctness and purity of the language.
The charter members of the academy, named in the same decree,
are Octavio R. Amadeo, Enrique Banchs, Arturo Capdevila, Joaquin
Castellanos, Atilio Ciappori, Leopoldo Diaz, J. Alfredo Ferreyra,
Mer. Gustavo Franceschi, Manuel Galvez, Alberto Gerchunoff,
Leopoldo Herrera, Carlos Ibarguren, Enrique Larreta, Leopoldo
Lugones, Arturo Marasso, Calixto Oyuela, Clemente Ricci, Ricardo
Rojas, Carlos Saavedra Lamas, and Juan B. Teran.

A later decree of October 28 approved the statutes and by-laws of
the academy. These provide that the members, who shall hold office
for life, must be Argentine citizens distinguished for their contribution
to literature or their studies in language, and that the body shall be
self-perpetuating. At least 16 of the members must be residents of
Buenos Aires. Corresponding members may be elected by the
academy; for them Argentine citizenship and residence in the capital
are not prerequisite. The officers of the academy are the president,
who is the official representative of the organization, and the secretary
general. The regular term of office is three years, but the first officers
will hold office only until the first meeting in 1933. On November 3
the academy met for the first time after the approval of statutes
and elected Sefior Oyuela president and Sefior Marasso secretary.

140 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The First Conference of CarIBBEAN CouNnTRIEs is being planned for
March 20 to 27, 1932. The meetings will be held in San Jose, Costa
Rica, and attended by leaders in intellectual circles of the nations
bordering on the Caribbean. The conference will be entirely unofficial
in character; this fact, while it will not give the weight of govern-
mental sanction to any of the proceedings, will make for greater
frankness in discussion and free interchange of ideas. Representa-
tives of more than 12 nations are expected to be present, including
such writers and thinkers as Horacio Blanco Fombona, Venezuela,
Joaquin Garcia Monge, Costa Rica, one of the initiators of the
conference, Emilio Roig de Leuchsen, Cuba, and John Dewey and
Waldo Frank, the United States. The main purpose of the conference
is to lay the foundation for a more perfect rapprochement between the
thinking population of the participating nations, to establish a ‘‘free
tribune for frank expression of these feelings which must be brought
to light in order to attain a true understanding of the ideals of the
New World.”

In ArGentina, Buenos Aires will be the seat of at least two inter-
national gatherings during 1932, in addition to the meeting of the
American Institute of International Law. (See BuLurtiIn of the
Pan American Union for January, 1932.) From July 4 to 11 the
first South American Congress of Electrical Engineers plans to meet
for the interchange of ideas between specialists in the field of applied
electricity. The Argentine engineer and scientist, Senor Nicolas
Moreno, is to be the presiding officer of the congress, which will be
divided into 15 sections. The subjects to be discussed include
electricity and magnetism; the generation and distribution of elec-
trical energy; electricity in industry; light; heat; electrochemistry ;
and commercial, agricultural, domestic, and medical uses of elec-
tricity. Although the congress is definitely continental in character,
it is hoped to have the collaboration of foreign specialists. Durmg
the congress, an exhibition of electrical machinery and apparatus
will be held.

The Sixth International Cold Storage Congress will open its sessions
on August 27, 1932, and hold meetings in Buenos Aires for a week.
From September 5 to 10, visits have been planned to the cold storage
plants in the capital, La Plata, and Rosario, as well as to the most
important estancias of the Province of Buenos Aires. On September
17, 1931, the President of Argentina issued a decree ratifying the
Paris Convention of 1920 by which the International Cold Storage
Institute was created.

PUBLIC HEALTH AND SOCIAL WELFARE

Child welfare institutions in Buenos Aires and Montevideo —Few
cities on the American Continent have shown in recent years greater
interest in the prevention of disease and alleviation of suffering
among children than have Buenos Aires and Montevideo. Inter-
estingly enough, the results which they have obtained are not the
work of any one institution or group but rather of many institutions
and groups working in complete accord and cooperation with the
government of each country, private initiative serving fields which
public action failed to cover.

One of the French delegates in attendance at the International
Medical Congress recently held in Montevideo as a part of the cele-
brations commemorating the centenary of the oath to the Constitu-
tion, described these activities in an account published in the July
and October, 1931, editions of the Boletin del Instituto Internacional
Americano de Proteccién a la Infancia.

The child welfare institutions in Buenos Aires, he states, include
hospitals, preventoriums, seaside colonies, a foundling home, news-
boys’ home, orphanages, nurse inspection service, school inspection
service, and clinics. One of the oustanding child welfare activities in
both cities is the treatment and prophylaxis of tuberculosis. In
Buenos Aires this campaign centers around the Tornt Hospital.
While the hospital receives both adults and children, some of its
most important work is done among the children. Aside from its
regular function of providing hospitalization for patients suffering
from tuberculosis, the institution does much effective work through
its medical inspectors, visiting nurses, and dispensaries. As many
as 2,500 persons have been treated during one year in the hospital
dispensaries alone and many more in the other nine maintained in
different sections of the city.

The children’s service is carried on chiefly through the maternity
ward and the home placement department of the hospital, the Roca
Preventorium, and the Necochea seaside colony. In order to avoid
contagion, children of parents suffering from tuberculosis are isolated
from their mother at birth and placed in carefully selected private
homes, where they remain two years. They are then sent to the
Roca Preventorium where they are given a home and education until
they are 12 years old.

The Necochea seaside colony, established in 1928, provides a place
where groups of children between the ages of 8 and 12, selected by
the different dispensaries, may spend a short time in healthful sur-

roundings.
141

142 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Hospitals in Buenos Aires having special wards and services for
children include institutions such as the Rawson, Ramos Mejia,
Clinical, Fernindez, Teodoro Alvarez, Cancer, Alvear, Mufiz, and
French Hospitals. The Clinical Hospital, which is supported by the
Government and is a part of the Medical School, has a nursery of 24
beds. The children’s ward in the Teodoro Alvarez Hospital has 45
beds, a number which, however, will probably soon be increased.
The majority of the cases of contagious diseases are treated in the
Mufiz Hospital, which receives patients of all ages and both sexes.

Undoubtedly the institution affording hospitalization for the
greatest number of children is the Children’s Hospital. It is staffed
by more than 100 physicians and has accommodations for 700
patients. Its multiple services include general and special medical

CHILDREN’S SUN BATHS AT AN ARGENTINE SANITARIUM

treatment, surgery, and polyclinics. An especially interesting sec-
tion is the ward for contagious diseases, where each child is isolated
from the others in a small glass-walled compartment. Special
features are the school for nurses, a primary school for children
suffering from chronic diseases, and a fine library. In its public
clinics hundreds of children are treated daily by diathermy, massage,
electrotherapy, X rays, and ultra-violet rays.

The French Hospital, whose foundation dates back a century, is
one of a group of public welfare activities being carried on by the
French colony in Argentina. The same group also maintains an
orphanage for boys.

Other important institutions in the city are the Foundling and the
Newsboys’ Homes. The former occupies a large building erected

PUBLIC HEALTH AND SOCIAL WELFARE 143

about 20 years ago. Through its offices about 1,300 children are
placed in private homes each year. While in the institution the
children receive expert care—-medical, orthopedic, and surgical
treatment are provided in the home for them, while a public clinic
is maintained for others.

The Newsboys’ Home renders a valuable service to the homeless
waif who sells papers and lottery tickets on the streets of the city.
Founded a little over three years ago, this institution is doing an
extremely important work; through its efforts the boys are clothed,
fed, educated, and given medical and dental care. Boys who would
not otherwise think of going to school now attend classes in reading,
writing, arithmetic, history, geography, English, and typewriting.
The home also maintains a circulating library which has more than
200 young patrons. In its dining hall over 1,100 meals are served
monthly. The meals are not free; each boy pays a nominal sum for
what he receives. Only the most wholesome food is served; the
menu usually includes soup, potatoes or other vegetables, meat, a
side dish, rolls and milk.

Another important group of activities is that centering around the
child welfare institutes. Under the control of headquarters situated
in the down-town section of the city, there are 23 of these institu-
tions which have as their purpose the instruction of the mother in
the proper care and diet of her child. Each institute has a com-
petent staff under the direction of a pediatrician. In connection
with the institutes there are also 18 dispensaries for young children
and five infirmaries where the children may receive hospitalization
if the case demands. All the dispensaries have diet kitchens which
provide the children attending them proper nourishment.

The school medical inspection service of Buenos Aires serves as a
model for all others throughout the Republic. Its physicians are
constantly visiting the schools, passing upon the condition of the
buildings, examining the pupils to avoid the spread of communicable
diseases and determine abnormalities, and holding clinics at stated
times for the treatment of the teeth, and eye, ear, throat, and skin
diseases.

In Montevideo, child welfare activities have taken channels similar
to those in Buenos Aires, the apparent differences being largely ones
of detail. There, as in the Argentine capital, a vigorous campaign
is being waged against tuberculosis. It is being carried on largely
through the vaccination service, the dispensaries, the child placement
service, the Fermin Ferreira and Gallinal Hebert Hospitals, the
preventorium, and the Children’s Home.

In 1925 a laboratory was established in Montevideo by the National
Bureau of Public Welfare for the preparation of antituberculosis
serum, and since then the work of vaccination has been carried on

144 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

with very promising results. At present there are nine antituber-
culosis dispensaries located in various parts of the city. Each dis-
pensary is provided with X rays and a laboratory, although the more
involved laboratory work is done in the central dispensary.

Children who have rickets, are anaemic, or show a disposition for
the disease, receive treatment in a vacation colony or preventorium;
in some cases the child is placed in a family living in the country or
at the seaside, as the physician in charge of the case may advise.

The Gallinal Hebert Seaside Hospital, which, located at Carrasco
not far from Montevideo, is easily accessible to the parents of the small
patients, has two sections, one for surgical tuberculosis cases, the
other for prophylactic treatment.

As in Buenos Aires the children born to parents suffering from
tuberculosis are removed at birth and taken to the Children’s Home.
This institution also receives other children under 5 years of age who
come from homes where there is a case of tuberculosis or who are
themselves predisposed to the disease.

The League Against Tuberculosis also maintains a preventorium
with beds for 110 children between the ages of 6 and 12 years. Chil-
dren taken to this institution usually remain three months, but may
stay longer at the advice of a physician. A primary school is con-
ducted in connection with it, so that no child is retarded in his studies
by the necessity of receiving treatment there. The preventorium
likewise has a public dispensary in which from 15 to 30 children are
treated each day; it also maintains a canteen where the wives of men
suffering from tuberculosis may secure bread, meat, and milk free of
charge each day.

The Fermin Ferreira Hospital cares for advanced tuberculosis
cases, treating sufferers from all Departments of the Republic. it
has accommodations for 500 patients but often nearly 900 have been
under treatment at one time. The hospital offers a special course for
physicians and medical students, and while its own work is concerned
with the treatment of adults, it does much in this way to diffuse infor-
mation on the subject and indirectly to assist in the treatment and
prevention of the disease among children.

Other child welfare institutions are the Dr. Pedro Visca Hospital,
the Foundling Home, the Daémaso Larrafiaga Children’s Home, dis-
pensaries and milk stations, school lunch rooms, the seaside colony,
open-air schools, and the home visiting service.

The Dr. Pedro Visca Hospital, which is maintained by the Bureau
of Public Welfare, provides hospitalization for about 250 children
and does much excellent work through its public clinics. The various
departments of the hospital include an isolation ward with individual
rooms, a dental laboratory, two operating rooms, a solarium, a phar-
macy where medicine is distributed free, a gymnasium, and lab-
oratories for heat and light treatment.

PUBLIC HEALTH AND SOCIAL WELFARE 145

The Foundling Home, also maintained by the National Bureau of
Public Welfare, is located in the downtown section of the city.
Besides acting as a receiving home where abandoned children can be
eared for, the home renders a particularly valuable service through
its day nursery, employment bureau for unmarried mothers, and
school of nursing.

Connected with the Foundling Home there are nine dispensaries
where medical treatment and food are given free. These, located in
various sections of the city, care for an average of 7,000 children each
year. Prenatal clinics and a mother’s canteen are also features of
these institutions.

A TYPICAL CLASS IN ONE OF MONTEVIDEO’S OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS

The Damaso Larrafiaga Children’s Home has now more than 5,000
children under its care. Three hundred of this number are housed
in the home and the remainder have been placed with families.
Children enter the home at the age of 3 and may remain until they
are 21. While there they receive an education and are given instruc-
tion in some trade which will make them self-supporting when they
leave the home.

Through the efforts of the Uruguayan Child Welfare Association
a number of the underdeveloped children in the public schools of the
city are being provided several wholesome meals each day; one meal
is served before school and the other after school. This organization
also maintains a nutrition clinic where mothers receive instruction
in the purchase and preparation of inexpensive nourishing food for
the preschool child.

146 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

In order to provide for those children whose health does not show
sufficient improvement as a result of the meals served in the school
lunch rooms, the Child Welfare Association has opened a seaside
colony. An old summer residence on a hill overlooking the beach at
Pocitos was secured and remodeled for the purpose, and the services
of a competent staff, including a physician, primary teacher, and
physical instructor, were engaged. During 1929, the first season the
colony was maintained, 500 children had an opportunity to spend
several weeks at the shore. Children attending the colony assemble
each morning at the school lunch room and ride to Pocitos by street
car. Their program for the day includes breakfast, medical examina-
tions, classes, gymnastic exercises, bathing, games, lunch, a rest
period, story-telling hour, nature study, and hikes. Before they start
back to their homes they are served a dinner.

Much important welfare work is also done by the Uruguayan Child
Welfare Association in its home visiting and other special services
carried on through the various commissions maintained by the organ-
ization. During the year 1929, the Commission on Legislation legal-
ized 1,545 marriages, the Infants Commission distributed 749 eribs
and 17,206 articles of clothing, and the Pre-Natal Commission gave
material assistance to 493 mothers.

The open-air schools provide an opportunity for subnormal children
to secure all the benefits of a primary education while undergoing
treatment for their physical defects. These schools, which are a
part of the regular municipal educational system, are located in
spacious grounds and hold all their classes in the open air except when
prevented by inclement weather. The children remain at the school
all day; there they receive two nourishing meals, are given time for
supervised rest and recreation, and follow a program of study which
has been modified to include elements conducive to the development
of their weak bodies.

Public health legislation —January 26, 1932, marked the close of
the first six months of health administration in CHILE under the new
Sanitary Code which was published on May 28, 1931, and formally
put into effect 60 days later. While the new code abrogates the code
of October 13, 1925, and other existing legislation on the subjects
which it covers, it does not discard earlier procedures which had
proved successful. Many of the former provisions are retained and
the remainder merely modified or modernized to conform to present
economic and social conditions in the Republic.

Responsibility for the enforcement of the code and the organization
and regulation of the National Public Health Service is entrusted to
the Director General of Public Health. It is also his duty to formu
late, subject to the approval of the President, the general policies to

PUBLIC HEALTH AND SOCIAL WELFARE 147

be followed in the enactment of municipal health regulations; to super-
vise the revision of the national pharmacopceia every five years; to
take charge of the inspection of dwellings, institutions, and other
places in accordance with the provisions of the law; to collect and
compile public health information; and to authorize the establish-
ment of private medical and welfare services such as polyclinics,
hospitals, asylums, and other related institutions, and pharmacies
and laboratories for the preparation of pharmaceutical or biological
products. The Director General of Health has absolute powers in
all matters under his jurisdiction.

Each Province of the Republic constitutes a sanitary unit and has
its own sanitary director who is assisted by a public health physician.
In this way it is hoped to coordinate public health programs through-
out the country, maintain greater vigilance over health conditions,
and make it more easily possible for the national health service to
meet the needs of different sections of the Republic. The provincial
sanitary director is recognized as the principal representative of the
National Public Health Service within the Province. His duties con-
sist in the supervision and direction of public health activities, the
enforcement of sanitary laws and regulations, the drafting of plans
for sanitary campaigns and organization of health services, the carry-
ing on of demographic research, and the proposal of sanitary legislation
for districts which for any reason may require special laws.

The issuance and enforcement of regulations on local public matters
which have no particular relation to the health of other sections of
the Republic, such as the sanitary inspection of dwellings, buildings,
markets, bakeries, hotels, and lunch rooms; the collection and disposal
of waste; the maintenance of fumigation services; and the establish-
ment of public parks and playgrounds, is delegated to the municipal
Governments.

According to the code, the National Public Health Service shall
establish centers for vaccination, child welfare, and prenuptial exami-
nation services. These will preferably function as a part of the general
hospital services. In those cities where a need for economy or for
the simplification of the work makes it necessary, however, they may
be carried on in cooperation with public or private institutions engaged
in similar activities.

Special measures assure the protection of the mother and child.
Free medical attention will be afforded for expectant mothers and
for children of the indigenous population in the Government public
welfare institutions; all children of school age will receive the benefits
of preventive medicine. Private schools also are required to retain
the services of a physician should they not already be doing so. In
the larger cities school children will be given free dental treatment.

148 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The reporting of cases of communicable diseases, the isolation of
persons suffering from such a disease, the maintenance of fumigation
services, hospital inspection, and the observation of persons exposed
to contagious diseases are obligatory. The code also specifies special
measures to be taken in case of epidemics. Children must be vacci-
nated against smallpox before they are a year old. The diffusion
of health education is placed in charge of the National Public Health
Service. Actual contacts with the public will be made largely through
the public health nurses, who will instruct the people in the rules of
good health and show them how to benefit from the medical services
placed at their disposal. Dispensaries for the free treatment of
venereal diseases will be established in all the larger cities, and all
hospitals will be required to set aside a certain number of beds for
patients suffering from such diseases. The campaign against tubercu-
losis will be carried on through an organization especially created by
the Government for the purpose.

International sanitary measures, chiefly those for the prevention of
communicable diseases likely to be carried from one country to
another, also form a part of the code. Arrangements are made
regarding frontier transit and the cases designated in which extra-
ordinary vigilance is to be observed.

The final section of the law includes regulations on food products,
urban and rural sanitation, industrial hygiene, and the practice of the
medical and other related professions.

Special regulations on the production, manufacture, registration,
storage, sale, or importation of medicines and foods will be issued by
the President of the Republic. The preparation, sale, possession for
sale, or use in any form of contaminated, adulterated, or mislabeled
medicines and food products is prohibited. In localities where there
is no adequate provision for the medical examination by the municipal
health authorities of persons engaged in the preparation or distribu-
tion of food products, examinations will be made by the National
Public Health Service once every three months. Employees found
to be suffering from any communicable disease shall immediately be
prohibited from working. No pharmaceutical product may be 1m-
ported or prepared in the Republic without the authorization of the
General Bureau of Public Health. Persons engaged in the sale or
distribution of these products must register with the bureau. Upon
the recommendation of the General Bureau of Health, the President
of the Republic may regulate the prices of pharmaceutical products
considered indispensable for the public health or for the existence of
animal or plant life. The importation, manufacture, distribution,
consumption, or possession of opium or cocaine, their compounds and
derivatives, and other narcotics is subject to special regulation by the
President of the Republic.

PUBLIC HEALTH AND SOCIAL WELFARE 149

Only persons holding a degree from the University of Chile may
practice medicine, surgery, dentistry, pharmacy, veterinary medicine,
midwifery, nursing, or any other related professions. No one will be
permitted to practice as both physician and pharmacist. The
technical direction of hospitals, clinics, asylums, sanatoriums, preven-
toriums, dispensaries, and similar institutions, irrespective of whether
they are maintained by public or private funds, must be in charge of
a graduate physician. No practicing physician may own stock or
share in the profits of firms preparing or selling medicines or biological
products used in the prevention or treatment of disease. Those
already owning such securities, however, will be allowed to retain them.
Medicines or pharmaceutical products, medicinal mineral water,
cosmetics, dentifrices, hair dyes, insecticides, and disinfectants may be
marketed only by authorized firms. Medicines may be sold only in
pharmacies or drug stores. All firms engaging in the preparation of
medicines or pharmaceutical products shall be under the direction of
a registered pharmacist. The preparation of biological and biochemi-
cal products, serums, or vaccines shall be in charge of physicians.
Dentists may not perform surgical operations outside the realm of their
profession, produce general anesthesia, or give prescriptions for
medicines listed as dangerous in the national pharmacopeeia.

Regulations concerning the practice of pharmacy have also recently
been promulgated by the Provisional Government of Braziu in a
decree of September 8, 1931. Under this regulation, all persons
wishing to practice pharmacy in the Republic will be required to hold
a diploma in pharmaceutics from an official school of pharmacy or other
recognized educational institution issuing such degrees. Degrees
from foreign universities will be recognized on the same basis. Physi-
cians and their wives are forbidden to hold stock in a pharmacy
within the district where the doctors practice medicine except in the
case of women legally entitled to act as pharmacists by virtue of a
pharmaceutical degree. Hospitals, psychopathic institutions, cooper-
ative organizations, sanatoriums, factories, business firms, and institu-
tions supported by religious and lay organizations are also prohibited
from maintaining public pharmacies.

Changes in the administrative public-health service of EL SALVADOR
and Urvauay have been effected through recent legislation. By
virtue of an Executive decree issued on November 14, 1931, the
Department of Social Welfare and Public Health of El Salvador has
been made a bureau-in the Department of the Interior. In Uruguay,
a Board of Public Health has been created to take charge of the work
formerly done by the National Council of Public Welfare, the National
Council of Hygiene and the Institute for the Prophylaxis of Syphilis.

150 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The Board of Public Health will be composed of seven members, who
will be appointed by the National Administrative Council.

Regulations for various public officers and services were issued by
the Governments of CH1LE and Costa Rica. In the latter nation and
in VENEZUELA special measures were also taken for the improvement
of health in general.

A regulation on the maintenance of polyclinics was issued by the
Ministry of Social Welfare of Chile on October 6, 1931. As a result
of this measure no polyclinic may function without the authorization
of the General Bureau of Public Health and must otherwise conform ~
to the provisions of the National Sanitary Code.

Health legislation of the Costa Rican Government included a law
on the function and organization of the service of public-health physi-
clans and an Executive decree on the Board of Administration of the
Bureau of Narcotics which was entrusted with the exclusive sale of
narcotics by a law of September 29, 1930.

The Costa Rican Government has also issued a decree providing
for the intensification of the campaign against malaria in zones of the
country affected, by the free distribution of quinine to school chil-
dren, teachers, employees of the customs service and of the Bureau
of Hookworm and Malaria Control, and patients under treatment
in the local public-health clinics. Property owners in these regions
are already obliged to furnish free quinine to their employees 1n accord-
ance with a law of December 6, 1930. Other articles of the decree
authorize the sale of quinine by the Government to property owners
and public-welfare organizations at cost and provide for the presenta-
tion of illustrated lectures and the distribution of printed matter
for the purpose of instructing the public in means of controlling the
disease.

In order to encourage the interest of the children in the observance
of the elementary rules of good health and hygiene, the Minister of
Public Instruction of Venezuela issued a resolution on October 2,
1931, providing for the organization of health brigades in all the
schools of the Republic. According to provisions of this act, the
direction of the new societies will be entirely in the hands of the
children; those having the highest scholastic standing in each school
will automatically become the officers of their respective group.
Thus the children will learn the importance of health, the meaning of
different symptoms of disease, the value of correct diet and sleep, the
necessity of physical examinations, cleanliness rules for the home,
the proper care of the eyes, ears, nose, and throat, and measures for
preventing malaria, hookworm disease, dysentery, skin diseases,
tuberculosis, and smallpox.

NECROLOGY

Ricardo Rendén, one of the most promising artists of the younger
generation of CoLompra, died suddenly at Bogota on October 28,
1931. Sefior Rendén, who was still in his early thirties, had won an
enviable reputation both at home and abroad as an artist of marked
originality and a caricaturist of rare ability and penetration. Decrees
deploring his early death were issued by the national government and
by the city of Bogota.

By the death of Dr. Luis Toledo Herrarte, GuatEmaua has lost a
physician of rare endowments and a statesman of renown. In the
sphere of medicine, Dr. Toledo Herrarte fulfilled the promise of his
student days in Paris by becoming a leader of his profession in his
own country and an eminent professor in the School of Medicine.
In public life, too, Dr. Toledo Herrarte was prominent; especially
notable were his activities as Minister of Foreign Affairs where the
brilliant physician displayed other facets of his many-sided genius,
and as delegate to the Fourth International Conference of American
States held in Buenos Aires in 1910.

On November 20, 1931, Andrés Mata, an outstanding man of
letters and diplomat of VeNnnzueELa, died in Paris. His death is a
ereat loss to Venezuelan literature, in which he distinguished himself
as poet and journalist. Even before his first book of collected verse
appeared in 1896, he enjoyed a high reputation as a writer among all
classes; fellow artists appreciate the fineness of his esthetic tastes and
the mastery he displayed of his chosen medium; the general public
enjoyed the note of deep feeling with which he expressed his truly
poetic soul. The founder and part owner of the daily newspaper
Ell Universal of Caracas, Sefior Mata has also had a successful journal-
istic career. At the time of his death, the noted poet was councilor
of the Venezuelan legation at the Vatican.

Early in December Justin Elie, of Harri, internationally famous
pianist and composer, died in New York. Monsieur Elie was edu-
cated in Europe and early won for himself a place of renown as a
pianist through his sympathetic interpretation and mastery of tonal
shading, but it is as a composer that he will undoubtedly be longest
remembered. Among his numerous compositions which include tone
poems, songs, exquisitely harmonized dances, and more ambitious
symphonic selections, one pauses to recall the unforgettable Chants
de la Montagne, the Babylon suite of four oriental sketches; the
Kiskaya, Suite Aborigéne, based on Peruvian folklore, the finished
orchestral work, Cleopatra, and the colorful Dances Tropicales with

their rythmic Haitian and Cuban motifs.
151

SUBJECT MATTER OF CONSULAR REPORTS

REPORTS RECEIVED TO JANUARY 16, 1932

vember, 1931.

152

or)

th
4

pretsenonget is occ canoer
eater”

ee BULLETIN :
ye OF THE =

PAN AMERICAN
UNION

By “MARCH | 1932

. CGI /MLRGC Entel Tie rarcleciirer att eicircisiem ttt

MONIC ECMO ESB CES

Argentina_

GOVERNING: BOARD-:-OF-THE
"AMERICAN
UNION

PAN

Mr. Henry L. Stimson, Chairman

Sefior Don Freier A. Espit,

1806 Corcoran Street, Washington, D. C.

Bolivia ieee
2830 Forty-fourth Street, Washington, D. C.

Senor Don Luis O. ABELLI,

Snhr. Dr, R. pz Lima E Sitva,

2437 Fifteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

Sefior Dr. Migue~nCrucHacaTocorRNaAL,

2154 Florida Avenue, Washington, D. C.

Colombia__

Semor Dr. Fasnio Lozano,

Hill Building, Washington, D. C.

Costa Rica

Sefior Don GuILLERMO E. GonzALeEz,

3451 Newark Street, Washington, D. C.

Senor Dr. Orestes FERRARA,

2630 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

Dominican Republic. Sefior Don Roperto DEsPRADEL,
Woodward Building, Washington, D. C.

TCUAOOr.: pes es
2633 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

El Salvador2 2-2-2
2601 Connecticut Avenue, Washington, D. C.

Guatemala

Sefior Dr. GonzALO ZALDUMBIDE,
Sefior Dr. Carios Letva,

Sefor Dr. ApriAn RxEcINOs,

1614 Highteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

M. DantEs BELLEGARDE,

1703 Q Street, Washington, D. C.

PONOUras seen Sefior Dr. C&étzo0 DAvina,
1100 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
Mirsicoct eo eon Sefior Dr. Jost Manus. Pure

CASAURANC,

2829 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

Nicaragua_

Sefior Don Luis M. Desarte,

1711 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C.

(Panainie no ee ae
1535 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C.

Paraguay -_-_

Sefior Dr. Horacio F. Anraro,

Sefior Don PaBto Max. YNSFRAN,

1726 Irving Street, Washington, D. C.

Sefior Don M. pre Freyre y SANTANDER,

1300 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

United States____--
Department of State, Washington, D. C.

Uruguay _-

Mr. Henry L. Stimson,

Senor Don Jos& RIcHLING,

17 Battery Place, New York City.

Venezuela_

Senor Dr. Pepro Manure. Arcaya,

1628 Twenty-first Street, Washington, D. C.

UARAAASADADADD RAR AALADODARSOAARAIAAAMDARAAAADAAAADDDARARALAL RSMAS SIRS tn

TABLE OF CONTENTS

National Museum, Santiago, Chile____________.___.____________ (Cover ees
GenwAgustin-. Justo, President of Argentina--_-.-.....__-_./_2______ 153
PharougshwMattonGrossO=. S.A ele See se ee eee 155
By C. R. Cameron, American Consul General, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
The Third Pan American Postal Congress___________________________ 169
By Irving L. Glover, Second Assistant Postmaster General of the United States.
Paintings of Gaucho Life in Argentina_______________________________ 173
hiemCoatwotrAnms of Mimal 822-20 2s foe ee 180
By E. Harth-Terre.
Uruguay Sends a Woman to the Disarmament Conference____________ 187
Phiemhiversmand wlalkesnot vHaiti= 2 22s 2 See 188
By Lue Dorsinville, Member of the Société de Géographie de France, Principal and
Founder of the Guy Joseph-Bonnet Institute, Port-au-Prince.
Latin American Foreign Trade in 1930—A General Survey: Part II___. 194
By Matilda Phillips, Chief, Statistical Division Pan American Union.
Columbus Memorial Library Notes=--2-: === 222 2 203
Pan American Progress:
Treaties and International Relations______________________________ 205
ie sisi a tio nee ae eee ln ee eve eS 205
JACEE OWI NATIEO =e AS ea a ee ey eee 206
ANY CC werent A epee qlee a ede eee a ae 2 eS a eS oe 208
TO 0 Laem reget a nrnnee Sister epee) Qe aN A Se a eA 214
dications eater tee oe eye SS se ee te 216
Public Health and Social Welfare__.______________________________ 220
VE MINTS 11 eee epee ee eer OMe ee gi ot Se ee eS 226
INGE CTO Bay ei a Ys oe A Bey ep ee eee Syne 227
Supjlecte Matter sot Consular Reports] 2222522 2 2 228

(The contents of previous issues of the BULLETIN OF THE PAN AMERICAN UNION
can be found in the READERS’ GUIDE 2n your library.)

HIS EXCELLENCY GENERAL AGUSTIN P. JUSTO, PRESIDENT OF THE
REPUBLIC OF ARGENTINA

Inaugurated February 20, 1932, for a term of six years.

errs ew nd eee YY <n Wt BES SRA SIN Pee

Vou. LXVI MARCH, 1932 No. 3

GEN. AGUSTIN P. JUSTO, PRESIDENT OF
ARGENTINA

As a result of the elections held on November 8, 1931, Gen. Agustin
P. Justo was inaugurated President of Argentina on February 20, to
serve six years. He is known to his countrymen as a gifted statesman,
an honored officer, a man of democratic convictions and sturdy up-
rightness, qualified by knowledge, experience, and patriotism to cope
with the difficult governmental problems which that progressive
nation, like all others in the Western Hemisphere, faces to-day.

General Justo is 56 years of age, having been born in the city of
Concepcién del Uruguay, Province of Entre Rios, on February 26,
1876. He is therefore in the prime of his physical and mental vigor.
This was well demonstrated in the short preelection campaign during
which he tirelessly traversed all the Argentine Provinces to make
known his platform and to preach his republican ideals.

As a child he attended primary school in San Nicolas de los Arroyos,
where political vicissitudes had caused his father, former governor of
the Province of Corrientes, to settle. At 11 years of age the boy
entered the newly organized Military College, graduating in 1892,
before he was 16 years of age, as ap ensign. He then entered the
artillery regiment stationed at Mendoza as its youngest officer.

His penetrating intelligence was revealed in his fondness for mathe-
matics, and his strength of body and character evinced in the arduous
duties performed in the mountains for two strenuous years in the
open or under improvised shelters in the midst of the Andean soli-
tudes, while he worked with a military topographical commission of
the General Staff. This work won him in 1895, before he was 20
years old, the insignia of second lieutenant.

Since at that time there was no War College in Argentina, the
young officer, to extend his training, entered the School of Exact
Sciences of the University of Buenos Aires, graduating as a civil
engineer and thereafter ranking as a military engineer.

153

154 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

In 1897 came promotion to a first lleutenancy and a special com-
mission to the frontier; in 1902, a captaincy and appointment to the
professorship of military plans in the Officers’ Training School.

In 1904 Captain Justo was made professor of mathematics in the
National Military College. Subsequently he became chief of con-
struction at Campo de Mayo, but later returned to his teaching of
mathematics in the Military College, adding also courses in tele-
metrics and optic telegraphy in the School of Marksmanship, of which
he was appointed assistant principal in 1908. Meantime he had
received the rank of major, and in 1909, as a lieutenant colonel, he
had the honor of being a member of the Argentine mission to Chile
on the occasion of the centenary of that Republic. A coloneley in
1913 continued his steady and well-deserved rise in his chosen pro-
fession, for during the course of the years Justo had repeatedly
manifested a deep devotion to study, fondness for hard work, and
outstanding ability.

A new position as assistant principal of the Military College he left
to become chief of the brigade artillery in command of the Fourth
Military Section, but once more, in 1915, he returned to the college,
this time as its principal. He threw himself into the administration
of the school with great energy and intelligence, endeavoring to train
the new generation of Argentine officers in accordance with the most
modern technical and cultural methods. After some years of labor,
during which time he transformed the school completely, from the
architecture of the building to the course of instruction, from the
care of the cadets’ physical health to that of their ethical education,
he left this post to take another of still greater responsibility, having
been called in 1922 by the then President Alvear to the cabinet post of
Minister of War.

While holding this portfolio, the Minister’s executive ability and
his ideas, expressed at every opportunity, made a deep impression in
political and social circles. On leaving the ministry at the end of
President Alvear’s term of office in 1925, General Justo, as he had
become, addressed to the latter a famous letter containing his demo-
cratic opinions with respect to the army.

Immediately after taking the oath of office before Congress on
February 20, General Justo proceeded to the Casa Rosada and
assumed the duties of the Presidency.

THROUGH MATTO GROSSO
By C. R. CamEron

American Consul General, Sao Paulo, Brazil

HE Brazilian State of Matto Grosso (literally, Great Forest)

embraces a vast territory on the Paraguayan and Bolivian borders
stretching across the Tropic of Capricorn from 7° to 24° of south
latitude and having an area of approximately 637,000 square miles—
about eleven times that of all New England. Matto Grosso’s popula-
tion, however, is exceedingly sparse, being only about 350,000, or not
much more than one inhabitant for each 2 square miles. Some sec-
tions—that around the headwaters of the Xingu River, for example—
are little known, are inhabited almost exclusively by Indians, and their
immense forests are rumored to conceal the remains of ancient cities,
possibly related to the Mayan or Aztecan ruins of the north. The
Parecis Mountains divide the State into two parts, the northern or
lesser portion lying in the Amazon Valley and depending for communi-
cation with the outside world exclusively upon the tributaries of that
ereat river. The southern and better-known portion utilizes for
communication the Parana-Paraguayan River system and a single
railway, the Northwestern of Brazil, which, connecting with the net-
work of Sao Paulo Railways, stretches westward 500 miles across the
State from Jupia on the Parana to Porto Esperanga on the Paraguay.

THROUGH SAO PAULO STATE

It was in the early days of August, 1931, that the writer started
from Sao Paulo, with pencil and camera, on a journey of 3,000 miles
to Matto Grosso and return. The traveler may utilize the roomy
chair cars of the broad-gage (5 feet 3 inches) Sao Paulo-Paulista
Railways without change to a junction point (Ityrapina) some 146
miles from Sao Paulo City. This route lies through Limeira, the most
famous center of citrous production in the State, and this being orange
season, baskets of a dozen of the navel variety found ready sale among
the passengers at a milreis—about 6 cents. It was after nightfall
when the train of the narrow-gage (1 meter) branch reached Bauru, a
city of 15,000 people with electric light and power, and the most
important railway town west of Sao Paulo City, for here center
branches of the Paulista and Sorocabana Railways, and here also is
the eastern terminus of the Northwestern Railway, which stretches
away almost 800 miles toward the heart of the continent.

155

156 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

--
/

Puerto Suarez ee g
. we

5
\ \
im d\Entre Rios

oMargarida

aN. Ga
Vista C 2 el
Ponta Por& eh

RN
S
&
&
N
fe)

Porto
Murtinho

'
See Northwestern Kal/lway PARANA
> ++—+— Other Katlways
HHH Hee Aig

Road

MAP OF REGION TRAVERSED BY AUTHOR IN JOURNEY FROM SAO PAULO TO
MATTO GROSSO, BRAZIL

Near Bauru the railway runs through a wonderfully fertile area,
which is rapidly becoming one of the most important coffee-producing
centers of Sao Paulo. The trip, however, is made during the night,
since through trains leave Bauru only twice each week, at 10.30 p. m.,
on Thursdays and Sundays.

Shortly after the passenger awakes the next morning the train
reaches the southern bank of the Tiete River, the channel of which it
follows in a general way to the western border of the State. Here the
route traverses a rank forest with thick undergrowth bound together
with creepers, impenetrable unless one cuts his way. ‘This forest is
the legitimate haunt of the ongas (jaguars and pumas) some of which
reach the weight of 300 pounds and are not unworthy to be compared
with the Indian tiger. However, their number is yearly becoming
less, due to the westward march of farmers and lumbermen and the
activities of the hunters, who find a ready sale for the beautifully
marked pelts. The main line of the Northwestern will shortly be
relocated upon a ridge some 50 miles to the south, which is more fertile,
higher, and more healthful.

ENTERING MATTO GROSSO

Just at nightfall the train crosses the Parana River into Matto
Grosso over the great bridge of Jupia, finished in 1926 and consisting
of a series of steel trestles on piers, the total length being 3,265 feet.
The Parana here is wide and shallow, limestone rocks appearing in
midchannel during the period of low water. This is the head of

THROUGH MATTO GROSSO LF

navigation for river steamers which go down the Parana River from
Jupia to the Falls of Guayra or Sete Quedas, about 300 miles. The
next city of importance in Matto Grosso touched by the Northwestern
is Tres Lagoas, 557 miles from Sao Paulo City, a small city founded
by the railway and largely depending thereon for its prosperity. It
boasts about 600 houses and has considerable wealth in cattle and
plantations of various kinds, the population being largely natives of
Sao Paulo with a sprinkling of Portuguese and Italian immigrants.
Communication with the interior is by automobile, and the city does a
good business fitting out expeditions for the diamond fields of Santa
Rita to the north or even furnishing transportation to Cuyaba, the
capital of the State, 800 miles away.

Photograph by C. R. Cameron

MAIN STREET, BAURU

Situated 263 miles from S40 Paulo, Baurt is the most important railway town in the western part of the
State of that name, and the eastern terminus of the Northwestern Railway.

West of the Parana River the landscape changes abruptly and one
sees an open rolling country with scattering trees stretching away to
the south as far as the eye can reach. This is the beginning of the
high-ground cattle-raising area which, with various interruptions,
extends westward 400 miles to the flood plain of the Paraguay.
However, the run from Tres Lagoas to Campo Grande is made largely
at night both ways, so that the principal observation of the traveler
at this, the dry season of the year at least, relates to the fires which
light the horizons in all directions and clear off the dead grass in order
that the fresh grass brought by the first rains may be easily cropped
by the cattle. Our engine burned wood exclusively, and the enormous
clouds of sparks which were given out by the smokestack would un-

158 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

doubtedly produce fires in the dry grass even if such were not inten-
tionally set by the cattlemen. Indeed, the fences and even the cross-
ties of the railway are frequently destroyed by these fires, so that the
ties are, as a rule, covered with earth by the section gangs in order to
guard against this contingency.

CAMPO GRANDE

The train reaches Campo Grande in the eatly morning. This city
of 12,000 inhabitants, 818 miles from Sao Paulo City, has telephones,
water service, electric light and power. It is situated on rolling
sround with wide straight streets lined with stores, the central portion
being paved with asphalt concrete. The city has a half dozen moving-
picture theaters, while 200 motor trucks and 100 passenger automo-
biles operate north and south, acting as feeders to the railway.
Various rice-hulling plants located in the city serve the rich agricul-
tural area and within a radius of one or two hundred miles are located
many great cattle ranges. Here are bred most of the cattle which,
after being fattened farther east in the States of Minas Geraes and
Sao Paulo, supply the packing plants and slaughterhouses of Sao
Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. To the south, moreover, toward the
Paraguayan frontier, are thousands of square miles of natural maté
forest producing the famous tea of that name, the Matto Grosso
product being largely exported to the Plate either down the Parana
River or by truck to Campo Grande, then by rail to Porto Esperanga
and down the Paraguay. Campo Grande is the emporium of southern
Matto Grosso.

WESTERN MATTO GROSSO

On the last day of the railway journey the train descends steadily
from 1,780 feet above sea level, the elevation of Campo Grande,
following the river courses and skirting at intervals detached moun-
tains of the Maracaju range. In this season of midwinter with com-
paratively little foliage in sight, the most conspicuous trees of the
landscape were those known locally as ipé do campo. ‘They had not
leaved out as yet, but the otherwise bare branches were covered with
yellow blossoms. The ipé do campo has a thick, corklike bark, as
indeed do all trees which survive the frequent fires sweeping these
plains, burning the grass and destroying shrubs and trees not pro-
tected by thick bark. The sight of these great trees, 60 to 75 feet
high with a corresponding spread and presenting a compact mass of
brilliant yellow, was most striking. As the train descended toward
the valley of the Paraguay the route crossed swamps and low lands
and finally stopped at Salobra (just beyond the Miranda River),
964 miles from Sao Paulo City. Owing to the flooding of the Para-
guay River Valley this station was the temporary terminus of rail

THROUGH MATTO GROSSO 159

transportation. It is characteristic of the Paraguay River in Matto
Grosso that during the local dry season occurs the great overflow of
the valley, whereas in the season of local rains the river is shrunken to
a comparatively narrow watercourse. This is due to the time
required for the rains of the upper courses to reach this latitude.

RIVER VOYAGE

At Salobra the passengers, about 30 in number, boarded the S. S.
Guaporé, a little side-wheel, wood-burning river steamer, about 50
feet long and of a 3-foot draft. On either side were tied lighters
loaded with cargo and the overflow passengers. Owing to the
shallowness and crookedness of the river our steamer navigated only

Photograph by C. R. Cameron

LAUNCH AND LIGHTERS ON THE MIRANDA RIVER

One of the wood-burning steamers which make the 3-day trip from Salobra down the Miranda and
Aquidauana Rivers and up the Paraguay River to Corumba.

in the daytime, anchoring at nightfall. In the quiet of the night one
could appreciate the abundance of life in the river, from which came
continuous sounds of the leaping and splashing of fish. The great
dourados, salmon a yard long and excellent for eating, were the
principal disturbers, pursuing their prey relentlessly. The voyage
was begun again at dawn. The river is exceedingly crooked, and the
little launch, burdened with the lighters, got out of control in making
sharp curves and, carried by the current, was continually crashing
into banks or trees growing at the water’s edge. The decks were
soon covered with leaves, moss, ants, and débris, and some of the
ship’s firewood was knocked overboard. The jacarés (Brazilian
alligators) began to appear on the banks, quite fearless in this little-
navigated river. Capivaras (water hogs), the greatest of all the

160 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

rodents, attaining a length of 3 feet and weighing 100 pounds, prized
for their skins, were numerous on the bank, while lontras (otters)
swam in the river. The crew of one of our lighters saw a mother
onga and two cubs playing on the bank. A 12 or 15 foot sueuri
(anaconda) was seen by the writer, sunning itself on the bushes.
Waterfowl became more numerous—snow white cranes, egrets, snipe,
kingfishers, cormorants, herons, flamingoes, storks, ducks, and many
others. The rosy spoonbills—pure white with tints of rose on their
wings—in flocks of a score or more, attracted attention, as did the
tuytuyus, great white and black storks with black bill and red throat,
standing 5 feet high, which stalked with comical majesty along the
bank. The launch anchored again at dark, still in the Miranda River.

Photograph by C. R. Cameron
THE CORUMBA WATER FRONT

The commercial section of the town is located on low ground along the water front, with the residential
district and most of the retail stores at a higher elevation.

The next day, when we were on the Aquidauana River, was a
repetition of these experiences. Just at nightfall the steamer passed
a bend in the river where an enormous number of snowy cranes had
settled to roost, literally whitening the trees for hundreds of yards
along the bank. During the night the steamer entered the Paraguay
River.

CORUMBA

At 2 p. m. of the third day of river navigation the Brazilian naval
station of Ladario loomed up on a limestone cliff rising abruptly on
our left, with several small craft tied up in front. Upon this limestone
ridge, which stretches along the river, soon appeared the military
barracks and finally the city of Corumba. For discharging, except

THROUGH MATTO GROSSO 161

at the small customhouse wharf, steamers ordinarily lie offshore; the
_ passengers of the S. 5. Guaporé reached the landing in small boats,
finding there automobiles waiting to transport them to the upper
town of hotels and residences. Commercio Street, near the landing,
occupies an area hewn out of the limestone well above the level of
high water.

Before the completion of the Northwestern Railway to Porto
Esperanga, Corumba was the commercial center for a vast territory,
including almost the whole State of Matto Grosso and adjoining por-
tions of Bolivia. During the rubber boom before the World War it
enjoyed a period of great prosperity, imported luxuries directly from

Photograph by C. R. Cameron

PRAGA REPUBLICA, CUYABA

The main plaza of the State capital of Matto Grosso. The group of buildings from right to left includes the
cathedral, a grade school, and the State treasury

Europe via the Plate and the Paraguay Rivers, and German beer
and French wine flowed in its cafés. At that time Corumba attracted
many settlers from the Spanish-speaking countries of the south, and,
indeed, the Spanish gracias in place of the Portuguese obrigado is
often used to-day even by the native-born Corumbdense. The break
in the rubber prices in 1910, in conjunction with the finishing of the
Madeira-Mamore Railway in 1912, and the arrival of the North-
western at Porto Esperanga in 1914, brought Corumba’s wave of
exceptional prosperity to an end. The Madeira-Mamore drained
most of the Bolivian rubber toward Manaos on the Amazon River,
while the completion of the Northwestern to Porto Esperanga, where
the railhead remained instead of being carried across the river to
Corumba as planned, tended to make Sao Paulo (via the North-

162 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

western) and Porto Esperanea (via the Paraguay River) the dis-
tributing and collecting centers of southern Matto Grosso.

AIR TRANSPORTATION

It is surprising to discover that two aviation lines make their ter-
minus in Corumba. One is a Brazilian line operating a hydro-
plane from Corumba to Cuyaba, the State capital to the north, mak-
ing a round trip weekly while every two weeks the Lloyd-Boliviano
plane from La Paz visits Corumba and the Bolivian port of Puerto
Suarez, its official terminus, 16 milesaway. Theriver launches which
ply between Corumba and Cuyaba were encountering difficulties
due to the frequent shoals occurring in the Cuyaba River, since, as
stated, this was the local dry season and the tributaries of the Para-
guay were at low water. Indeed, the launches, unable to reach
Cuyaba, had stopped some 50 miles below the city. This launch trip
frequently takes from 8 to 12 days, whereas the hydroplane makes
the trip in less than four hours.

On August 13 the writer was a passenger from Cuyaba in the little
4-seater Junker hydroplane, the start being made at daylight. The
route lies over the Paraguay and Cuyaba Rivers and the scenery
changes from the vast flooded area near Corumba to the drier plain
near Cuyaba, where the river shrinks to a narrow ribbon winding
through the woods and meadows. On the Bolivian side enormous
lagoons open out, and on one of these a British company has attempted
to colonize European immigrants. As the plane turned up the Cuyaba
River valley it encountered a treacherous head wind, forming eddies
and air pockets in which the plane rocked and plunged, but we
reached Cuyaba without incident in 2 hours and 40 minutes of flying
time.

CUYABA

Cuyaba, the capital of the State of Matto Grosso, is in 15° and
36’ south latitude; it was founded by Paulistas in 1792 on the site
of gold diggings. In fact, even to-day, after rains, urchins pick up
particles of gold in the streets of the city. It is one of the most iso-
lated of all Brazilian State capitals, being 650 miles by automobile—
at least a four days’ journey—from the railway at Campo Grande,
the alternative means of access being from Corumba via launch (aver-
age, one week) or hydroplane. To the north lie the Parecis Moun-
tains and beyond them the interminable jungles of the Amazon,
while to the south, 50 miles away, begin the great swamps which,
with numerous interruptions, stretch eastward many miles from the
Paraguay River and to the southward below Porto Esperan¢a. The
city has numerous handsome buildings and the central portion is
paved with basalt. It has about 15,000 inhabitants, electric light
and power, water and sewer systems.

Photograph by C. R. Cameron
GORGE OF THE COXIPO DE ORO RIVER
A view in the Cuyaba table-land below the Bridal Veil Falls, near Burity.

Photograph by C. R. Cameron

URUCUM MOUNTAIN

This mountain, about 15 miles south of Corumba, is said to be one of the richest deposits of manganese ore
in the world.

164 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

IPECAC

Cuyaba is the world’s great collecting market and source of supply
for ipecac, known locally as ipecacuanha or poaya. The best grade of
ipecac, the black, grows on the slopes of the Parecis Mountains to
the northwest of Cuyaba between the headwaters of the Guapore
and Paraguay Rivers. It is a shrub a foot or two in height, found
in spongy, shaded ground, from which it is removed by pulling after
the soil has been loosened with a sort of trowel. The root, which
is corrugated like that of the sweet flag, is the valuable portion.
The exporting firms in Cuyaba advance funds to foremen, who in
turn organize gangs for gathering the ipecac, the harvest taking place
during the dry season from August to December. It is a trouble-
some product to handle, as the price varies greatly, the market being
now disorganized owing to the crisis.

CUYABA TABLE-LAND

The country around Cuyaba is largely composed of decomposed
gold-bearing quartz, which was washed for nuggets by the first
settlers 200 years ago. Lacking mechanical means for bringing water
from the river, they constructed great reservoirs (pocos) which filled
in the rainy season. Huge heaps of gravel and deep excavations still
bear testimony to the mining activities of that period. Over the
ridge the writer traveled by automobile to the old fazenda of Burity,
37 miles northwest of Cuyaba. Beyond the ridge the road leads
across the low rolling table-land (chapaddo) covered with scrub and
a few trees, some showing brilliant blooms. This table-land, a
geological deposit of considerable depth and probably formed in
various geological epochs stretching from the Devonian to the Creta-
ceous Age, has been washed away or eroded to form the Paraguay
River Basin, but here on the chapaddao the erosion has been retarded.
About halfway to Burity the road passes through a range of red
arenilitic hills weathered into fantastic shapes, one section of the
road being blasted out of the mountain side in a narrow defile, known
as Porto do Inferno (Hell Gate). The table-land is traversed by
numerous deep watercourses and the road runs quite close to two or
three picturesque waterfalls. These watercourses are provided with
bridges, which in some cases consist only of a log split in two, the
two halves, placed at suitable intervals with the flat surface upward,
furnishing the track for the wheels of the automobile.

CUYABA TO PORTO ESPERANGA

The return trip from Cuyaba to Corumba was also made by hydro-
plane, which flew more than a mile up to avoid a head wind. Two
interesting automobile trips can be made from Corumba, one just

THROUGH MATTO GROSSO 165

across the border to the Bolivian governmental center called Puerto
Suarez, with which Corumba maintains a considerable trade. Many
supplies for this section of Bolivia, such as cloth from Sao Paulo and
flour from the Plate, are purchased in Corumba.

Another trip is to the Urucum fazenda at the base of a mountain of
manganese of excellent quality. This is a delightfully fruitful planta-
tion with abundance of running water, truck gardens, and groves of
oranges, mangos, and other fruits in profusion. The fazenda is a
favorite resort for picnic parties from Corumba. It is along the side
of Urucum Mountain and related hills stretching away to the south-
west that the Northwestern Railway will some day be extended to
Corumba, thus fulfilling the dream and ambition of the Corumbaenses.

A PIRANHA

These comparatively small fish are more feared than any other form of river life.

Corumba, like Cuyaba, is noted for its excellent schools and up-to-
date newspapers.

The writer was fortunate enough to make the trip from Corumba
to Porto Esperanga by day and to catch the very first train of the
Northwestern which reached that port after an interruption of several
months due to high water. The main channel of the Paraguay River
is from 200 to 300 yards wide, inundated lands stretching far beyond.
During the time of flood the swamps and lagoons produce extensive
surface growths consisting largely of water hyacinths, which with
the fall of the water float out into the main channel in great blocks
or islands. These camelotes, as they are known, were frequently
encountered in the river and waterfowl were again in evidence. On
the banks the yellow cambara and the rose-colored piuva, the latter
one of the most resistant woods of Brazil, were bursting into bloom,

100665—32—Bull. 3 2

166 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

while the lagoons and side channels glimpsed with the progress of
the launch sometimes revealed great flocks of cranes, ducks and
cormorants, and other bird life.

PIRANHAS

The river fish known as piranhas can easily be captured by hook
and line. This little fish is somewhat square in appearance, the adult
weighing about 2 pounds, the lancetlike teeth projecting from the
jaws toward the front so that, hurling itself rapidly against its prey,
the teeth enter the flesh. Attacking in schools of 100 or more,
piranhas are exceedingly dangerous and more feared than alligators
or any other form of river life. However, they are usually excited
to attack only by blood, although even a red patch on the skin may
draw them. Cows swimming the river sometimes lose their udders
or are even killed by piranhas, and not long ago an Indian crossing
the river on horseback with his naked feet in the stirrups lost most
of his great toe through an attack of these fish.

THE GREAT MARSHES

Many thousands of square miles of the Paraguay River Valley are
subject to overflow and, indeed, remain more or less marshy through-
out the year. These marshes are alluvial plains in the making—as
were once some of the States of the Mississippi Valley—and in this
tropical climate they teem with life of various kinds, including alli-
gators, lizards, turtles, water snakes, anacondas sometimes being 40
feet in length; waterfowl of a thousand varieties; fish, which in the
dry season literally crowd the diminished watercourses and upon
which innumerable waterfowl and beasts. of prey gorge themselves
with a minimum of effort; and a large number of land and water
mammals such as ongas, wild cats, deer, tapirs, otters, capivaras,
pacas, armadillos, anteaters, and hundreds of others valued for their
meat or skins. Alligators (yacarés) are so numerous that, according
to the residents, they sometimes pile themselves one on top of the
other on favorite sunning beaches. However, the writer’s visit being
during the season of high water with comparatively few ’gators in
sight, this phenomenon was not personally observed. Unfortunately,
the skin of these alligators can not be converted into leather, inas-
much as it has plates even on the abdomen, which is the part of the
American alligator skin which is utilized. Capivara skins are highly
valued for making gloves.

But the product of the marshes of most value commercially is
cattle. A fazenda in the marshes, if provided with enough high
ground to serve as refuge during the floods, produces cattle whose
meat is especially savory, due to continual access to fresh grass.
Moreover, the ox warble, one of the most pernicious insect enemies

THROUGH MATTO GROSSO 167

(Left)

URUCUM ROAD,
NEAR CORUMBA

Showing one of the re-
markable nests of twigs
built by the japuhyra, a
bird the size of an oriole.
(Photograph by C. R.
Cameron.)

(Right)
A CARNAUBA PALM

Carnauba wax, which has
numerous commercial
uses, is obtained from
the coating of the palm
leaves, which is beaten
off and boiled. During
1929, Brazil, which has
a practical monopoly of
this product. exported
6,433 tons, valued at
nearly $3,000,000. (Pho-
tograph by courtesy of
Bureau of Plant Indus-
try, U. S. Department
of Agriculture.)

of cattle on the Matto Grosso ranges along the railway, is unable to
exist in the marshes, since it must pass part of its life cycle in the
eround.

PORTO ESPERANGA

At the time of the writer’s visit to Porto Esperanga, which is situ-
ated on low ground, the town was largely under water. However,
the railway tracks are built on causeways, and the little electric plant
of the railway company, together with the houses of the railway
employees, was on filled land above the flood level. The building
most conspicuous to the traveler arriving by river launch is the
combined customhouse and terminal station of the railway. Here
also the Lloyd Brasileiro has a pair of lighters anchored near the
water front to facilitate the loading and unloading of cargo. Both
the Lloyd Brasileiro and the Argentine company of Mihanovich
operate steamers down the Paraguay from Corumba (head of 6-foot
navigation) to Montevideo and Buenos Aires, making stops at Porto
Esperanca. Matto Grosso imports via the Paraguay consist largely
of flour, gasoline, kerosene, and salt for jerked beef (zarque). The
exports via the Plate which bulk the largest are coffee and maté from
Porto Esperanga; and from Corumba and the upper river, hides,
skins, rubber, ipecac, and forest products in wide variety.

RETURN TO SAO PAULO

Northwestern trains arrive at Porto Esperanga after dark and
leave before dawn. The train for Bauru left the station for Porto
Esperanga at 5 o’clock; the first 24 miles lay across the flood plain,
the roadbed having just been submerged and recently repaired. Our

168 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

progress was slow until we reached high ground at Carandazal, where
the train took on a heavier and stronger locomotive. Carandazal
gets its name from Caranda, the southern name of the carnauba wax
palm. This palm, it will be recalled, bears upon its leaves thin flakes
of wax, the harvesting of which consists of beating off these flakes in
a closed room. On account of its fine grain and hardness, carnauba
wax constitutes a valuable article of commerce; it is the material upon
which phonograph records are first recorded.

Beyond Carandazal the railway soon skirts a limestone formation,
similar to that of Corumba and other hills of this section—protuber-
ances left by the age-long erosion which scooped out the valley.
This limestone will furnish the material for the elevation of the
Northwestern Railway across the flood plain, an improvement which
is now under way, and which, when completed, will prevent the
interruption of traffic by flood. At Salobra a river launch, similar to
our old friend the Guaporé, was just beginning its river journey, and
I wondered whether any of its passengers would experience the
intense thrills of pleasure which fell to my lot during the trip through
this tropic wonderland.

From Bauru, the return was made over the Sorocabana Railway,
the route lying over the picturesque Botucatu Mountains, from the
height of which one sees cultivated fields, groves, and coffee planta-
tions stretching away as far as the eye can reach. Descending the
mountains, the train enters one of the most fruitful sections of agri-
cultural Sao Paulo, as evidenced by the wide variety of its products
and the handsome modern farm and plantation houses which thickly
dot the countryside.

Arriving in Sao Paulo city, the writer learned that more than half
of the several hundred photographic exposures made during the trip
had been ruined by a puncture of the camera bellows developed the
second day out. Fortunately, the puncture was temperamental and
spared many photographs.

But pictures are not necessary to recall Matto Grosso, and the
returning traveler will often find his thoughts reverting to that wide-
flung member of the Brazilian federation and the gentle hospitality
of its people; Cuyaba upon its hills of quartz and gold; the boundless
ranges of Campo Grande; and the white cliffs of Corumba. There
is something not easily forgotten in the aspect of the latter, set upon
its limestone escarpment a hundred feet above the river and the
teeming, mysterious marshes, gazing away toward Bolivia across the
bend of the Paraguay, now expanded to the dimensions of a sea.
As the sun sinks one sees an endless succession of dark islands and
shimmering lagoons where frontiers cross prairies in the making, and
where, in the very center of the South American Continent, nature
affords one of its most impressive manifestations of creative life.

Tae IRD
PAN AMERICAN POSTAL CONGRESS

By Irvine L. GLover
Second Assistant Postmaster General of the United States

HE Third Pan American Postal Congress convened in Madrid

on October 10 and adjourned on November 10, 1931. The sessions
were held in the Hall of the Senate, from the walls of which many
beautiful paintings depicting important events in the long and color-
ful history of Spain looked down upon the delegates.

The congress was opened by the President of the Spanish Republic,
or rather of the Constituent Assembly, which was holding day and
night sessions a short distance away in the Chamber of Deputies
Building, drawing up a constitution for the new Republic; 23 countries
were represented, 22 from the Western Hemisphere, including Canada
which was admitted to the union, and Spain.

The congress adopted a principal convention dealing with the ex-
change of correspondence, prints of all kinds, commercial papers and
samples; and two agreements, one providing for the exchange of parcel
post and the other for a money-order system between the contract-
ing countries. The delegates from the United States signed the
convention and both agreements.

One of the basic principles of the union is free transit of regular
mails through intermediary countries. This principle had been
recognized by the United States in former congresses but the language
which expressed it in the convention was so ambiguous as to give rise
to disputes and differences of opinion with regard to the extent of its
application. This provision was clarified and unanimous agreement
was reached that freedom of transit applies to all of the postal services
maintained by any signatory country through its territory or on
board ships of its registry. It does not apply to air services main-
tained by one or more administrations which, however, must be offered
to all countries on the same basis.

The domestic rates of postage of each country will apply to mail
sent to any of the countries, except that the United States reserves
the right to increase its rates to Pan America and Spain by not more
than 50 per cent until such time as it can obtain a corresponding
increase in its domestic rates.

The contracting countries obligate themselves to act and vote as a
unit in Congresses of the Universal Postal Union. The United

169

16. Ol WAANAAON—Ol UWAAO.LOO ‘NIVdS ‘CIUGVW ‘SSHUDNOO IVLSOd NVOINANV NVd GUIHL AHL OL SULVORTAG

IOAO[H "T ware AM JO A8041n0pH

THE THIRD PAN AMERICAN POSTAL CONGRESS wal

States, however, excepted to this provision and reserved complete
liberty of action in the Universal Postal Union Congresses. This was
because the majority of Pan American countries insist on extending
the principle of free transit to all countries of the Universal Postal
Union. While the United States adheres to the principle in its re-
lations with the Pan American countries, it regards it as entirely
impracticable and inequitable if extended to include all countries.

The regulations adopted regarding the air mail services recognize
the necessity for cooperation among all the countries and provide for
wide dissemination of information regarding the lines maintained as
well as for their utilization by all countries on uniform terms.
Complete control is, however, left in the hands of the country which
operates the lines.

The monetary unit is changed from the dollar to the gold franc in
the interest of uniformity with the Universal Postal Union Conven-
tion which uses that standard of value.

In the exchange of parcel post an additional fee of 10 cents per parcel
may be charged for customs formalities in the country of destination.
A maximum storage charge for parcels of $1 was agreed upon. The
maximum indemnity for ordinary parcels weighing over 11 pounds
was reduced from $10 to $8, and provision was made requiring the
sender to indicate on the dispatch note the disposal to be made of a
parcel which can not be delivered as originally addressed.

There were no important changes in the money-order agreement.

Finally, it was decided to change the name of the union to ‘‘ Postal
Union of the Americas and Spain,” thus according recognition in its
title to all of its members.

The convention becomes effective on March 1, 1932, and remains in
force until superseded by the convention to be adopted by the next
congress which meets at Habana in 1936.

The hospitality of the Spanish people is proverbial and it was never
better exemplified than in the entertainment of the Third Pan Ameri-
can Postal Congress. The delegates were entertained, if not by
royalty, at least in royal manner, and were taken to the many beauti-
ful and historic spots near Madrid as well as to those in the city.
Finally, they went on a 9-day trip through southern Spain, which was
replete with exciting and vivid incidents and was an experience long
to be remembered.

BolloUly JO Ajo100g oruvdsiTy OYJ, JO AsoyN0D

(WOTqIYX9
ou} JO ons0[e}vdO UL UOT4dIOSeq) “Se[}{0q MoOT[oA
puB W0eIS O1B WI PULYOG SeA[oYys UO posuBIIy
‘UY O1OJOq ANOIS oY} 7B 10}UN09 sly OAOGB SIBq pol
ou} YsnNoIyY A[snorxue yNO SYOOT oLadjnd oy pue
‘doys 0ulA 8B JO UBIS ‘YOURIG UVEIS B SAUBY 0104S 04
JO S][BM AvIZ OY} UG ‘S1O[VD YABp 10 por Jo spdiiiyo
pus ‘SIeMBIP OJIYA ‘YULU 10 ‘poet ‘MoT[eA ‘10[GO
UOUVS JO SjolyosoxooU vom AOI, “BU MO[[oA
[le B pue ‘tdoy eB ‘sey poulUTLIq-peroiq om} “Vey
do} Avis B ‘sdvo 4SI[BIOpOYT Poy ‘soldeA Ivospvoy
Tey, “diyM 10 ‘voppasiy pe[pUBY-IOATIS B SOlI1ed
JOY}OUB [YS WY ‘pAOMS ZuOT vB Joyjyoue ‘diy
10 ‘O1ajD} 8 PUB UOID/ B SIBOM UvVUT 9UO ‘sIejINd
ploy os[e Anois oy} Ul UE OMT, “UIseq 0} 4804
-U09 OY} JO} ULOOI VY} yNOGK IE ‘sodUvT, SULAIIVO
wey} JO AUVUL ‘pet UL POSseIp S]sI[VIepaAy OL
‘ojundn.jU0d ap vpoivd ‘1e4IMs 94} UO 4s0}U00 B
0} Wey} poesudl[vYO sABY YBqUIOD SUIIBYO JO pvojs
-ut Aqavd 10948], 044 JO sloquiew ey, “AyyedurdAs
4Sl[B.1OPOif JO ‘1Bq B YYIM 0104S 10 ‘vWadjnd B patio, ue
AABVY OM UL plo SUBIIeIIUQ OUT, ‘pdi2yd
yep puv yoyovl puv idexy ped Url ‘1ejIns B YI
Os[e “4SI[BIOpeq B SI WI suloRy poyeog ‘dnoid
@ JO JojU8d OY} UL IB{INS sly SUIP[OY spuvys ‘AZIVT
UVIIVITU() OY} JO JOQUIOM B ‘oq ITT UI PvlD UB pjo uy

(SUVLINO ANV SHONYV'T,,

Se 2AINININGS On GAUCHO LIE:
IN ARGENTINA

HE Hispanic Society of America opened to view from February

6 until April 15 of this year at its noted Museum in New York
City an exhibition of paintings of Gaucho life in the Province of
Entre Rios, Argentina, 1850-1870. These 25 pictures, brilliant in
technique and, in general, glowing in color, are the result of five years’
work by the Argentine artist Cesareo Bernaldo de Quirés. ‘‘And,
after his own fashion and in his own chosen way, has Ces4reo Bernaldo
de Quirés given his native milieu, his own local and regional types, the
accent and semblance of a genuine artistic creation. His contribution
to the art of his time is the Epoca del Gaucho,” says Dr. Christian
Brinton in an illuminating monograph.!

But, it may be asked, who is the Gaucho and why should he be
thus commemorated? In the introduction to another publication of
the Hispanic Society, in which the paintings in the exhibition are
reproduced with descriptive notes, is found the following summary
of the part of the Gaucho in Argentine history and literature:

The Gaucho is a descendant of the early Spanish colonizers, who in the course
of two centuries came to lead a semi-nomadic life on the Argentine pampas.
The chief activity of the Gauchos was that of herdsmen until the war of liber-
ation from Spain, when they were gathered into wandering bands of soldiers
under lccal leaders (caudillos). The guerrilla warfare which they waged was
then their main occupation and continued to be so while the Federalist party,
having as its aim a loose association of provinces, was struggling against the
Unitarian party, which sought a strongly centralized government at Buenos
Aires. There had risen to the governorship of the province of Entre Rios Gen-
eral Justo José de Urquiza. In 1851, although himself a Federalist, he began
active measures to establish a constitutional government and to depose General
Juan Manuel de Rosas, who had set up a dictatorship at Buenos Aires. Urquiza,
with an army composed largely of Gauchos from his own province, defeated
Rosas at the battle of Caseros on February 3rd, 1852. The victorious general
was president of the Argentine Confederation from 1853 to 1860, but Buenos
Aires was still a centre of Unitarian disaffection. The army of Buenos Aires
under Bartolomé Mitre prevailed against Urquiza at the battle of Pavén in
1861, with the result that Mitre was elected president. The province of Entre
Rios, for a short time under separate government, became the centre of the
opposition and still the scene of conflicts between Federalists and Unitarian ad-
herents. There was also occupation for the militia of that province in the war
against Paraguay, but with the assassination of General Urquiza in 1870, they
lost their greatest leader.

1 ““Cesdreo Bernaldo de Quirés,’’ by Christian Brinton. An exhibition of paintings of Gaucho life in
the Province of Entre Rios, Argentina, 1850-1870, at. the Hispanic Society of America. New York, 1932.
Hispanic Notes and Monographs: Essays, studies and brief biographies issued by the Hispanic Society
of America.

173

174 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

As soon as the Gaucho was an important military and pouitical factor, he also
became a focus for literary productions, the bulk of which, at this time, had their
genesis in political affairs. The most famous writers were also men of action:
Mitre and Sarmiento, whose Vida de Facundo Quiroga was the biography of a
Gaucho chief, were in turn exiles and presidents; Ascdsubi and Estanislao del
Campo were both pamphleteers and poets. THarly in the nineteenth century
the forms of the dance-songs (cielitos, gatos, et cetera) and ballads of the Gaucho
bards were adapted to the uses of political propaganda by such poets as Barto-
lomé Hidalgo and Juan Godoy, who had lived among the Gauchos and were
familiar with their habits and dialect. With the growing sense of nationality
there came a widespread interest in this unique type of native citizen. In
1837 Esteban Echeverria produced a long narrative poem, La cautiva, dealing
with an Indian raid on the pampas; Estanislao del Campo in Fausto interpreted
the story of the opera in Gaucho terms. By 1872 the poem of the Gaucho as-
sumed epic proportions in the Santos Vega of Hilario Ascdsubi, and, above all,
in the Martin Fierro? of José Hernandez, an account of the adventures of a
wandering minstrel and outlaw. Gauchesco subjects were treated in a romantic
fashion by such poets as Mitre, Ricardo Gutiérrez and Rafael Obligado. The
theme spread to the novel and the drama among a later generation of men who
no longer viewed the Gaucho scene except from a distance and largely through
the eyes of their literary predecessors. Eduardo Gutiérrez was a precursor of
the novelists in his series of journalistic stories; Martiniano Leguizamén pro-
duced the first important play, Calandria,*? as well as several novels, such as
Montaraz; the tradition was carried on in the novels of Roberto Payr6, Ricardo
Giiiraldes, and certain Uruguayan writers.

It seems small wonder that an Argentine painter should have found
inspiration in those stirring days and figures, that the subject and
the artist should be inseparable. However, it was by a long way
around that de Quirés finally came to be the interpreter of Gaucho
life.

Born May 29, 1881, in Gualeguay, a city of 40,000 inhabitants on
the river of the same name in the Province of Entre Rios, he was one
of the eight children of Sefior don Julio Bernaldo de Quirés, a gentle-
man of Spanish birth prominent in public affairs, and his wife Dofia
Carlota Ferreyra de Quiréds. The town was almost lost in the wide-
stretching undulating pampa which surrounded it. Here the young
Bernaldo grew up, devoted, like his brothers, to all manner of sports.
He also showed from the age of six or seven a great fondness for
drawing, but his leanings toward art were not encouraged by his
father, who placed him, at the age of 15, with a large business firm
in Buenos Aires.

In the capital he happened to become acquainted with Nicolas
Cotanda, who enjoyed a considerable reputation as a painter of his-
torical subjects. When Cotanda, impressed with the boy’s artistic

2 See A Fragment from “Martin Fierro (El Gaucho)”, by José Hernandez. Translated by Joseph
Auslander, Corresponding Member, The Hispanic Society of America. Hispanic Notes and Monographs:
Essays, Studies and Brief Biographies issued by The Hispanic Society of America. New York, 1932.

3 See ‘‘Calandria, a Drama of Gaucho Life,’’ by Martiniano Leguizamon. Translated from the Spanish.
Hispanic Notes and Monographs: Essays, Studies and Brief Biographies issued by The Hispanic Society
of America. New York, 1932.

Courtesy of The Hispanic Society of America

“THE COUPLE AND THE WATERMELON VENDER”

A man in white shirt and cotton drawers, yellow waistcoat, dark blue chiripd, and blue kerchief flowered in
red and yellow, walks with his girl (china) who wears ared dress and orange head covering. The chiripa
is a piece of cloth worn over the white drawers, draped about the hips, pulled up between the legs and
secured by a sash. The man carries a guitar decorated with red ribbons, and the girl holds a red and
yellow fan. A black and white dog walks before the couple, and the man leads a chestnut horse with
silver trappings and a brown saddle. The horse’s mane is clipped in the fashion introduced by the Moors
into Spain. A watermelon seller, dressed in purple and brown garments, is seated in the shadows of an
arcade surrounded by his wares. ‘The blue sky is veiled with yellow and mauve clouds. In the distance
a village fiesta takes place, green trees and yellow buildings forming a background for riders and villagers
in festive mood. (Description in catalogue of the exhibition.)

176 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

THE RED LANCER

Clad in white drawers, scarlet
chiripd, and poncho trimmed
with narrow green bands,
the Federalist lancer holds
in his hands a long lance
with ared pennon. He has
dark bushy hair, black eyes,
and bronze complexion. His
tall figure is outlined against
a greenish-yellow sky with
mauve clouds. The land-
scape is painted in vivid
tones of red, green, and yel-
low. (Description in cata-
logue of the exhibition.) -

Courtesy of The Hispanic Society of America

ambition, offered to take him as a pupil, the father issued an ulti-
matum: ‘‘Kither a painter or a cobbler.”’

But de Quirés senior need have had no doubts, for his son, after
two years with Cotanda, was graduated in three years instead of the
usual six from the Academy of Fine Arts, Buenos Aires (where he is.
now a professor). A further testimony to his talent and application
was the award to him of the Prix de Rome, which meant four years of
study and travel in Europe. He stayed six, learning to know the
ereat galleries and painting, chiefly by himself. Then he returned
home to exhibit in Buenos Aires, where his work was warmly received,
as it had been in Europe. Once more in the Old World, he became:
especially interested in the work of Goya, Delacroix, and Turner.
At length, as the result of a chance meeting, he went to Sardinia,

PAINTINGS OF GAUCHO LIFE IN ARGENTINA eZ

Courtesy of The Hispanic Society of America

“LET US GO ON!”

An old gray-bearded Gaucho in white shirt and drawers, black and brown chiripd, yellow and red poncho
and tall yellow hat (panza de burro) nolds a guitar in one hand and rests the other on his weary, chestnut
horse (mancarron). The stock of his gun appears in front of the saddle. Beside him is an old woman in
pink blouse, green ribbons, yellow headkerchief, and blue and purple plaid skirt. She carries a fighting
cock and a blue-green shawl. On the ground is a brown parrot cage. Three brown and white dogs sur-
round them. Gray clouds obscure the blue sky except for pinkish-yellow streaks along the horizon,
against which a group of trees lift their brown foliage. The painting represents the Gaucho moving on
before the influx of foreigners. (Description in catalogue of the exhibition.)

where, says Doctor Brinton, of whose account these paragraphs are a
brief summary, ‘‘Sefior de Quirés worked with a feverish energy on a
series of large canvases depicting the popular life of the Sardinian
peasantry.”

These were intended for the biennial exhibition at Venice, where de
Quirés had been invited to fill a whole room. But when the time
came for sending the paintings, he felt that his work ‘‘did not come
up to his own definite esthetic standard.”’ Doctor Brinton continues:

. . The most important canvas of all, which he called Justicia Sarda, was, he
felt, little more than a pious homage to the immortal painter of Las Lanzas.

There were, amongst the lot, other echoes of tradition and the museums, other
obvious tributes to certain great figures of the past. At the artist’s own request

178 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

the exhibition was amicably canceled, the committee, though frankly disap-
pointed, having been quick to understand and to honor the courageous artistic
probity of the young Argentine.

As is usually the case, something was salvaged from the seeming wreck—some-
thing that became the actual corner stone of the artist’s future career. It was
simply that Bernaldo de Quirés was by now completely, finally, surfeited with the
mainly academic and generally traditional character of most European painting
of the day. He longed especially for fresher, more virile themes. ... The
upshot of all this was the avowed determination on the part of Sefior de Quirés
to forswear Europe and see if he could not find some sort of inspiring and unspoiled
artistic milzeu in the country of his birth.

A cordial reception was given to the 20 or more diversified canvases
which he exhibited at the International Exposition held in Buenos
Aires in 1910, and a home and studio were awarded him in Buenos
Aires. His exhibitions in Argentina and other South American
countries continued to be successful, but he tired of city life and left
the capital for his native province in search of fresh material. Here
he was invited to stay with the proprietor of a vast estancia.

It was at “El Palmar” with its atmosphere of old-world feudalism, its vast
herds of cattle and sheep, its veritable army of Gauchos, rancheros, and family
retainers that Sefior de Quirés acquired his first glimpse of that particular his-
torical background which he was shortly to make so convincingly, so eloquently,
his own. In and about the larger, more accessible centers of the province the
Gaucho was already fast disappearing. Here, too, was he being gradually pushed
into the wilderness by the modern-style cattleman and agriculturalist. Yet,
fortunately, enough of the old-time spirit and color of pampa life survived to
afford the artist his required setting.

He learned to know the men whom he wanted to paint by living
and working with them, for at his request his host appointed him a
sort of estate manager. Long months of riding the range and coping
with a thousand problems side by side with the Gauchos gave him a
penetrating insight into their very being and enabled him to recon-
struct an historic period.

In the course of his keen analysis of the paintings which were the
product of this association and which form the present exhibit,
Doctor Brinton says:

Romanticism was the predestined medium through which de Quirés was to
conjure up his pictorial epic, and for this task he was eminently qualified through
training, temperament, and inheritance. . . .

. The twin elements upon which the major appeal of these canvases is
largely based are color and characterization. Both these notes has Sefior de
Quirés more than once employed with assured and opulent mastery. The domi-
nant color is obviously red. This red, which like a kind of chromatic leitmotif
runs through various compositions, is neither a temperamental whim nor an
aceident. Virtually without exception the different types of Gaucho soldiery
here depicted are Federalists, and red was the color prescribed by General Rosas
for the Federal adherents.

PAINTINGS OF GAUCHO LIFE IN ARGENTINA 179

As we pass from color to characterization, which is the other mainstay of
romanticism in its present application, we shall discover that these Scenes of
Gaucho Life in Entre Rios offer equally rich and suggestive material for study and
comparison. The same method of intensifying reality, of treating the theme at
hand in a vein of super-realism, which of course amounts to sheer romanticism,
is followed after much the same fasion. It would be difficult to point to a more
frankly picturesque, a more virile and veracious gallery of native portraiture than
that which here confronts one.

By way of general estimate, it will readily be conceded that the art of Cesdreo
Bernaldo de Quirés assumes its rightful place in the virile, brilliant pageant of
contemporary Hispanic painting. His production follows in appropriate sequence
the dazzling pictorial pantheism of Joaquin Sorolla y Bastida, the proud, sober
traditionalism of Ignacio Zuloaga y Zanora‘, the sensuous, festal vision of Hermene-
gildo Anglada Camarasa. And yet, this art is not Mediterranean in spirit as is
that of Sorolla, not Iberian as that of Zuloaga, not Valencian as that of Anglada.
In form only, not in content, is it European. It has, in truth, achieved for itself
a truly national esthetic physiognomy. It is Argentinian, and, specifically,
pampean—of the pampa.

4 Sic_—Editor.

AE COAT OF ARMS OF INIA:
By E. Hartu-Trerrs

HE City of the Kings, which Pope Paul III distinguished with

the title of ‘“City” on May 17, 1541, at the request of Emperor
Charles the Fifth, was founded by the bold Francisco Pizarro, Mar-
qués de los Atabillos, on January 18, 1535.

Although there is no doubt concerning this date, for it is so set
down in the act signed by Pizarro and the 11 hidalgos who accom-
panied him on this solemn occasion, all the chroniclers of the time
are agreed that the city received its name because it was established
on Epiphany, the 6th of January, the day when the Three Wise Men
are supposed to have visited the Christ Child; and the chronicler
Garcilaso de la Vega says that they named it thus because they
founded it on that day. In the royal decree of December 7, 1537,
by which Charles the Fifth granted the city a coat of arms, no ref-
erence is made to the reason why the design included three kings’
crowns with a star on a blue ground, but in the description of the
coat of arms granted to the University of San Marcos by a decree of
May 12, 1551, it is stated that the bearings shall include the crowns
and star of the Three Wise Men ‘‘which are the arms of this city.’”
Therefore there is no doubt that the city of Lima was called the City
of the Kings because it was founded near the feast of Epiphany,
and that the crowns on its shield are those of the ‘‘Three Kings of
Orient.” These crowns are of eight points, open in the ancient style.

In December, 1537, Charles, by the grace of God Emperor of the
Romans and King of Germany; Juana, his mother, and Charles,
Queen and King of Castile, Leon, Aragon, etc., etc., by royal decree,
a copy of which is preserved in the Archives of the Indies at Seville,
appointed the following coat of arms for the City of the Kings:
“A shield with a blue ground bearing three royal golden crowns
arranged in a triangle and above them a golden star, three of whose
points touch the three crowns, and around the shield on a red ground
in golden letters ‘‘Hoc signum vere regum est”’;? and for a device,
two black eagles wearing royal crowns, the one looking at the other,

1 Translated and condensed from El Escudo de Armas de la Ciudad de los Reyes, by E. Harth-Terré,
Lima, 1928.

2 Constitucién XIV (Numero 116 antiguo, Titulo 9°, de las Constituciones y Ordenanzas Antiguas,
Afiadidas y Modernas de la Real Universidad y estudio general de San Marcos de la ciudad de los Reyes
del Pert (Impreso en la misma ciudad de Los Reyes, en la Imprenta Real, por Félix de Soldana y Flores
en este ano de 1735).

3 “This is verily the sign of the kings.”’

180

THE COAT OF ARMS OF LIMA 181

and between their heads the letters I and K,* the initials of our given
names, and above these letters a gold star as here drawn and
painted,” etc.

It should not be forgotten that soon after the death of Cardinal
Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros, Charles the Fifth in great pomp
entered Valladolid, where the Cortes of Castile had been convoked
in assembly. Although on every occasion he took the title of King,
he had not yet been recognized as such by the Spaniards because
they believed that the right to the crown belonged solely to Queen
Juana. However, the presence of Charles and the skill of his min-
isters decided the assembly to recognize him as such in 1518, not-
withstanding respect for ancient formulas; 1t was determined that he
should reign jointly with
bis mother Juana and
that his name should be
placed on all acts and
documents after that of
the queen.

The decree of 1537 also
says that the City of the
Kings is given permission
to place this coat of arms
on its flag, seals, shields,
and pennants, and any
other places where it may
so desire, in the form
and manner in which
such coats of arms are
borne “in these cities of
our Kingdom of Castile
to which we have given arms and device.”’ Coats of arms of the
Spanish cities of this time are surmounted by the royal crown, and
thus we find their armorial bearings accompanying the royal escutch-
eon on all public edifices, where they were placed as a mark of proud
dignity. Later, by royal decree of September 15, 1802, the City of
the Kings was granted the same treatment, honors and distinctions
which the City of Mexico had enjoyed since 1728. By virtue of this
decree, Lima was given the privilege of enjoying the title of “muy
noble, insigne y muy leal’’ (very noble, illustrious, and very loyal)
with the privileges of grandee, as chief city of New Spain.

On the ancient shields of the Kings of Spain, before the time of
Ferdinand and Isabella, there was seen a device of the pillars of

THE COAT OF ARMS OF LIMA

4T for the Latin form of Juana and K presumably for the German form of Charles.—Editor,

100665—32— Bull. 3——3

From a drawing by E. Harth-Terré
THE CATHEDRAL TOWERS, LIMA

The Cathedral of Lima, now a basilica by Papal authorization, was constructed at the end of the eighteenth
century on the foundations of similar earlier edifices which hac been destroyed by earthquakes. The
architect, Matias Maestro, chose a neo-classice style, simple and chaste, in reaction against the pompous
and exuberant Churrigueresque in vogue at that period, of which the doorway of the Church of San
Agustin in Limais anexample. The cathedral is situated on the Plaza de Armas next to the Palace of
Pizarro, later occupied by the viceroys and now by the President of the Republic. _ The remains of
Pizarro are entombed in the cathedral, which contains numerous artistic treasures. including beautifully
carved choir stalls.

From a drawing by E. Harth-Terré

THE CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO, LIMA

This church is perhaps the most important example of colonial architecture in Lima. Its altars, ceilings,
choir stalls and pulpit are notable for their carvings; the sacristy is famed for its alabaster font, and the
patio of the convent for its marvelous tiles, the first to reach Lima. The convent contains a series of
magnificent paintings depicting the life of Saint Francis.

184 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Hercules with the words Non Plus Ultra which, according to the legend,
signified there was no land beyond the twin pillars symbolic of the
promontories of Abila and Calpe (Ceuta and Gibraltar) rent asunder
by Hercules in one of his 12 labors. With the discovery of the New
World, which refuted that Greek legend, Emperor Charles the Fifth
had the Non removed from this phrase and took as a device the pil-
lars with the words Plus Ultra, which he used with the double-headed
eagle and the imperial crown. In a section of the aforementioned
decree granting a coat of arms to the University of San Marcos at
Lima, the bearings are fully described, and of the pillars of Hercules
with the words Plus Ultra it is said that they are “‘the device of this
New World.”

In the valley of the Rimac, which the Spaniards mispronounced
Lima, the City of the Kings was founded. The name of Rimac
belonged to an Indian tribe which lived in the valley. In the most
ancient colonial documents Lima appears as the name of the valley,
and in one and another sometimes the word is used to designate the
city, as for instance in ordinances issued by the Viceroy Toledo in
1543. In the sixteenth century and at the end of the seventeenth,
the city was called in official documents the City of the Kings,
but the Spanish mispronunciation of the indigenous name began to
be used by a larger and larger number of people, and gradually re-
placed the original title. In the royal decrees of the eighteenth
century and the beginning of the nineteenth, the capital is called the
City of Lima. To the meaning of this word is due the introduction
in the coat of arms of a lime, Jima in Spanish signifying lime. This is
seen in official documents subsequent to the independence; before
that time it had not appeared. The fountain in the Main Square,
which is adorned with the most ancient coat of arms which we know,
has in its outer border as a simple adornment the fruit mentioned,
which also appears on the coat of arms granted to the University of
San Marcos. It is not to be doubted that the artists of the time
considered this fruit an emblem of the city.

Very few are the documents and works of art which display the
arms of the city of Lima. However, one of the eight viceroys pro-
moted from Mexico to Peru, Don Garcia Sarmiento de Sotomayor,
Conde de Salvatierra, who came to Lima in 1648, set up in the main
square a bronze fountain, on which is to be seen the only coat of
arms in the city of Lima which is practically in accordance with the
original. Even here, however, the Latin words around the shield are
not in the correct order. On the silver key of the city, which in 1806
was delivered to the viceroy, Don José F. de Abascal, and which is
now cherished by Don José Antonio de Lavalle, is seen the double-
headed eagle wearing a king’s crown and supported by the pillars of
Hercules which, as has been said, were not only the device of the New

fk
*

Baa St MORMRAA A riet mene SMibaeoge avewige sas

ercaig he eee aaa Os CR

EBART HATERS
mal

From drawing by E. Harth-Terré

A COLONIAL HOUSE

This house in Veracruz Street, now owned by Sefiora Oquendo de Subercasaux, shows the application of
colonial architecture to private residences. ‘The Spanish conquerers imposed upon Lima an architectural
style combining Andalusian influences with the Moorish tradition of closed blinds from behind which
the ladies of Lima were able to see without being seen, a privacy in consonance with their use of veils in
the street. Notwithstanding the balconies which gave a distinctive character to the city, the richness of
the houses was not as evident in their facades as in their interiors. The leisurely life of that time is
revealed in the spaciousness of the patios which permitted the entrance of the calash then in use. The

large rooms were distinguished during the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries by luxurious
furnishings rivaling those of European houses.

186 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

World but also, with the royal crown, part of the Spanish arms.
The emblematic fruit of the city finishes the whole. This eagle is a
false interpretation of the double eagle of the shield.

In the extensive search which I made to find some coat of arms of
the city on the buildings of Lima, I found only one. This should be
described because it is unique and almost unknown. It is on a tri-
angular basin now surrounded by the walls of a building, at the
entrance to the famous Paseo de Aguas. On the three sides appear,
respectively, the Spanish coat of arms with the royal crown, the es-
cutcheon of Viceroy Don Manuel Amat with the date 1772, and the
coat of arms of the City of the Kings to which I refer. These consist
of three parts—the eight-pointed star, the heraldic pillars of Hercules
with the words Plus Ultra, and between them the lime surmounted
by a crown, symbolic of Lima. The whole is inclosed in a baroque
border, more or less in the shape of a shield.

One can not fail to be amazed that on all the colonial edifices which
Lima boasts there is nowhere to be seen the city’s coat of arms.
Some representations must have been destroyed in the course of
years. It is probably true that an additional reason for this lack
was the general ignorance of the city’s escutcheon, usually replaced
by the arms of the mother country. This also explains the reason
for the successive modifications of the coat of arms until we arrive
at the republican arrangement, which was used until a short time
ago, and the incomplete design which is employed to-day.

THE PRESIDENTIAL PALACE, LIMA

URUGUAY SENDS A WOMAN TO THE
DISARMAMENT CONFERENCE

It is a matter of congratulation that Dr. Paulina Luisi, a noted
Uruguayan physician, feminist, and authority in social problems, has
been appointed by the Government of her country an assistant
delegate to the Disarmament Conference now in session at Geneva.
She is a woman of international outlook who has participated in
many important gatherings. Doctor Luisi and Miss Mary E. Woolley,
president of Mount Holyoke College, and a member in full of the
United States delegation, are the only two women from the American
Republics. The Uruguayan delegates are Their Excellencies Pedro
Cosio and Enrique E. Buero, Ministers of Uruguay to Germany and
Belgium, respectively.

This is by no means the first time that Doctor Luisi has gone to
Geneva in an official capacity. As amember of the League of Nations
Child Welfare Commission and Commission on Traffic in Women
and Children, she has for some years lent her valuable advice and
counsel to the solution of problems of social importance.

Doctor Luisi was a pioneer feminist; first of all by her deeds, then
by her words. This does not mean that she was a notoriety seeker,
but that, fearless of leading the way, by sheer ability and strength of
purpose she achieved results which no Uruguayan woman before her
had ever attained. Thus she was the first woman to receive from the
University of Uruguay a bachelor’s degree, and the first to receive a
doctor’s degree in medicine; the first to give courses in the university
and the first to serve on a university jury deciding the award of a
professorship by competition.

Strengthened in her convictions by her own experiences, Doctor
Luisi went on to play an important part in feminism at home and
abroad. She founded the Uruguayan National Council of Women,
affiliated with the International Council, and is a member of the most
notable organizations for women’s rights, such as the International
Alliance for Women’s Suffrage and the International Feminist
Association.

As a teacher and as a practicing physician, Doctor Luisi was
brought into intimate contact with many of the special problems of
women and children. She has contributed numerous papers on sub-
jects concerning them to Accién Femenina, the magazine which she
herself edited, and to leading Argentine, Italian, Swiss, and other
Uruguayan reviews. Her articles discuss medical, literary, educa-
tional, and sociological subjects, as well as suffrage.

187

THE RIVERS AND LAKES OF HAITI

By Luc DorstnvitLe

Member of the Société de Géographie de France, Principal and Founder of the Guy
Joseph-Bonnet Institute, Port-au-Prince

AITI has neither river nor lake of great size, although it pos-
sesses numerous streams and inland bodies of water.

The lakes and ponds of Haiti include reservoirs formed by dams,
such as that of Bois-Neuf near Saint-Marc and that of Miragoane,
southeast of the town of the same name; volcanic ponds in the cra-
ters of extinct volcanoes, such as Bossier pond near Jacmel; and
Saumatre Lake, the only one of its kind, which in some past age
became isolated from the ocean.

Saumatre (or Assuei) Lake, the largest of these bodies of water, is
situated at the eastern end of the Cul-de-Sac Plain, near the middle
of the boundary between Haiti and the Dominican Republic. About
18 miles long, it covers approximately 43 square miles and lies 46
feet above sea level; it is navigable throughout. This lake has
brackish water—hence its name—and possesses no apparent outlet to
the sea. Since for some time its waters have been receding and more
than 450 acres of land have been released to the luxuriant vegetation
of the tropical zone, it may be inferred that a subterranean channel
has certainly opened between the lake and the Gulf of Gonave in
consequence of the slow sinking of the whole island of Haiti, espe-
cially as this same phenomenon is taking place on the shores of Lake
Enriquillo, just across the border in the Dominican Republic.

As for the watercourses of Haiti, they are abundant and contribute
to the pleasant aspect and to the economic value of the land. Rarely
does one find a region as well watered as the Central Plateau.

These watercourses may be classified into four well-determined
groups:

(1) On the Atlantic slope, streams flowing northward.

(2) On the slope of the Gulf of Gonave, streams flowing westward.

(3) On the slope of the Gulf of Gonave, streams flowing northward.

(4) On the slope of the Caribbean sea, streams flowing westward,
southwestward, or southward.

The Artibonite is the only one of these watercourses which might
be called an important river. The others are all lovely streams or
majestic torrents whose waters vary in depth. They fertilize some
thirty-odd plains and plateaus. Many of the streams contain fish;
alligators are found in some. Unfortunately, so far no canal has yet

188

THE RIVERS AND LAKES OF HAITI 189

Courtesy of Luc Dorsinville

THE ARTIBONITE VALLEY

The longest and most important river of Haiti follows a serpentine course westward across the entire
Republic to the Gulf of Gonave.

been made between the principal streams, although some of them
might be united to produce abundant water power.

If the fertile soil of Haiti is its greatest asset, it may also be said
that in the rivers lies its great reserve for the future.

One may divide the chief watercourses of the country as follows:

Main rivers: The Artibonite and Grand’ Anse, flowing into the
Gulf of Gonave; the Trois Rivieres, flowing into Tortue Canal on
the northern, or Atlantic slope; and the Ravine du Sud and Grande
Riviere de Jacmel, flowing into the Caribbean. These rivers, except
the Artibonite, are entirely within the Republic of Haiti.

Secondary rivers: The Massacre, Limbe, Ester, Riviere de Mont-
rouis, Grise, Momance, Riviere de Nippes, Riviere de Cavaillon,
Pedernales, etc.

The Artibonite (200 miles in length) is the longest river in the
Republic of Haiti. It rises in the Dominican Republic southeast
of the town of Restauracion at an altitude not yet definitely deter-
mined, and flows first southwest, then northwest, before passing
through the Grande-Saline, or salt plain, to a muddy outlet on the
Gulf of Gonave.

190 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

In Haitian territory the Artibonite runs a tranquil course. Its
waters are yellowish, and after the spring rains it overflows its bed,
covering a good part of the neighboring plain with a fine layer of
eravel and clay.

From Mirebalais to its mouth its average width is 200 feet; mini-
mum flow, 424 cubic feet per second.

Into the Artibonite flow from the right the Libon, Oceana, Guaya-
mouc or Canot (formed by the junction north of Hinche of the Frio
and the Bouyaha), and Thomonde Rivers.

The Bouyaha-Guayamouc (Canot), 65 miles long, unites with the
Artibonite southeast of Thomonde, after having run a southeasterly
course through the Valley of Gonave. The town of Saint-Raphael

Courtesy of Lue Dorsinville

LES TROIS RIVIERES, NEAR GROS MORNE

Les Trois Rivieres, one of the larger rivers of Haiti, flows northwesterly to the Atlantic.

is located on the Bouyaha and Hinche on the Guayamouc (Canot).
At Hinche the minimum flow of the Guayamouc is 32 cubic feet per
second. The Frio River rises in the Black Mountains, while the
source of the Bouyaha is in the massif northeast of Marmelade.

The Artibonite receives on the left the Marcassia, Juan de Vera,
Tumbe, Bois de Verrettes, and Tapion. The Juan de Vera flows into
the Artibonite about 4 miles northeast of Lascahobas. Rising in
the Tonnerre Mountains of the Matheux Chain, it has a minimum
flow of 91.8 cubic feet per second.

The Fer-a-Cheval unites with the Artibonite near Mirebalais, its
source being in the Grand-Bois Mountains; minimum flow, 53 cubic
feet per second.

THE RIVERS AND LAKES OF HAITI 191

The Tumbe joins the Artibonite northwest of Mirebalais, coming
from the Pensez-y-Bien Mountains. This river has several affluents
of its own, among them being the Saut-d’Eau, on which are found the
beautiful falls of Ville-Bonheur, a mile west of the village of that
name. Minimum flow of the Tumbe, 15.5 cubic feet per second;
minimum flow of the Saut-d’Eau, 9 cubic feet per second.

The Bois River rises in the Matheux Mountains and flows into the
Artibonite southeast of Les Verrettes.

The Trois-Rivieres (60 miles in length), which has its principal
source northeast of Marmelade in the Massif du Nord, flows in a
general northwesterly direction past Plaisance and Gros-Morne to
the Atlantic coast, just west of Port-de-Paix.

Because the bed of this stream is largely composed of gravel and
sand, it is subject to change. The course often lies along the side of
a steep mountain rising abruptly on the right and falling off precipi-
tously on the left.

The affluents of the Trois-Rivieres, although numerous, are of
small importance.

The Grand’ Anse, or Jeremie River (31 miles long) rises in the basaltic
rocks of the Hotte Mountains among the Irois and Jeremie hot springs
in the western part of the Department du Sud. It flows in a general
northeasterly direction until it empties into the Gulf of La Gonave
near the town of Jeremie.

Numerous streams of minor importance, on some of which are
found lovely cascades, flow into the Grand Anse. The bed of the
Grand Anse is composed of gravel.

The Ravine du Sud rises in the volcanic rocks of the southern slope
of the Hotte Mountains, flowing southeast into the Caribbean Sea
at the town of Les Cayes. About a quarter of a mile above this town
the water of the river is diverted into the Avezac Canal to irrigate
the plain along the left bank of the river. About the same distance
downstream the Levy Reservoir distributes to all the left bank the
water drained off by the Avezac Canal, serving an area of 4,900 acres.
The river, which has a gravelly and rocky bed, often rises very sud-
denly and sometimes overflows the plain and even part of Les Cayes.
It is the principal factor in the fertility of the countryside.

The Gosseline branch of the Grande-Riviere de Jacmel rises in the
southern part of the Trouin hills of the Selle range, and a little farther
east the Jacmel River has its source in the same mountains. These
two right-hand branches flow southwest and unite with the so-called
Gauche River, which flows southeast. West of the town de Jacmel
these three streams unite in the Grande-Riviere de Jacmel, which
flows into the Caribbean Sea. Some effort has been made to utilize
the water of this stream for sections of Jacmel.

AN IRRIGATION CANAL

A part of the Momancee irrigation system in southern Haiti.

IRRIGATION WEIR

A canal of the Riviere Blanche irrigation system in the Cul-de-Sac plain.

THE RIVERS AND LAKES OF HAITI 193

As for secondary streams, these are very numerous, but their eco-
nomic importance is small. The most important are:

On the Atlantic coast: 1, The Massacre, which rises south of the
Loma del Cabrera, in the Central Mountains of the Dominican
Republic; 2, The Trou, Grande Riviere du Nord, Haut du Cap,
Limbe, Ester,! Saint-Louis du Nord, Moustiques, and Jean-Rabel.

On the Caribbean slope: 1, Flowing into the Gulf of La Gonave,
the Quinte or Les Gonaives, the tranquil Ester,’ the Saint-Mare, the
Cul-de-Sac or Grise, the Momance, the Grande Riviere de Nippes,
the Baraderes, the Roseaux, the Voldrogue, and the Guinaudee; 2,
on the Caribbean slope proper, the Abricots, Dame-Marie, |’Anse
d’Hainault, the Tiburon, Islet, Cavaillon, Pedernales, and others.

The Massacre and Pedernales Rivers owe their importance to their
role as part of the boundary between the Dominican Republic and
Haiti. The latter rises in the Bahoruco Mountains in the Dominican
Republic, and flows in a general southerly direction. It drains 139
square miles. On both the Dominican and the Haitian side the water
is used for irrigation.

1 There are two streams of this name.—Editor.

PRS Sloe ctl

STREAM GAGING IN HAITI

LATIN AMERICAN FOREIGN TRADE IN
1930—A GENERAL SURVEY

By Matitpa PHILLIPS

Chief, Statistical Division, Pan American Union

Part II!

SoutH AMERICAN REPUBLICS

ARGENTINA

The total foreign trade of the Republic for 1930 aggregated
$1,312,688,316, being a decrease of $448,580,719, or 25.4 per cent, as
compared with 1929. Imports to the value of $717,007,261 decreased
by $119,130,173, or 14.2 per cent, and exports, amounting to $595,-
681,055, declined by $329,450,546, or 35.6 per cent.

Distribution of foreign trade—four principal commercial countries

[Values in thousands of dollars; i. e., 000 omitted]

|
Per cent of total
Country 1929 1930 ¢
1929 1930

| |

im ports (to tal) SS2 vase ee ee ee a 836, 137 717, 007 100. 0 | 100. 0
| |

(Wini Ged Skin 0 OTs See ee eke epee ete nee 147, 410 127, 000 17.6 Nee
[ESP 1) CO Bete eas eee et sc SEA pn) Se nie ee ten ey NPS 51, 174 40, 000 6.1 | Hy)
GERIATR ei SMO Fal tae olen ee pee iE IE A alge 96, 099 85, 000 11.4 | 7.8
UMItedS bates sashes ae ae Se ee ero ee Se ee ae 220, 360 155, 000 26.3 21.6
IEXPORLSY(COUAl) ee eat a ee ee ee an enh eee 925, 132 595, 681 100.0 | 100. 0
United Kingdom 297, 627 217, 636 Sy, i | 36. 5
France 65, 844 | 39, 895 Ue il 6.6
Germany _--___ 23 2 92, 589 | 52, 533 10.0 | 8.8
(WmitCASS talesees ese ee ee See 5 i oats 90, 752 57, 665 9.8 9.6

}

2 Country segregations estimated.
1 For Part I, see BULLETIN of the Pan American Union, February, 1932.

194

LATIN AMERICAN FOREIGN TRADE IN 1930

Principal imports and exports

(Thousands of dollars]

195

Commodity 1929 1930 Commodity 1929 | 1930
| |
Imports (total) ------------ 836, 137 | 717, 007 IEXPOOLUSH (UO UE) eee | 925, 132 | 595, 681
Combustibles and lubricants__--| 142,940 | 140,171 || Maize--------------------------- 162, 996 | 103, 815
Textiles and manufactures-_-_----- 155,391 | 122,572 || Wheat___----- Sascusscesssesseece 269, 633 | 89,051
Machinery and vehicles--------- 139,505 | 97,752 || Frozen and chilled beef___-_--__- | 88,466 | 85, 968
Tron and steel and manufactures_| 99,899 | 80,756 || Linseed___--------------_-___-_-- | 116, 549 | 85,331
HOOGStUi Seas eee 65,605 | 70,172 ool mcooesocesoesSesessSseseess 67,565 | 44,918
Chemical and pharmaceutical Oxinides#sal asa 33,657 | 30,899
NOG CUS teen ee eee ELS 41,937 | 36,215 || Meats, preserved ____._-___-____- 15,998 | 16,152
Metals (excluding iron) and IMTOO, HOC 13, 667 | 13, 976
TMlanUiachWres==-2 === SOF 28e er oON4 345) | Ubbenees saa ene ee 11, 243 | 12,966
Stones, earths, glass, and ce- Quebracho extract________-_____- 13,447 | 12, 543
alin Coens Sat 32,466 | 29,277 || Quebracho logs__---------_---_-- 3, 796 3, 030
Paper, cardboard and manufac- Cotton; raw s22=s=.22=55— =e 6, 973 8, 354
HERES Bae ees QOS Se 28e48aul|) Oatss a= sess sae See eae 13, 428 7, 782
Rubber and manufactures-_-_----- 29,126 | 28,193 '| Tallow and grease-_-_--.-_----__- 11, 248 7, 206
Wood and manufactures_-_-_------ Oy, (OPA) || Pi, 7G |) Oxdanelets, Clos 7, 125 6, 143
Tobacco and manufactures-___-_-_- 10, 439 QROOS Wale atti oti eee 7, 575 5, 844
IB GVeLAe Sees. 2 = a=Sases oe =e 5, 565 Gy, BY | IBXEGH CRRA ne 6, 997 5, 536
iBranvands pollard asa 5, 970 4, 644
Sheepskins, unwashed___________ 4, 619 4, 030
Frozen meat offal__-______-_____- 3, 724 3, 943
@aseimes= 2 5ee ae ee ee 3, 544 2, 931
Barleye so 22 es sees as een se See 8, 121 2, 513
IMeatiextra ct eee see a ne 2,473 2, 473
Ry ce eae ee cece nc nan ee eee 6, 895 237
BOLIVIA

For the year 1930 Bolivia’s foreign trade totaled $58,289,051, com-
pared with $77,169,874 in 1929, a decrease of $18,880,823, or 24.4 per

cent.
exports $37,069,917.

Of this total, the value of imports was $21,219,134, and of

Imports declined by $4,848,171, or 18.5 per
cent, and exports by $14,032,652, or 27.4 per cent.

Distribution of foreign trade—four principal commercial countries

[Values in thousands of dollars, i. e., 000 omitted]

Per cent of total
Country 1929 1930

1929 1930
TTA ORESECLO Lal) Bee tee eee Re wR Sle Be 26, 067 21, 219 100. 0 100. 0
(Warttted Bens do mies ssc aees Se Se ae ee eas 4, 322 3, 540 16.5 16. 6
FEST] CC Beet etree fos ono) re ee ae Oe Cee ee eS 846 666 Bh 2} By I
Coe rnde ay re ert ee Ect en iis eS cei a 3, 554 2, 880 13.6 13.5
TWIG ECES Cabestteee Ocenia ee ee pee Pee 8, 790 5, 900 33.7 27.8
SOLES (tO Lal) een eck ee ee ie Oe Se 51, 103 | 37, 070 100. 0 | 100. 0
Williaa) TecliavicG lop ee | Sa 39, 463 | 28, 345 77.2 76. 4
HALT CO eee eee meer ay oe era a al Ue che hE et ta snes 162 139 58 83
(Genin aniypaers eee eat oars eee wel eye SOS ee ee ee a 694 | 877 116.8) 2.3
WUMILeGES tatesmes = Aa Nen Sas lee oe eo in ee ae ie 7, 114 4, 807 13.9 12.9

Statistics of trade by commodities are not available for the whole

of 1930, other than exports of tin, which amounted to $27,629,616.

statement of the mineral exports for the first nine months of 1930, with
comparative figures for the same period of 1929, follows:

196 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Exports of minerals
[Thousands of dollars]

January to
September
Minerals
1929 1930
\
INOual matinee OXGDONS ..-- sso sees ass ss ee eS se SSS a Sees a=s| 32, 117 25, 933
AI aie ee RRR SSI rt er ES cme RR eh, tees sites ale ceeectee een eres 26, 448 22, 124
Silver ee Sas oe a he ee es SEN ae ee ae ot Rare oS eae ae eee 2, 019 1, 565
COpperis 22 = See es a a no se sae ee oe ee esse Se = Se eae | 1, 487 757
EST. Us Sag a ee ee Rs a eee ei 978 692
ZA Ce Le RS a ee IR eS See Sen ee eee ae pe See a ee eee 87 327
aVWiOltramal (eueene atone ah ane See aL 2) ee Ee See sees ene 3s eee 314 240
NGI ELIT OT ye ee tet ee eres Be I a ee ee a eee ere | 405 125
SPS Srna et Ya ae ee ere EE ae oe ee ee eae | 349 103
Ol GE aa a eee eS a a rae ie ee oe en en ona Pen oa = a ee eee | 300 | Exe aes
BRAZIL

The foreign trade of Brazil in 1930 amounted to $567,252,781, con-
sisting of imports to the value of $253,181,916, and exports of
$314,070,865. The total trade figure shows a decrease of $304,205,109
or 34.9 per cent. Imports declined by $162,923,061, or 39.1 per cent,
and exports, by $141,282,048, or 31 per cent.

Distribution of foreign trade—four principal commercial countries
[Values in thousands of dollars; i. e., 000 omitted]

| |
| Per cent of total
Country 1929 | 1920
1929 1930
himponts (otal) ss he ea ees See Se eee | 416, 105 253, 182 100. 0 100. 0
NUiraiGe dé Kein d Ors eae eee nee ee ee Ue 79, 943 48, 919 19. 2 19.3
WTA COO eae he ee oe See Se ee ee S| 22, 100 12, 779 5.3 5.0
Germanys. 2222s -e 2. Ss SS a se a se one ee eas 52, 788 28, 856 12.6 11.3
WinitedeStates ss sees eee Soe ee eee | 125, 395 61, 163 30. 1 24.1
SROLES (LOCAL) ete Se ee ee ee eS | 455, 353 314, 071 | 100. 0 100. 0
United Kingdom 29, 651 25, 616 6.5 8.1
France 50, 653 28, 822 | 11.1 9.1
Germany 39, 882 28, 632 | 8.7 9.1
United States 192, 240 127, 409 | 42.2 40.5
Principal imports and exports
{Thousands of dollars]
Commodity | 1929 1930 Commodity 1929 1930

imapontss (total) sa 416, 105 | 258, 182 BSPORUS (Ola) =a 455, 353 | 314, 07i
Machinery, apparatus, and tools_| 62,717 | 35,776 || Coffee__...._-._..__.------------ 323, 198 | 197, 427
IWihlea (esa see ee ee Ne se 36, 708 | 28,625 || Frozen and chilled meats___-___-_- 13,133 | 17, 647
Tron and steel and manufactures_| 40,616 | 22,418 || Hides and skins_-_______________ 19,916 | 15,351
Gasoline te= ==) 222 = Saat UG eles || UG CRYE |) Ne@irlog’ eo RS = 12,545 | 10,301
Patent fuel, coal, and coke___-__-- 2285 | aS 45 55S Ca CaO meee ne ae eee 12, 378 9, 909
Witleatsfloune =< 2) eee eee = 11, 748 N95 45 || RC Ob TON ra wee ee 18, 155 9, 139
Codifish= eee Reet ee 9, 272 7,454 || Tobacco and manufactures__-__-_- 7, 938 8, 085
Chemical products and drugs__--| 9, 520 7, 081 || Oil-producing seeds___-_____.____ 7, 891 6, 021
Paper and manufactures---__---- 8, 706 63463: |Wi00le 222 oes eee: oe ee 3, 586 4, 762
Cement2 eee a ee 7, 391 GL OD |i TOE wUTHS eG TAHA 4, 420 4, 727
IECROSEN Coe ee ee ee ee ee eee 6, 844 Sy OGOn RUD bers -eae = == ee ee 7, 209 3, 628
HUE OU se sees Sed ee ee 4, 066 45085) MUI CO ae ae 32 Saeed ee eee 658 2, 744
Wines, spirits, and liquors__--_--- | 6,973 4523 6) | Sugarss vas eae ee ee eee 1, 065 2, 724
Cotton piece goods_-=-*-----_--= 12, 912 38427 Caren ato a pwc Ne jee 2592 2, 524
PANTO OD 11 6S aan are en | 26, 804 1, 636 |) Timber and lumber-____________- 3, 145 2, 489
Mian ganese: 2-22. 32 eee 3, 371 1, 565

LATIN AMERICAN FOREIGN TRADE IN 1930

CHILE

197

The foreign trade of Chile in 1930 aggregated $331,702,429,
showing a decrease of $144,301,555, or 30.3 per cent, as compared
with the previous year. Imports in 1930 were valued at $170,090,500
and exports at $161,611,929. Compared with 1929, imports declined
by $26,767,013, or 13.5 per cent, and exports by $117,534,542, or

42.1 per cent.

Distribution of foreign trade—four principal commercial countries
[Values in thousands of dollars, i. e., 000 omitted]

Per cent of total
Country 1929 1930
1929 1930
Imports (total)___.-..---- acted ee Th AS. 196,858 | 170,091| 100.0| 100.0
(Winitedeksny dome ee a es So ee eee 34, 811 26, 006 | 17.6 | 15. 2
tT AT) CO Wee ne nena ee eet ot re eT ee 8, 641 8, 550 4.3 5.0
(GUSTER AYES, ie ee ae ee 30, 419 28, 780 | 15.4 | 16.9
Wining) SiS = ee a eee 63, 348 57, 030 | 3201 33.5
FERGOORUSK (LOLA te aemer kaa ee ee ee ee 279, 146 161,612 | 100.0 100. 0
WinitedBKeine dorm e= sae ee ee eee 37, 297 23, 734 | 13.3 14.6
HIT ATICG Sennen heroes se BR ae ae Sth A I SR ee 17, 110 9, 734 | 6.1 6.0
Ceram aii eee Shee sae ee eS Se casa eee 24, 061 12, 692 8.6 7.8
WAITERS ta lesen en eee ee a eS ne ee eee 70, 887 41,095 | 25.3 25.4
= } |
Principal imports and exports
[Thousands of dollars]
|
Commodity 1929 1930 Commodity 1929 1930
aa porEs (total) ee ae 196, 858 | 170, 091 || EDX OLS (bO teal) a 279, 146 | 161, 612
Industrial machinery, apparatus ING rate remo eae ek ee ee ie ae 117, 545 | 72, 205
AN ORCOOIS Bases a2 eo ee Sa 3), OAS || AO G7 |; IBeye Goya. es 112,655 | 54, 058
Manufactures of iron and steel___| 8,251 | 10,909 || Vegetables__...__________________ 4, 754 5, 099
Cottonttextiles= WONG 4'On |p 2552070 Olas oe eee 6, 846 3, 654
Woolen fabrics____-___-__--.___=_- 7, 237 Gh 253ml PIROMKORe ns =e sae aan ee 1, 878 3, 221
Iron and steel simply wrought___| 6, 249 599261 PLOGING== 822s e222- ket Se aes 9, 791 2, 388
Petroleum, crude____.__-_---____ 079637493845 COpperores.--- senna eae eee nuns 3, 348 1, 913
Gasoline] Fe Rene Seo BOSIGy ie 45010) Oatsees ees = ee 1,764 | 1,518
Aabricavin ey oils eae ee ee 1, 589 1 Gil) |) \overne Taloybie = ee cece 650 | 592
iRerosenee einen Eien Eu 451 ADM Cat tle dasieee mien enue enna! 127A el67
Anitomoblless 2 ee 7, 925 4, 445 ||
Cattlomee asm ie. Ses Foe Pees 6, 216 4, 138 |
Sugar, raw and refined___________ 6, 794 4, 073 ||
BarsHormitrates== =) sae. seen 5,304 | 3, 635 ||
Hidiblejoileseseten asks oh crs 2,601 | 2, 253 |
EU COM ate ee Dh ee oe 1, 953 2, 081 |, |
IMOCONTOLIVES= seen nnn 747 1, 984 || |
Drugs and medicines-.-----_---_- 2, 156 1, 981 |
Chemical products__.-________._- 2,346 | 1,807
PTe amen re rm ae SS 2,255 | 1,701 ||
Newsprint paper_____._________- 1, 739 1, 296
HU
COLOMBIA

Colombia’s total foreign trade in 1930 amounted to $170,283,152,

being a decrease of 30.6 per cent as compared with 1929.

Of this

total, $60,955,859 comprised imports and $109,327,293 exports.
Compared with the previous year, imports declined by 50.2 per cent

and exports by 11.1 per cent.
100665—32—Bull. 34

198 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Distribution of foreign trade—four principal commercial countries

{Values in thousands of dollars, i. e., 000 omitted]

|
Per cent of total
Gouniee 1929 1930
1929 1930
imports (otal) aubeae eee enti fae a ea ee 122, 586 60, 956 100. 0 100. 0
United lKsing domes ae ae ee es es te ree ed 17, 640 7, 573 14.3 12. 4
TANCE Oe ea ee BEAD ATs Sere cecee Mer ae balls eae ae 6, 908 3, 264 5.6 aS
Gerrit je oe Sa Ss a ee es te eae ee 17, 677 7, 845 14.4 12.8
WTMited IS tatess kak sek een wou wearer Wee en ee ane a 56, 309 27, 681 45.9 45.4
HX PORES! (LO bal) sees oe ee ee eS 123, 066 109, 327 | 100. 0 100.0
Uinitedekeined ome stems pee inane ee ae ite See ee PO 5, 857 3, 247 4.7 2.9
TTC oer ears rea en ER ais eaten a 549 658 «4 -6
Germany = = sae ee ee Cee OTe See hs eS 2, 616 3, 641 2k 3.3
WUmitedyS tates ae ieee ee re ae ee 92, 532 88, 926 15:1 81.3
Principal imports and exports
{Thousands of dollars]
Commodity 1929 | 1930 |) Commodity 1929 | 1930
Lm Ports)! (COtal) =e ee 122, 586 | 60, 956 |) EX POLSSA (LO fa) sae ene 123, 066 | 109, 327
MextileSzueee =o se ee eee 38} 4013} } 1 BBS || COO. eee ee a See 74, 580 | 59, 805
Foodstuffs and condiments______ U7 GO || 12, Ga: |) Tetaio rw 26,206 | 25, 504
Material for the arts and trades__| 2, 764 885i || GOlUE a! os Seles see ee eee 5, 039 8, 791
Metals and manufactures of_____ 12,171 OM dilig| | 0 BINT AS eee eae eee ees 8, 585 8, 478
Agricultural and mining imple- p | eelidestandis kins Sa ses see 4, 050 3, 638
ments and machinery__________ 10, 689 Eyl ele yabayuam 25. ee 2, 545 1, 831
Railway cars, carriages, automo- Pama aah ys eee 174 318
biles et ckosteen niet ea id 10, 391 Bh tates ll] MNO BKOCO 2 ae ee 226 192
Drugs and medicines___________- 5, 188 SOLES 5 CO COTTE See ee 207 184
Electrical material_______________ 3, 376 2, 574 ||
Paper and cardboard____________ 4, 357 2, 424 ||
Glassware, earthenware, etc_____ 3, 930 1, 761 |
Hides and skins and manufac- |
Gunes = Sone aac ee ee 3,534 | 1,627 ||
Michi inean dite] aaseas keene PP Sy(il 1, 510 |}
|
ECUADOR

The total foreign trade of the Republic in 1930 aggregated
$28,925,529, consisting of imports to the value of $12,796,221 and
exports of $16,129,308. A decrease in the total trade value of 15.3
per cent is shown by these figures. Imports decreased by $4,170,832,
or 24.5 per cent, and exports by $1,078,056, or 6.2 per cent.

Distribution of foreign trade—four principal commercial countries
[Values in thousands of dollars, i. e., 000 omitted]

Per cent of total

Country | 1929 1930
1929 1930
Imports (total)_-___--_--_____ ee ata eee ey ssl 16, 967 12, 796 100. 0 100.0
Unitedakein ed 0 in ees ee Se oe eS ee ee 3, 239 2, 327 19.0 18.1
ATI CGS ete, Ree Oe Le eee SR See ee De A 752 373 4.4 2.9
Genmanyaee ee Se EI I eB NP IM Oa Be wa ees 2, 142 1, 668 12.6 13.0
United States______ SE ee Re is ETS Ky SS 2 ae SER ee 6, 929 5, 137 40.8 40.1
IBLxqOLUS| (OUa)) eee bee TONES ora | 17, 207 16, 129 100. 0 100. 0
iUnitedskain gd omss-<-— ae eee eee eee Se ee 465 505 2 i Shik
rancee 3 eshte ke See ee SSE Sy ae Nee ee ae eee 944 1, 060 5.4 6.5
Genintan ise eae See ere cee ne el BRL Cee Seer 1, 013 1, 150 5.8 Til
Wiaytirsxol Steir ee ee ee een ee 7, 785 7, 605 45. 2 47.1

On Ne

LATIN AMERICAN FOREIGN TRADE IN 1930 199

Principal imports and exports

[Thousands of dollars]

Commodity 1929 1930 Commodity 1929 1930
fm pPorisi(botal) ease 16,967 | 12, 796 | BEST ORUSH (LO Ua) = 17,207 | 16, 129
Machinery and apparatus---_---- 1, 506 eS 4a aACRO peta ae a see tn ee Be 4, 251 4, 681
Drugs and chemicals-_---------_- 699 GEIS} ||| Tole owen, GAWG_--- == === 3, 064 3, 160
IWiheatHours22-225.252.222252 5 572 OE © OL CC hae ee tne eee ae ea EE, 2, 334 1, 890
Mineral oils and derivatives -_--_- 534 SO) Il) (SBI OUD esses sess ocee sss 1, 358 1, 681
Woolen manufactures -_--------_- 706 ASL || Mbnae Al ORES 1, 422 1, 478
TOG |, he oa 596 AIS Bi WME CO eee ta mis tnt ees iam a Se a 851 742
Paper and cardboard and manu- RLVORyonUt Stes eee etn Sees 1, 521 689
HAC UIRGSUeeee ee eee ee ek a 531 AVN) IN Tea) Tew 253 234
Silk and manufactures-_-_---- aS 582 Be) |) SWE oe eats enesessce 198 180
Perfumery and toilet articles__-_- 269 KS || BHT loo S28 144 71
Wines and spirits________._--_--- 337 SRE): ||| CranGls mpi ol gee 5-58 37 12
Hides and skins and manufac-
GCS aes pee Se 363 203
Glass and glassware___--___.__--- 113 156
Pigments, paints and varnishes_- 186 155
(Wementeee es ee se ee ek 154 134 |
i}
PARAGUAY

Paraguay’s foreign trade in 1930 amounted to $28,436,337, as
compared with $26,490,565, being an increase of $1,945,772, or 7.3 per
cent. The value of imports ($14,685,178) exceeded that of 1929 by
$1,250,586, or 9.3 per cent, while the value of exports ($13,751,159)
increased by $695,186, or 5.3 per cent.

Distribution of foreign trade—four principal commercial countries

[Values in thousands of dollars, i. e., 000 omitted]

| Per cent of total
Country 1929 1930
1929 1930
eT OTESK (total) eases ee ee a Ss ee 13, 435 14, 685 100. 0 100. 0
United Iinadomn = Bee ee 1, 632 2, 008 | 12.1 13.6
TED IONGD sky So eS ee ee ee eee 701 837 One, Bad
(Genin ariypeee ee aes anata Men ok Ue we Pec Ao. a 1, 268 1,319 9.4 8.9
Wining SESS a Se es eee ee ee eee 2, 515 2, 338 18.7 15.9
JONG DOV AS (CHO EEN) ee ae ee 13, 056 13, 751 100. 0 100. 0
Winitedekein gd Orne seats = ee ee So ee ee 47 34 | 58 a
TP URPPING OS ec a a 2 ee ee eee eee | 495 208 | 3a iL, &
(Cherm st niyee ene ee eS ee ee 121 215 | 9) 1.5
Winitedestatesnee tee mee tn lu Sere ele eure ee ES 5 269 Beene nena ol
| |

Of the imports, 35 per cent in 1929 and 28.7 per cent in 1930 were
contributed by Argentina, but this trade consisted largely of goods
originating in other countries. On the export side, 85 per cent of
the total in 1929 and 91.2 per cent in 1930 went to Argentina, largely
for transshipment to other countries.

200 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Principal imports and exports
(Thousands of dollars]

Commodity 1929 1930 || Commodity | 1929 1930

imports) (total)es == s=- === 13,4385 | 14, 685 xp OGES| (oval) === } 13,056 | 13, 751
HOOUStUT SH sae ee eee ee 3, 344 2, 887 || Quebracho extract_ 2, 682 3, 127
Cotton and manufactures-__---_- 2, 370 2,705 || Meat extract _ | 937 1, 970
Metals and manufactures__-___-__ 1, 334 eBSuieCabuleshides meses aan 1, 050 1, 243
Machinery and apparatus --_---_- 1, 068 Ghek8) ||| VeGieloe) ways etek 1, 165 1, 094
Wiineralrollseee=—ee ee 810 HOonGanned seats === === anes 1,314 1,019
WMehiclesk <2 5-2 0 eee sae 819 2h) \Cotton= 2 ea ee ee 724 906
Silk and manufactures___________ 404 52 7p| HARLIN Der see = = are ee eee | 762 694
Linen and manufactures___-_--__ 455 490)i|| Wallowa 20" Se See eee 283 568
MODACCOL Sat Sleek a eee eee 1, 127 435

@attle-==o =. 2s ease a eee 619 265

Oillolipebitjeran= eee 250 237

Jerked beci=- =. 5.2 See eee 175 184

PERU

Peru’s foreign trade in 1930 reached a value of $149,760,517, show-
ing a decline of 28.6 per cent. Imports were valued at $53,307,217
and exports at $96,453,300. Compared with 1929, imports show
a decline of $22,633,767, or 29.8 per cent, and exports of $37,579,284,
or 28 per cent.

Distribution of foreign trade—four principal commercial countries
[Values in thousands of dollars, i. e., 000 omitted]

| Per cent of total
Country 1929) see e930 ee
| 1929 1930
tm pontss (total) wess= ss Sse aot Se See 75, 941 | 53, 307 100.0 100.0
Ws rihiaebs] eabayeze (arse e Jee ee ee Sea ee ee 11, 382 | 9, 004 14.9 16.8
HAC See eet a ae Se ee 2. SS Bee 2, 892 22 3.8 352
(GIGI ee el Ce oe lay aN eae eee TT 7, €05 6, 1465 | 10.0 11.5
WmitedeStateseate esate ae aU ea eae: BED Bese 2 ee 31, 766 | 20, 389 41.8 38. 2
EXpOntsH(total esse ee eee ee 134, 033 96, 453 100. 0 100. 0
lUmitedgkcnyd omhe-s2-s- tas Se ees eee 24, 562 | 17, 882 18.3 18.5
TONER Gan ee en re Oe I ee ee eee 1, 683 | 1, 864 1.2 1.9
Germ aii te ease 33ers OMEN 8, 163 | 7, 295 6.0 7.5
WimiteGES Lates eae ae ae Ee I a ee eR eet 44, 630 | 37, 927 33. 1 39.3
i | |

Principal imports and exports
Official statistics of imports by commodities for the year 1930

are not yet available. The principal exports for the years 1929 and

1930 were as follows:
[Thousands of dollars]

Commodity 1929 1930

EX DOELSI COLA pee aeew eee eee ei at ee Fee hen NN ee ae | 134, 083 96, 453
Petroleumyandiproducts stesso we Ss Mee) et en ee ee 51, 619 28, 047
Copperibars! 23 cea nk 2 ae Were ee Ss Sea ee Nee See Wee eee oe 26, 298 18, 003
Wotton yrs Wee a ee ee ee ee ee ee een 20, 508 16, 605
Sugars ssa ee Fe a ee ee ete Oe ae ae ee Se | 13, 508 10, 256
STE Ce ee eR re ee ee ota ee eens SUR a eee eee eee ee | "6, 342 4, 277
Wana ditlmmsts2oe ore oe 2 BS oe ee es ee es Se ee ee | 552 2, 956

(fae) ae te PD Ee I SE eG PRR NCEE YN rama gh ESS | 4, 202 2) 831

LATIN AMERICAN FOREIGN TRADE IN 1930 201

URUGUAY

Uruguay’s foreign trade in 1930, amounting to $197,772,431,
closely approximated that of 1929, increasing by $2,796,727, or 1.4
per cent. Imports in 1930 were valued at $92,873,661 and exports
at $104,898,770. The decline in imports for the year was $5,635,506,
or 5.7 per cent and the increase in exports $8,432,233, or 8.7 per cent.

Distribution of foreign trade—four principal commercial countries

{Values in thousands of dollars, i. e., 000 omitted]

| Per cent of total
Country 1929 | 1930 =
| 1929 1930
Tema ORLSH (CO tal) eee eee en ew eed Se eee ees 98, 509 92, 874 100. 0 100. 0
Wied sKanedom on lls Sere Peel! 15,740 | 15, 600 oO) TAG
TORRE GY SB eo Se a le eae re ct oe ee a se 4, 609 | 3, 601 4.6 3.8
GiG AIDEN NV SAS Ne See ean a oe REO ee ne ee eet 10, 081 9, 287 16. 2 9.9
WiMitedeS tatese ses acs sat oar es She DONS Se ee eee 30, 906 | 23, 309 31.3 25.0
EPRGORUSHCCO tal) Seek pee eke ts oe ee eae eau he Bok) 96,467 | 104, 899 100. 0 100.0
United Kingdom_.__ Poa RN paar a Rs Ne ae ee pen oe 22, 232 | 34, 621 23.0 33. 0
SESE CC eee err rei ee et aera ae ete en eee eS 11, 314 12, 875 101 ¢ 12.2
(CERIN 32 ssk5eS ee ee eed eee ee ee eh eee ee 14, 331 | 13, 023 14.8 12.4
WirtitedeS tates mcs ose Ste he ee 11, 692 | 8, 061 12.1 7.6
| |
Principal imports and exports
(Thousands of dollars]
1929 1930 1929 1930
Imports (total) _...-=______ 98, 509 | 92, 874 IEXPORUESH (bOUal) ee ee 96, 467 | 104, 899
Minmeraltoil eee ae Ris SO Se aG e@ a 29,772 | 27, 552
(CO een ee en een SS 4, 927 3, 920 || Beef, frozen and chilled__________ 13, 330 | 20, 942
SOS a eee 3, 819 3, 873 || Hides and skins________________- 12,187 | 11, 794
ROtaL Ges eee eer te eS eS | 2,694 Bh VES ||| Cemavararel sone 7, 252 7, 167
Oliver lee seve tee ae 195 2S et O16 545 MbAMSee dss. «se fee ee Be ee 8}, 761 6, 666
‘A DS) OY) cia ee tas as ee a ee a | 2BG8¢ | 2 Bail 4 IRoyasin senypinon——— 4, 888 6, 078
PACICOTIOD ICS een ee eee | 4,270; 1,872 || Tallow and grease______-________ 2, 774 4, 082
Sim U@noipll WON. a Pal Gt em eA 254 eS QT Caparo a hee ec rae es 2, 446 2, 858
IGS BHO WOES 5 see sece cee © «IK |) a, SHS} II) IMIee is @aneeps 2, 253 2, 381
Newsprint paper________________ 1, 049 GEM |i] \oeene talon ec osse eee sees 955 1, 762
Machinery, industrial___________ 1, 141 | SG2AIIWAN Caitstec weet Mean en ee cee en 4, 325 1, 908
SKS ICCOLOOUS =a ee ee ee lr OSiaal SO 7a C aU Ule ces eee a et a oe 2, 226 1, 498
Galvanized-iron sheets forroofing| 1, 130 | 697al le Mieatrotial® trozentss eee 1, 041 1, 023
}Wememtmemen Ween | 510 | 882leSheeps vos see ae ene eae eee 1, 164 884
Jerkedheefesa ace ee 1, 327 823
VENEZUELA

The foreign trade of Venezuela in 1930 (fiscal year ended June 30)
ageregated $220,822,141, being a decrease of $8,797,113, or 3.8
per cent as compared with the previous fiscal year’s figure of
$229,619,254. The value of imports declined from $88,269,374 in
1929 to $77,455,414, in 1930, or 12.2 per cent, while the value of
exports increased from $141,349,880 to $143,366,727, or 1.4 per cent.

202

THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Distribution of foreign trade—four principal commercial countries

[Values in thousands of dollars, i. e., 000 omitted]

I
| Per cent of total
Country | 1929 1930
| 1929 1930
nN POLtss(Cobal) Sse ee eae eee ee ee earl 88, 269 77, 455 100. 0 100. 0
WmitedskKcing d Oma esse See cee a ee ote OL 11, 403 9, 835 12.9 12.6
ISTAN CO Me ae eee ew ene ee ee Ran see a eee eh AY 3, 684 3, 955 4.1 5.1
Germanys a2 ae 1 eS ae ee a ee 7, 206 8, 133 8.1 10.5
Wm te CES TALES mete a stem et etal enna Sun eak Oia eee meme 51, 225 40, 441 58. 0 92) 2
TEED OLESR (CO, ball) Meee eee ee ar ese Se a glee Sera 141, 350 143, 367 100. 0 100. 0
United skeins dom’ 229-2 = see ee ee ee 2, 050 3, 594 1.4 2.6
FET ATI CO eee ates eae ee ee eee No ee OP et Jans Hines Sere ene are 4, 220 2, 813 2.9 1.9
GROTTTYEAT yee ee I Se LE He Se ee ee ee 6, 891 4, 550 4.8 3} Il
WiMitedt States sae se See en ee oe 40, 848 34, 266 28.8 23. 9:
Principal imports and exports
[Thousands of dollars]
Commodity | 1929 1930 Commodity 1929 1930
IMPOSE botal) as 88,269 | 77, 455 ERpOLtS) (Ola) = 141, 350 | 143, 367
iron and steel and manufactures_| 7, 520 6, 665 || Petroleum, crude_______________- 102, 765 | 116, 689
Tubing, iron, tin, and lead ____-_- | 10, 298 519857 KCoflee 2a aa tare eee 25,179 | 15, 270
Cotton clo thie ee GS 4: 5 246 CACAO cas. See ae eee eee eee 4, 739 3, 918
Automobiles, passenger and Gas Oils: S22 oa eae 866 1, 504
RUCK eee ees ee eee 4, 571 47488)1| Gasoline s=se essen oo see enna 1, 654 1, 450
IVI CHIN Ory aya tae ee ee 3, 812 SA9 154 MGOldE Ss ele ee ee ees 979 904
Wiheatiourese= seas eee 2, 021 iL CRY II) Grompelictne.- 5 537 430
Wines and liquors__________-___- 2, 075 1SSSul| ms Cele ca Gul © meee eee a eaeeenn eee 617 395
Drugs and medicines_-_______-_-_- 1, 782 1800) ||P Carls. = Sete Se ee 275 275
Cement ee a2 <a n an ees 1, 262 1400 Sugar. eno ee eee 322 198
DRE RO NE ogee ae a ee eee eR 1, 250 1240) || Bala tazeeess 22s Ree eee 194 185
TERT CQ Sasi a a stl ie Se Be ee 967 Chey) |}) ANovaligay loys 158 171
Railweayama terial eases eeee 615 537 || AtS ph alts ese es eee 202 51
Gea Th Cres eek ee ene ae 482 COE MI IDNA hhylg as 2 58 43
Gasoline and kerosene-__-_--_____- 279 365
Animal foodstuffs, preserved-_-_-- 359 361

COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY NOTES

Recent accessions —Among the 121 titles added to the library during
the past month three volumes by a former Minister of Foreign Affairs
of Colombia, Dr. Antonio José Uribe, are notable. These volumes,
listed in detail below, present what amounts to a history of the foreign
policy of Colombia as related to American affairs. One deals with
the relations of Colombia and the United States including all the
negotiations concerning the Panama Canal; another with the rela-
tions between Colombia and Peru in the settlement of the boundary
dispute and the question of the free navigation of rivers; and the third
with the relations between Colombia and Venezuela, Costa Rica,
Ecuador, Brazil, Nicaragua, and Panama.

Another publication worthy of special notice is the January, 1932,
issue of the monthly Revista Americana de Buenos Aires, the address of
which is Avenida P. Roque Saenz Pefia 530, Buenos Aires. This issue
of 116 pages is wholly devoted to a newspaper directory of Latin
America with a special title page, La Prensa Ibero-Americana, 1932.
Price, 3 pesos.

Books of special note received are as follows:

Colombia y el Pert. Las cuestiones de limites y de libre navegacién fluvial.
Por el Doctor Antonio José Uribe. Bogotaé, Editorial Minerva, s. a., 1931.
xxv, 455p. 8°.

Colombia -Venezuela- Costa Rica- Ecuador - Brasil- Nicaragua y Panama. Las
cuestiones de limites y de libre navegacidn fluvial. Por el Doctor Antonio
José Uribe. Bogotaé, Editorial Minerva, s.a., 1931. xxix, 632 p. 8°.

Colombia y los Estados Unidos de América. El canal interocedinico. La
separacién de Panama. Politica internacional econémica. La cooperacidn.
Por el Doctor Antonio José Uribe. Bogota, Imprenta nacional, 1931. lv, 442
1 tre

El espiritu de la ciencia. Meditaciones sobre el desarrollo de las ciencias y la
evolucién del pensamiento humano desde los comienzos de la cultura hasta los
tiempos en que vivimos, con especial consideracién de las preocupaciones actuales
del hombre en los dominios de la investigacién cientifica. Por el Dr. Daniel
Martner. Santiago, Universidad de Chile, 1931. 354 p. 8°.

Diccionario histérico biografico y bibliografico de Chile. Por Virgilio Figueroa.
Tomos IV y V. Santiago de Chile, Establecimientos grdficos Balcells & Cia.,

UGB, BA xz tba ls Be.
203

204 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Suelos y abonos. Por el Dr. Adolfo Matthei. Santiago, Editorial Nascimiento,
IOS 200 per Se

El alba, 1818-1841. Por Agustin Edwards. Valparaiso, Sociedad imprenta
y litograffia Universo, 1931. 357 p. front., plates. 8°.

El Mundo. Almanaque de El Mundo, 1932, afio segundo. Publicado por La
Compania Editora ‘‘AJmanaque de El Mundo.” Habana, Compaiiia litogrdfica
de La Habana, 1932. 512p. illus. 8°.

Anuario de la Sociedad cubana de derecho internacional. Editado por la Sociedad
cubana de derecho internacional. Volumen segundo a décimotercero. Habana,
Imprenta ‘El siglo XX,’’ 1918-1930. 12 v. 12°.

La Sociedad cubana de derecho internacional y el pacto de la Liga de las naciones.
Editado por la sociedad cubana de derecho internacional. Habana, Imprenta
“El siglo XX,” 1920: 182 p. 12°.

Historia de la Provincia de San Vicente de Chiapa y Guatemala de la orden de
predicadores. Compuesta por Fray Francisco Ximénez. Prélogo, estudios del
lic. Agustin Mencos F. y Doctor Ramén A. Salazar. Tomo III. Guatemala,
Tipografia nacional, 1931. xxxii, 432 p. 8°. (Biblioteca ‘‘Goathemala,”’
volumen ITT.)

Estudios bio-bibliograficos sobre Rafael Landivar. Por J. Antonio Villacorta C.
Contribucién al segundo centenario del nacimiento del poeta. Guatemala,
Tipografia nacional, 1931. 157p. illus. 8°.

Tratados y convenciones vigentes entre los Estados Unidos Mexicanos y otros
paises. III: Tratados y convenciones multilaterales. México, Imprenta de la
Secretaria de relaciones exteriores, 1931. 366p. 8°.

El abismo blanco. Por M. Becerro de Bengoa. Montevideo, Imprenta ‘El
Siglo Ilustrado,” 1931. 288 p. 8°. (Problemas sociolégicos.)

Sizth international road congress, Washington, 1930. Actas del congreso.
Washington, Imprenta del Gobierno, 1931. 354 p. illus., ports. 8°.
Memorias. Washington, Imprenta del gobierno, 1930. lv. 8°.

Second Pan American health directors’ conference, Washington, 1931. Actas
generales. Washington, Imprenta del Gobierno, 1932. 241 p. illus. 8°.

The following magazines were received in the Library for the first ~

time during the past month:

Vanguardia (Revista mensual publicada por la NAP de Los Angeles), Los
Angeles, Chile. (M). Afio 1, No. 1, noviembre de 1931. 52 p. illus. 7% x
10% inches.

Isle of Pines Post (Published twice a month in the interest of the Isle of Pines,
its prosperity and progress), Nueva Gerona. Vol. 5, No. 24, December 25, 1931.
8p. illus. 8%4 x 11% inches.

El Agricultor Chileno (Organo oficial de la Asociacién Chilena de Apicultores
y Cooperativa Central Agricola-Apicola, Ltda.), Santiago de Chile. (M). Ano
1. No. 1, noviembre de 1931. 8 p. illus. 7% x 10% inches.

Boletim da Directoria Technica de Educacgéo. Pernambuco, Brasil. (Q). Anno
1. No. 1, Dezembro, 1931. 123 p. illus. 6 x 9 inches.

Auto y Turismo (Organo Oficial del Touring Club Uruguayo), Montevideo (M).
Ano 1, No. 2. Diciembre de 1931. 4p. illus. 138% x 20 inches.

Alma Latina (Revista Quincenal Ilustrada), San Pedro Sula, Honduras. Ano
1, No. 1, 1° de enero de 1932. 24p.ilus. 9% x 12% inches.

Boletin del Servicio Nacional de Salubridad (Organo Oficial de la Direecién
General de Sanidad), Santiago de Chile. (M). 80 p. ilus. 6% x 9% inches.

La Revista Argentina (Publicacién mensual ilustrada), La Paz, Bolivia. 80p.
illus. 7 x 10% inches.

2 Se Ss

See Oe

Se |” es ee

PAN AMERICAN PROGRESS
TREATIES AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

The Government of Mexico is the first to ratify the Convention on
the Regulation of Automotive Traffic signed on October 6 by the
delegates of the American Republics to the Sixth International Road
Congress, held in Washington from October 6 to 11, 1930. The con-
vention, which had been approved by Congress, was signed by the
President of the Republic on December 3, 1931.

The Radiotelegraphic Convention, signed in San Jose, Costa Rica,
on August 20, 1931, between Mexico and Costa Rica, was approved
by the Mexican Congress and signed by the President on December 3,
1931.

The Convention for the Exchange of Parcel Post, signed between
Costa Rica and Cusa on December 24, 1930, in San Jose, Costa Rica,
was ratified by the President of Costa Rica on the same day, and ap-
proved by the Cuban Senate June 26, 1931, and ratified by the Presi-
dent on July 2. The ratifications were exchanged in San Jose on
October 2, 1931.

LEGISLATION

According to the Constitution of 1917, the UnirEp States oF Mexico
was composed of 28 States, 3 Territories, and the Federal District.
One of the Territories was Quintana Roo, on the eastern shore of the
Yucatan peninsula, with an area of more than 19,000 square miles
and a population of about 10,300; its extensive forests contain chicle-
bearing and other valuable trees. By a decree passed by Congress
and signed by the President on December 14, Quintana Roo was
absorbed by the States of Campeche and Yucatan on December 31,
1931. The northern part of the former Territory was absorbed by the
State of Yucatan, the southern by Campeche. The dividing line
passes from the angle formed by the boundaries of Yucatan and
Campeche, southeast and east to La Ascensién Bay. The islands of
Mujeres and Cozumel, where important archeological remains have
been found, were not included in the division, but made direct de-
pendencies of the Federal Government, under the supervision of the
Department of the Interior. The transfer of archives, documents,
and symbols of authority to the two States took place with due
ceremony in the city of Payo Obispo.

205

AGRICULTURE

Government interest in agriculture throughout the Americas is
being evinced by programs for furnishing adequate knowledge for
the production of more, better, or newer products. Such a measure
was the law signed on December 9, 1931 by the President of CoLomBIa
whereby the National Council of Agriculture was established to
promote agricultural research, instruction, and extension work.

The council will consist of seven ad honorem members, to be
appointed for terms of three years apiece by certain specified public
and private agricultural organizations and institutions, with a secre-
tary to be named by the Minister of Industries from the Bureau of
Agriculture. To aid and cooperate with the Government and the
council, departmental agricultural committees of three will be estab-
lished in every capital; each committee will appoint subcommittees,
also of three—the mayor and two local agronomists—in all the
municipalities in the Department.

The law reorganizes to some extent national agricultural instruction,
beginning with the primary grades, where in both urban and rural
schools particular emphasis is to be put, in the future, on agricultural
subjects. Special short courses will be provided in all agricultural
schools for those wishing to study further to become skilled farm hands
or overseers. There will be three higher schools of agriculture, estab-
lished at the sea level, upland, and mountain experiment stations;
while all three will have the same general curriculum, each will special-
ize in the problems incident to the temperature and elevation that
are particular to its zone. Extension work will be carried on by field
agents, who will act as liaison officers between agricultural stations
and farmers in solving local problems as well as in the distribution of
seeds, plants, and other material supplied by the Government. When
in connection with an experiment station or model farm there are also
a higher school of agriculture and the corresponding extension service,
the whole organization will be considered an agricultural institute.
The law provides for three of these at first, at Bogota, Medellin, and
Palmira, with others to be established as the need may arise. The
institute at Bogota will be wholly controlled by the National Govern-
ment, but the others will be jointly supported by the nation and the
respective Department.

The law also authorizes the National Government to acquire
machinery, draft animals, and other agricultural necessities to be
rented at a moderate fee to small-scale farmers and stockraisers in
every region of the country, and to provide more adequate agricultural
statistics, in order to direct the activities of agriculturists in accordance

206

AGRICULTURE 207

with the needs of the nation and the capacity of domestic and foreign
markets. .

In Urvueuay the Ministry of Industries issued two decrees of
interest to raisers of sheep and other wool-bearing animals. Two com-
missions were established, one to study and recommend measures
bearing on the sheep and wool-bearing animal industry, and the other
to study the possibility of direct exportation of wool by the growers.
The former commission is composed of Sefiores Demetrio Windmueller,
Dermidio Macgillyenddy, Alberto Urtubey, Dr. Miguel C. Runino,
and Dr. Daoiz L. Sanz; and latter, of Doctor Windmueller, Dr.
Alejandro Gallinal, Sefiores Arturo Abella, Juan Debernardis, and
Abelardo Rey O’Shanahan.

In Honpuras, according to the message of the President to the
National Congress on January 1, 1932, the breeding of better cattle
was given an additional impetus by the distribution among the cattle
raisers of the Republic of 32 pedigreed bulls. They were acquired
and distributed by the Institute of Animal Husbandry of San Luis
Pajén to improve the quality of the herds throughout the country,
and early reports indicate that the program will be successful.

One of the major agricultural questions for any nation is that of the
proper diversification of interests. A solution of this problem often
solves two others closely related—overproduction of a staple on which
the nation has allowed its economy to become too dependent, or the
necessity of importing foodstuffs which the nation is capable of pro-
ducing within its own limits.

The Government of Prrv is recommending an increased production
of fruit as a solution of the latter problem. Twenty years ago nearly
all the fruit requirements of the country were met by domestic pro-
duction. When, as a result of the World War, the price of cotton
rose abnormally, many of the fruit orchards were destroyed to give
space to the more profitable crop. As a result, there was a sharp
increase in Peruvian imports, both of fresh fruit—oranges, apples,
bananas, pears, and cherries, mainly from Chile, Ecuador, and the
United States—and of the canned product. Now that the value of
cotton has declined, farmers in Peru are replanting their orchards,
and the Government is considering the erection of canning factories
at strategic points to insure the growers a stable market.

The problems arising from too great dependence on a single prod-
uct, which is the situation Brazit has been facing for two years, are
being solved partly by diversification (see Buttetin for February,
1932), and partly by experiments to discover industrial uses for the
unmarketed surplus. The plans for improving the coffee situation
called for the elimination of inferior grades of bean. Part of the excess
stock on hand was destroyed by burning and by dumping into the

208 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

sea. Such wasteful procedures, however, may be abandoned as the
result of research carried on in December under the direction of the
former Minister of Agriculture, Dr. Simées Lopes. It was discovered
that from 100 kilograms (kilogram equals 2.2 pounds) of coffee
36 cubic meters (cubic meter equals 35.31 cubic feet) of gas and
44 kilograms of residue capable of being made into fuel briquets
could be obtained, as against 30 meters of gas and 68 kilograms of
residue from coal. Tests were made in December, 1931, at the gas
plant furnishing Nictheroy, the capital of the State of Rio de Janeiro,
and during the course of the experiments the city was supplied for
three days with illuminating gas manufactured from coffee. There
is no thought that other fuels will be replaced by the use of coffee
products, but it has been proven that the lower grades of the present
and of any future surplus stocks need not be a total economic loss
when withdrawn from the food market.

SIRES aceenGes cee

FINANCE

Conference of South American Central Banks.—A conference of
representatives of the central banks of Boxivia, Cure, CoLomsia,
Ecuapor, and Peru met at Lima on December 2, 1931, to consider
the common problems of those institutions during the present period
of economic depression. A series of resolutions covering some
14 questions was made public when the conference adjourned
on December 12. Although a wide and in many ways controversial
field of financial policy is dealt with therein, two salient points stand
out in connection with the recommendations: First, an absolute
affirmation of adherence to the gold standard; and, second, a strongly
worded recommendation stressing the importance of protecting the
central banks from political interference. As a corollary to the
second point, the necessity of maintaining a balanced national budget
at all times is emphasized in order that governmental authorities
may not be forced to seek credits through recourse to the central
banks at the risk of monetary inflation.

Besides the South American delegates—the presidents and other
high ranking officials of the participating central banks—a delegation
from the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, headed by Prof. E. W.
Kemmerer, of Princeton University, attended the conference as
observers. Professor Kemmerer has played a major role in monetary
and fiscal readjustments in Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and
Peru, and the organization of the central banks, which in these five
Republics have grown out of his recommendations, is very similar.
Colombia established the first central banking institution in the
West Coast countries in 1923, Chile followed in 1925, Ecuador in 1927,
and Bolivia in 1929; the Central Reserve Bank of Peru was formally

FINANCE 209

opened on September 3, 1931. The Lima conference, convened at
the suggestion of the Central Bank of Bolivia, is the first attempt of
these banks to discuss their mutual financial problems. At the
proposal of the Peruvian delegation, another conference is scheduled
to meet some time in 1933, to which will be invited all the central
banking institutions of issue and rediscount in the Americas.

The first question taken up by the conference was the case of Bolivia,
which has linked her currency to the pound sterling. It was con-
sidered inadvisable for the monetary unit of an American republic to
be linked absolutely to that of another country, regardless of the
economic and political importance of the latter, although such a
situation as that existing in Bolivia, where exchange was linked to
the pound sterling in order to prevent the damaging or wiping out of
the export trade, is understsndable. The conference, therefore,
deemed that such a state of affairs should hold only temporarily, the
establishment of monetary stability through a return to the gold
standard being essential.

Reaffirming this conclusion, the conference stated in another
resolution that inasmuch as the best prospect for obtaining a reason-
ably stable monetary medium appears at the present time to lie in
the world-wide adoption of the gold standard, despite its recognized
deficiencies, it looks with favor on all thoughtful efforts on the part
of central banks and the Bank for International Settlements to
perfect the gold standard and to make it a more stable measure of
value.

Two of the measures which the conference considered of paramount
importance were the assurance of budgetary equilibrium, so that
governments may not find themselves obliged to seek in the central
bank credits leading to an inflation of the note circulation, and the
exclusive regulation by central banks of the circulating medium
through the discount and rediscount of paper arising from agricul-
tural, industrial, and commercial transactions; these measures should
avoid inconvertibility of the bank note and act to prevent greater
evils once adverse circumstances should necessitate the suspension
of the conversion privilege. These two points—a balanced budget
and ‘‘absolute independence of the central banks from any inter-
vention by partisan politics and from any influence on the part of the
government or of its officials beyond the scope of their usual
powers’’—were considered of such importance by the conference
that they were made the subject of separate recommendations.

Two other measures were recommended as a result of the discus-
sion of the problem of inconvertibility—the adoption of a policy of
defense of the national economy to correct any lack of equilibrium in
the international balance of payments resulting in heavy exports of
gold, and the use of open-market operations by central banks to help

210 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

regulate the amount of money in circulation. The latter is an innova-
tion in the monetary and banking systems organized according to the
recommendations of Professor Kemmerer. The charters of the cen
tral banks represented at the conference do not authorize open-
market operations, and some of them expressly forbid such an activ-
ity, perhaps because the respective markets are so restricted that the
central banks may not be able to function along this line as efficiently
as those of Europe and North America.

One of the most interesting matters discussed at the conference was
that of the results of the control of foreign-exchange operations in the
various countries. Since the opinion of the delegations was divided,
the conference did not vote upon this question. Of the five countries
represented at the conference, three, Bolivia, Chile, and Colombia,
have established some form of exchange centrol, while in the remaining
two, Ecuador! and Peru, there are no restrictions.

In Bolivia, a moratorium of 30 days on foreign obligations and debts
payable in foreign currency, was established by a law of October 9,
1931. It was suspended by a decree of November 16, but the export
of gold in any form is prohibited temporarily and exchange transac-
tions are reserved to the Central Bank.

The Government of Chile, in order to prevent the exodus of gold
from its Central Bank, promulgated on July 30, 1931, a law establish-
ing a control over the purchase of foreign exchange and the transfer
of funds abroad. An exchange control commission has been set up
with powers, so far as settlement in foreign currency is involved, over
contracts entered into in Chile, contracts executed abroad subsequent
to July 30, 1931, and stock-exchange operations. In addition no
contracts in foreign currency may be entered into without the prior
consent of the commission.

Free trading in gold in Colombia was temporarily suspended on
September 25, 1931, by a presidential decree, which also prohibited
the export of that metal except by the Bank of the Republic, which
retains powers for its purchase, sale, and export, and for the negotia-
tion of foreign exchange. A commission to control exchange opera-
tions was appointed, with powers to permit exchange operations for
legitimate commercial purposes and to prevent the transfer of gold
for deposit abroad. The powers of the exchange control commission
have since been transferred to the Bank of the Republic. ?

1 On February 9, 1932, the Provisional Government of Ecuador suspended until November 10 the free
operation of the gold standard. While the suspension is effective the Central Bank will not exchange
notes in circulation either for gold or for gold drafts, except for the fulfillment of Government obligations.
All exports of gold, except by the Government, are prohibited and export duties must be paid in drafts
on foreign countries at the prevailing rate of exchange. The proceeds of export taxes are to be turned
over to the Central Bank to be credited to the Government’s account. The Central Bankis to convert
into gold all its deposits in banks abroad and transfer the gold to its own vaults. The decree also pro-
vides that the Central Bank will loan the Government 15,000,000 sucres.

2 Other Latin American countries which have established various forms of exchange control include
Argentina, Brazil, El] Salvador, Nicaragua, and Uruguay.

FINANCE lel

The views of the representatives of the central banks where control
has been established were expressed in the following resolution:

The results of exchange control which have been brought to the attention of
the committee are not ample enough to permit the conference to draw a definite
conclusion, there being both favorable and unfavorable aspects to be found. In
any case, the most prudent course is deemed to be not to employ exchange con-
trol except under grave circumstances and as a temporary expedient, according
to the particular conditions in each country.

The Colombian delegation submitted the following amplification
of the foregoing resolution:

In the crisis which is disturbing the national economy of all countries at the
present time, the lack of equilibrium in the balance of international payments
stands out as one of the principal causes. In order to reestablish equilibrium,
emergency measures have been taken in Colombia which may reduce imports
and increase exports, thus defending her gold reserves, upholding the prestige of
the Bank of the Republic, and maintaining monetary stability in so far as possible.
One of these emergency measures has been the establishment of exchange control
employed in some countries, together with other measures of a similar nature.
Control of gold exports was used in Colombia with very great success in 1920 and
now is being used in a more extensive way, among other purposes, to reduce
imports and the expenditures of Colombians abroad and to retain gold within
the country to the greatest extent possible during the period in which equilibrium
in the balance of payment is being reestablished. Up to now the results have been
satisfactory, but a recommendation in general terms indorsing the application of
exchange control could not be made without studying for each country the
particular conditions which might justify it, as well as the objects in view.

An opposite view was taken by the delegations from Ecuador and
Peru. They approved the following resolution:

In taking up this matter, the conference has above all tried to keep in mind
the fundamental factors determining exchange rates. . . . Taking this into ac-
count, the conference deems that any measure not conducive to the removal
of fundamental causes is no more than the expression of a vain desire to control
the external manifestation of such causes.

Considering, therefore, that the definite breakdown of a currency is the result
of prime forces of which the rate of exchange is only an index, the conference
does not recommend the adoption of measures of artificial control, because they
affect only the external aspect of the phenomenon to be regulated, without
affecting the basic causes, which lie in the real value of the currency unit as com-
pared with that of other currencies.

The conference deems, moreover, that such measures create a psychological
atmosphere adverse to the maintenance of the desired stability, since the estab-
lishment of control indicates that the currency is in imminent danger.

When the fundamental factors which bring about a critical condition are
overlooked the problem can not be solved, because if in the country whose currency
is in danger the lack of positive equilibrium in the balance of payments is due to
the high level of prices and cost of production in relation to those of other coun-
tries, exports which are affected by such conditions and imports which increase
as a result of them continue to aggravate the situation. In this connection the
conference recommends that the central banks make free use of the discount rate
as an effective means of controlling the money market, thus exerting a favorable

Dale, THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

influence on the true causes affecting the internal value of the currency and
consequently its international value.

The study of past experiences with exchange control strengthens the views of
the conference in this matter. The manifest impossibility of an effective control
of all foreign drafts brings in its train the development of an illegitimate exchange
market, supported by those who try to evade the regulations governing both the
sale and the purchase of exchange. The privileged position which the unscrupu-
lous gain to the disadvantage of those who obey the law and the arbitrary nature
of any attempt to ration the supply of foreign exchange when it is insufficient
are facts which tend to weaken the position of the most carefully constructed
exchange-control organization. In formulating these views, the conference
wishes it clearly understood that it is not passing any judgment whatever on such
control measures as may be in force at present in various countries, and which
without doubt owe their origin to the temporarily severe character of the
crisis, which attempts are being made to correct under the influence of special
circumstances.

As to the financial centers in which the gold reserves of the central
banks should be placed, the conference recommended that preference
be given to those whose monetary systems are on the gold standard,
where effective assurance is offered that the deposits which may be
placed there will be paid at any time in gold. Considering the posi-
tion of central banks which had reserves deposited in London in
pounds sterling, the conference recommended that any central bank
holding a part of its legal reserves in the form of deposits or other
credits in any country suspending the gold standard should, at the
earliest possible moment after suspension, convert these reserves into
gold or its equivalent, taking the loss which may ensue and reestab-
lishing its reserves completely on a gold basis.

For the purpose of giving greater security to deposits which the
central banks may place abroad to utilize in supporting their curren-
cies, the conference recommended that steps be taken to obtain from
the countries where the banks are permitted to make such deposits
assurance that they will be returnable at any time, without any
restriction, and at the same gold parity at which they were made.

The credit policy of banks of issue, because it is so intimately linked
with the regulation of the circulating medium and therefore with
monetary stability, is carefully regulated wherever such banks are
established in order to prevent any departure from basic principles.
According to the conference, severe criticism of the policy of South
American central banks is frequently heard, holding them responsible
for aggravating the depression in their respective countries through
severe restriction of credit; hence the public clamors for an amplifica-
tion of credit in accordance with the demand in the belief that an
increase in the note circulation would relieve the economic situation.
The conference found no grounds for this criticism and.stated em-
phatically that ‘“‘central banks were not created as a substitute for
commercial banks, nor can they be regarded as a panacea for economic
ills subject to a slow and painful process of recovery. Central banks

FINANCE 2S

complement and support the commercial banks which furnish credit
to productive and commercial enterprises for current needs. Central
banks should not on any account supply capital on a permanent basis
either to member banks or to the private enterprise in need of it for the
conduct of business.”

In view of the present need for credit, however, the conference
recommended various measures broadening slightly the legal disposi-
tions which govern the central banks with respect to loans and
rediscounts.

Studying the advisability of creating sources of international credit
for central banks, the conference was of the opinion that it would
not be prudent to attempt to obtain such credits unless they were
sought with the assurance that they would be employed in liquidable
short-term operations and that they could be repaid in the currency
of the lending country. In an emergency due to a sudden and tem-
porary reduction in its reserves, however, a central bank may find it
necessary to obtain credits abroad. In such a case, the conference
recommended that the purpose of restoring confidence would better
be fulfilled if the credit were obtained through a foreign central bank
than in the usual manner in the money market. To this end the con-
ference recommended that the South American central banks, the
Bank for International Settlements, and the central banks of other
countries should study the possibility of entering into negotiations
for the obtainment of such credits as a means of furthering the cause
of central bank cooperation and international monetary stability.

The conference recognized the need of South American countries
for foreign credits for productive purposes, especially for the financing
of exportable products, with maturities which fall between those of
short-term credits granted by commercial banks and those of longer
term credits provided by world capital markets. It believed that such
intermediate credits, with maturities of from one to three years, should
constitute an important part of any plan to help these debtor countries
fulfill their international financial obligations, and it recommended
to the central banks that they cooperate in setting up new machinery
to supply these credits and to stimulate the mobilization of such
credit in the lending countries.

Service on external debts is not only an expense affecting public
finance but also an obligation which affects international exchange.
The situation brought about by the diminution of fiscal receipts as a
consequence of the present crisis and, on the other hand, the lack of
equilibrium in the balance of international payments produced by the
decline in the value of exports explain in large part the difficulty of
meeting the service of the external public debt on the part of those
Latin American countries which can not pay these services without

100665—32— Bull. 35

214 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

compromising the stability of their exchange. In considering the
problem of external debts from this point of view, the conference
confined itself to placing these facts on record and hoping that the
reestablishment of normal conditions would permit the realization of
new and satisfactory settlements.

LABOR

Housing.—The improvement of health conditions among laborers
by encouraging the construction of comfortable and hygienic living
quarters not only has attracted widespread attention among social
workers and labor leaders, but has come within recent years to form
the basis for the adoption of extensive housing programs on the part
of many governments. While much that is highly praiseworthy has
already been accomplished toward this end in Latin America, much
still remains to be done. The development of such projects, however,
has not been localized in any one geographical area nor limited to the
larger or more populous republics. Furthermore, the promotion of
these activities has not been confined to Government agencies; public-
welfare societies, architectural associations, construction firms, and
public-spirited citizens all deserve a share in the credit for whatever
measure of success has been attained. Although present economic
conditions have had an indisputable effect on construction operations
everywhere, they have in no wise caused the curtailment of this work.

Within recent months the first of a number of moderately priced
houses, now under construction in Asuncién for the families of
laborers, was completed and opened for inspection, and an unspectac-
ular but no less persistent campaign is being carried on by the Govern-
ment of Paracuay through the Bureau of Lands and Colonies to
improve the living conditions of the working class in rural sections of
the country. In En Satvapor a similar project is being developed.
There, a group of 50 houses is under construction. All of these houses,
located in Santa Ana, are being built after much the same plan, which,
while providing comfort, is such that they may be sold at a very low
price. Funds for the financing of the project were advanced by several
wealthy persons of the city.

In order to aid in the housing of the many families made homeless
by the earthquake of April 2, 1931, the President of Nicaracua has
issued a decree setting aside an area of approximately 30 hectares
(hectare equals 2.47 acres) of public lands in Managua to be parceled
out among working class families. The land, which is divided into
plots of 900 square meters (square meter equals 10.26 square feet)
each, is being given as a free grant to the heads of families on condi-
tion that they erect a house according to specified regulations within

LABOR Piles

a period of two years. Land thus received may be neither leased nor
sold.

Thanks to the generosity of employees of the Government of
Cusa, thousands of unemployed in that country are now being pro-
vided comfortable lodging in Habana. AIl makeshift houses in
various parts of the city have been burned and the occupants removed
to sanitary quarters in the Purisima Market, at present known as the
General Machado Camp for the Indigent. During January 700 per-
sons received shelter, food, and medical attention there. The market
site occupies an entire block and extra facilities are provided to take
care of any overflow. In connection with the colony, a special com-
missary has been installed where approximately 3,500 families are
obtaining rations of beans, rice, condensed milk, lard, sugar, and other
staples. The monthly cost of the camp is reported to be 10,000
pesos. Similar camps have also been established in Matanzas and
Santiago de Cuba, where 2,000 families are receiving assistance.

Saturday half holiday in Paraguay and Uruguay.—Following the
passage of laws establishing the 8-hour day for workers in all or
specified industries and obliging the observance of one day of rest in
every seven, many countries have still further shortened the working
week by adopting the Saturday half-day holiday as a part of their
permanent labor policy. While such action may take the form of
legislation, it frequently receives widespread recognition simply
through its acceptance by the leading mercantile and industrial firms
of the Republic.

In Uruauay the Saturday half holiday became an integral feature
of the labor policy of the country by action of Congress. A decree
covering the subject was passed on October 13, 1931, and went into
effect on November 7, 1931. Cases of failure to conform to the law
were ordered to be reported immediately.

The decree provides that the weekly rest period for employees of
commercial establishments shall be lengthened to at least 36 consecu-
tive hours with a consequent reduction of the working week to 44
hours. Establishments exempted from compliance with the law of
December 10, 1920, providing for the observance of Sunday as a day
of rest, because of the nature of the needs which they meet, the
technical character of their operations, or the fact that a cessation of
their activities is considered prejudicial to the interest of the public
or the industry itself, are likewise freed from the obligation of con-
forming to the present law. They shall, however, substitute the
Sunday and half-day Saturday holiday by a rest period of a day and
a half at some other time during the week.

Pharmacies and barber shops are not affected by the new ruling;
they will continue to be regulated by the laws of July 2, 1931, and

216 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

November 7, 1929. Street venders come within the provisions of
the law, although exception is made in the case of persons selling
articles of food, newspapers and magazines, flowers, nonalcoholic
beverages, lottery tickets, tobacco and cigarettes, objects sold at the
Sunday fairs, or other articles sold by establishments which are
exempted from the provisions of the law of 1920.

Laborers who are paid by the day will receive a full day’s wages
for each fraction of a day that they work when the other portion of
the day falls within the weekly rest period.

A subsequent decree, issued by the Ministry of Industries on
October 27, 1931, specifies that wool and hide exporters and ware-
houses storing agricultural products shall be exempt from the effects
of the law.

The general adoption of the practice of observing a half-day holiday
on Saturday in Asuncion is, on the other hand, largely the result of
the initiative of the Society of Commercial Employees, which has
been working actively in Paraguay for its realization. Several of the
firms in the city have been observing this practice for some time, and
their number has gradually grown as other business houses have seen
the wisdom of the plan. Early in December the Society of Com-
mercial Employees announced that 92 other companies had expressed
their willingness to cooperate in the movement by closing on Saturday
afternoons.

EDUCATION

Educational courses and school enrollment—During January, CuBA
joined the ranks of countries using the radio as a means of placing
subjects of educational interest before the attention of the public.
The first broadcast of the series of ‘‘educational hours,” as the new
programs being sponsored by the Department of Public Instruction
are known, was made on January 19, 1932. At that time talks
explaining the purpose of the series were viven and several musical
selections and readings presented. The preparation of the programs
is in charge of the Sub Secretary of Public Instruction.

Believing education to be one of the most effective means for the
rehabilitation of the criminal, the Department of Justice of Ei Sat-
VADOR has taken action to establish primary schools in the prisons
throughout the Republic. According to the press it is the intention of
the department to open 30 schools, a number sufficient to allow one
school in each prison under the supervision of the department. Some
of these schools have already begun to function.

More than 300 teachers from the rural schools of Mrextco attended
the special course for rural teachers recently held in Mexico City by

EDUCATION DALI

the National University. The program provided for classes in cooper-
ative organization, hygiene, economics, and other subjects designed
to make the instructor more efficient in his work, and also included
a series of lectures on national problems given by prominent teachers
of the capital. The closing exercises were held on December 21, 1931,
when certificates were presented those who had attended the course.

During the year 1932, the Department of Public Education of
Mexico will maintain 16 cultural missions. While less than 10 years
have elapsed since the successful termination of the work of the first
cultural mission in March, 1924, so great has been the interest mani-
fested in them by the communities visited that it has been found
advisable not only to enlarge the radius of their action, but to extend
their activities. The present year will see the organization of two new
missions, one a permanent cultural mission to be opened in Actopan,
Hidalgo, and the other a mission to visit each of the State capitals for
the purpose of giving short courses for urban teachers. The 14
regular missions will continue to carry on the activities originally
planned for them. Their work takes them into all parts of the
Republic, but is chiefly centered in those communities fartherest
removed from the outside world. At each place a 28-day program is
presented; subjects from the fields of education, hygiene, social rela-
tionships, and economics are taught, and the members of the com-
munity instructed in trades and other activities which will help to
improve their living conditions.

Announcement was made during February that a summer session
for foreign students will be held in the University of Guadalajara from
June 29 to August 13, 1932 (for other summer schools of Spanish
in the Americas, see the Butuerin for February, 1932). This uni-
versity, which is located in the city of the same name in western
Mexico, offers a varied program of study under carefully selected
professors and will afford students an unusual opportunity for spending
a profitable vacation in the midst of typically Mexican surroundings.

Further student exchange between Mexico and the UNITED STaTES
has recently been made possible by the establishment of a fund to
finance fellowships in the University of Texas for students from the
National University of Mexico, and in the latter institution for
students from the University of Texas. The fund, which is known as
the E. D. Farmer International Scholarship Fund, will ultimately
amount to $210,000.

According to statistics published by the Ministry of the Interior
and Statistics, the total enrollment of all educational institutions in
Ecuapor during the year 1930, was 119,668; of this number 113,583
pupils were in attendance in the primary schools, 2,532 in the second-
ary schools, 2,633 in the special schools, and 920 in the universities.
At present there are 1,897 schools in the Republic; primary schools

218

THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

total 1,864, secondary schools 16, special schools 13, and universities 4.
The number of schools and the enrollment in them by Provinces are

as follows:

Number of schools by Provinces

Primary schools Secondary 5 5 Total
y schools o 2
2S |S
~ dq ~ iS) Seay ~
Provinces 5 = Sue 8 Ss SI 2a| 8 a
Bel. las BI || eae 8 | 2 |
Sete leies (slays le le |e) eis!| =
HSlal/ale |S |ol[Alsle ie Oo }/a|a] a
@archinze sees epee Sila Sees 2 6 89 IL eee 1 16; Saree Ge | -— 8 91
Iba oOw) NOI OW) Haase 6 12 103 IU eee ee en (eae RG sons 18 104
Ri chinc ht. Sane nee 158 5 | 26) 40] 229 uj) al 2 6 1} 166 | Bz 238
WeOnNt = sates et aS 108 IL 5 4; 118 1s eee IL | ee cel See 109 1 9 119
uneunrahwa sae 119 Qe 74 |) Mery 1a ee ges eee te 120 9 | 19 148
Chimborazo_-_-__-___--| 106 3 fel eee 126 1 Zae| [tes ere ee esa, 107 3 18 128
IB Oliv anes ae ee es 81 1 Bl eee 85 AUS Ses lis | Ee aee sl oe sare 82 1 3 86
Cana Soa neers 635 = 6a eee 69 aU eee Uy (eee ee 645 |e 6 70
IN TAI eee sae eee 139 16 365 aaa | 191 iP ise oe 1 1 1 142 16 36 194
ILO Same aes ees eee 111 3 8 2 124 Wee 1 ee 1 1138 3 10 126
IDIVORO Rae saw eee 55 16 Ard | romeo 75 al ee i || Sea eee 56 16 4 76
Guayast ats 22S ees 138 12 50 3 203 1 (eres 1 3 1 1438 12 53 208
TEOSPRAOS eae eseeer es 52 7 Bil ase4 62 oe (aes i) (ets eee 53 7 3 63
Mana bla eee = ee 132 39 By eee 174 hy eee 1 2 See 135 39 3 177
smeraldass=======a 63 2 1] 2 63) = Eee Beene setae (eee Ses 63 2 3 68
AT chipielac omen UL Se eee Se eee is Sere aera | Sees aE ee ee i['>| = 2S SSeee 1
ROA s ee ae 1,492 | 114 | 187 71 fb $64 14 2 16 13 4 |1,523 | 114 | 260 | 1, 897
Enrollment by Provinces
Primary schools, including night
schools and coeducational insti-
tutions Sec-
Provinces ondary | Special | Univer-
rial Total schools | schools} sities Total
= Nitec Schools
covern: ne Private} on es-
: | tates
| | f
Carchibesss 2 see 51098) | en 345 180 5, 623 56 60; === 5, 739
1DGA OO) NOI — — ese i, GBS ||_------- = 1, 136 329 7, 098 64a/). > 2S 3 | Saeee 7, 162
i Chin Cha ne 9, 769 709 5, 443 746 16, 667 526 1, 580 552 19, 275
ECO eee ea eho 8 7, 329 37 728 95 8, 189 101: | -- 22 eee 8, 290
Mungurahwass==s222 22 7, 425 744 | 1, 524 54 9, 747 GAS || 22 Soke ee | eee 9, 968
Chimborazo==sss===ae= 6, 907 Pa || POG |/esaa oe 9, 248 252! 22 ae ae | eee 9, 500
IBOlivarease sacs fe. eee 4, 649 | 30 | BAAN be et el 5, 223 93-2 ee 5, 316
Canareaane ee 2 oe SNOS25 eee eee | BO soscoose 4, 438 (Oi) 2232 seal Bees 4, 508
INVADE ee ee 7, 416 fess. |) Bh, 478) | - - 11, 428 147 59 141 IDL, 770
lig aw eee ee Oe 4, 968 59 | 1,482 76 6, 585 TH 2 cee 20 6, 720
TOO). 5 Se ee 2, 788 457 | OAs A eee es 3, 589 580 S255 = ss eee 3, 647
(Guay ass sea 7, 764 1, 879 4, 555 128 14, 326 752 893 207 16, 178
IoOseRioses 25-52 = 2, 019 468 4082 Sasa naa= 3, 655 50: |. 32 eee 3, 710
MPM os = 2 os ea 4, 123 508 262)|—=oae 4, 893 82 It See 5, 066
Esmeraldas____ 2, 699 52 SO see ae 2831 | eee ees | 2, 831
Archipielago=sssss=s-== SOU eae Semen eee ane eee see 48 | se ee cena eee 43
Totals eee ae 82, 472 5, 801 | 23, 702 1, 608 118, 583 2, 5382 2, 633 920 119, 668

Activities of educational organizations—The Fourth National Educa-
tional Conference was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazin, from December
13 to 20, 1931, under the auspices of the Brazilian Association of
Education and with the cooperation of the Federal Government.
meeting took on added significance because many of the delegates
were empowered by their respective States to sign the Inter-Adminis-
tration Convention for the Standardization of School Statistics.

The

EDUCATION 219

As the result of a resolution issued December 11, 1931, by the
President. of the Provisional Government, the Minister of Education
and Public Health was authorized to prepare a convention between
the Federal Government on the one hand and the States, the Federal
District, and the Territory of Acre on the other, for the coordination
into a single system of the statistical activities of the General Bureau
of Information, Statistics, and Publicity of the Ministry, as well as
those of school boards, inspectors, superintendents, and others in
charge of educational administration throughout the nation. These
statistics are to be compiled and published in such a form as will give
at stated intervals a consistent, trustworthy, up-to-date, and well-
rounded picture of education in the Republic. The delegates with
plenipotentiary powers met twice with the Minister of Education to
discuss the convention, which was signed at the close of the conference.

At the regular sessions, papers dealing with the principal aims of
education, the main topic of the gathering, and with other closely
related subjects, were read and discussed. For the delegates a special
course was given by professors from the Escola de Aperfeigoamento of
Bello Horizonte, visits were arranged to the National Museum,
schools of different types, the D. Amelia Tuberculosis Preventorium,
and other institutions of interest to the members, and concerts and
receptions given in their honor. The Brazilian Association of
Education arranged during the week daily showings of educational
films, which proved of great interest to the delegates. A pedagogic
exposition, installed in the National School of Fine Arts, showed
exhibitions prepared by official bodies and individual institutions.
Among the States represented were Pernambuco, Rio Grande do Sul,
Minas Geraes, Ceara, Espirito Santo, and Rio Grande do Norte, while
the institutions included schools, educational societies, publishing
houses, and firms specializing in educational equipment.

The fifth conference, it was voted, will be held in Pernambuco.

The Society of Industrial Education was founded in Buenos Aires,
Argentina, in 1900 and incorporated in 1903; the first school estab-
lished under its auspices opened in 1901 with 72 pupils, who were given
free training in mechanics and electricity. In the 30 years since its
foundation, more than 25,000 students have attended its course, the
number of schools has increased to eight, and its capital has steadily
grown from little over 7,000 pesos to nearly a million and a quarter.
The latest report (1929) of the society states that there were 2,573
students, all over 14 years of age, attending classes that year. The
schools of drawing, industrial chemistry, building construction,
electricity, and gasoline engines offer their courses at night; the others,
of mechanics, drawing and applied arts for women, and radioteleg-
raphy, are held during the day. In the laboratories of the School of

220 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Industrial Chemistry, analyses are made and industrial or scientific
research is available for the public.

The growth of the society necessitated the erection of a third
building to house its increasing activities. At the opening ceremonies,
held on December 25, 1931, awards for the school year were distributed
to honor students, and examples of the work accomplished in the
various schools placed on exhibition. The new building itself bears
testimony to the practicability of the education offered by the society,
for many of the materials used were prepared in the shops and all the
wiring was done by students.

ee 1

PUBLIC HEALTH AND SOCIAL WELFARE

Public hygiene.—Activities for the promotion of public hygiene in
Latin America cover a wide and varied field of action. In a cross-

section view of such work are to be found campaigns for stamping -

out particular diseases and the destruction of animal pests, the organi-
zation of new sanitation services, the opening of dispensaries and
clinics, and the formation of leagues and societies dedicated to the
prophylaxis of disease.

During recent months much interest has been centered in health
education. In Argentina measures were taken to prevent unauthor-
ized persons from broadcasting health advice over the radio, and a
beneficial exposition of hygiene, which attracted thousands, was
opened in Buenos Aires. Panama completed plans for the instruction
of a corps of visiting nurses, and Uruguay reported a far-reaching
program for the dissemination of health information. In Venezuela
the first of a series of health weeks was held.

On November 3, 1931, an order was issued by the General Postal
and Telegraph Bureau of ARGENTINA prohibiting all broadcasts of
lectures or advice relating to health, hygiene, or therapeutics which
are not sponsored by the National Bureau of Hygiene, the Bureau of
Public Welfare, or other similar organization of official character.
Advertisements of medicinal products must be clearly indicated as
such, and conform to the other provisions of the order.

Each year during the late spring or early summer, the Mothers’
Club of Buenos Aires, an organization of public-spirited women who
are devoting much time and effort to the task of educating and
assisting parents in the proper care of the preschool child, sponsors
a campaign for the improvement of health conditions throughout the
Republic. Plans for 1931 provided that the campaign for that year
should take the form of an exposition by which the attention of the
public could be called to the means which science and progress place
at its disposal to combat diseases having their origin in the failure or
deficiency of general hygiene.

PUBLIC HEALTH AND SOCIAL WELFARE pA

The exposition, which was formally opened on December 1, 1931,
was held in a large 4-story building where ample space was provided
for the many exhibits and the lectures, motion pictures, and theatrical
attractions forming part of the program.

The first floor of the building was given over to exhibits on child
hygiene, feeding, and care. On this floor there was a large stand
showing the work of the Mothers’ Club, exhibits of the Bureau of
Public Welfare depicting a fully equipped maternity hospital and a
model dispensary for children, and a stand of the Department of
Agriculture. The National Bureau of Hygiene also had a child
welfare section which contained among other things interesting graphs
relative to proper nutrition for children. On the second floor a dental
clinic was open certain hours each day. Special exhibits, including
numerous charts and photographs of the different phases of the sani-
tation campaign and the services maintained by the National Council
of Education for the prophylaxis of oral diseases, stands of the Red
and White Cross, the Temperance League, and many private firms
engaged in the preparation of articles of personal hygiene, and an
interesting section devoted to the work of the Juvenile Recreation
Association, which is providing wholesome entertainment for approxi-
mately 1,400 children of the city through its nine libraries and recrea-
tion room, were also located on this floor. The third floor contained
displays of modern furniture, appliances to assist the housewife in
cleaning the home, and exhibits by the municipal government.
These last included a model playground arranged by the Park and
Physical Education Commission for the use of the children visiting
the exposition. The top floor was used for the purpose of general
assemblage and the dances which were held each evening.

An attractive series of programs, among which were band concerts,
motion pictures, and interpretative songs and dances, was presented
during the exposition. Classes were also held where children received
instruction in carpentry, drawing, painting, sewing, and music in
accordance with methods used in similar instruction at the public
playgrounds.

The organization in Panama of a corps of visiting nurses to give
practical home instruction in hygiene was assured during December
by the arrival on the Isthmus of a graduate nurse recently engaged to
instruct local nurses for that work. The young woman chosen for
the position has had an excellent training and background for her new
duties, having traveled extensively in Argentina, Chile, and Peru, and
acted as a nursing instructor and supervisor in Brazil. A corps of
between 15 and 20 nurses has been assigned to this phase of health
activities by the Government authorities, and when they have com-
pleted the instruction course they will spend their whole time visiting
homes throughout the city for the purpose of teaching proper sanita-

22? THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

tion, ventilation, and disease prevention, instructing mothers in the
care of their children, and supervising the midwife service.

The Office of Health Education of the National Council of Hygiene
of Uruauay reports the use of motion pictures, radio broadcasts,
lectures, posters, press items, and numerous other forms of printed
material in its campaign to disseminate health information. Motion-
picture films are gladly loaned for exhibition in clubs, schools, and
labor-union meetings, posters and printed matter distributed, and
lectures given. For some time the office has been utilizing radio pro-
grams as an effective means of reaching large numbers of people.
Both official and private broadcasting stations throughout the country
have been asked to assist by placing their facilities at the disposal of
the office and the majority have graciously acceded to the request.
Newspapers also have lent their cooperation in the furtherance of the
campaign. Two series of lectures by eminent physicians of the
Republic were recently transmitted by the official radio service and
beginning in November a course in public hygiene was broadcast
every Wednesday from the assembly hall of the National Council of
Hygiene. The broadcasting station of the Bureau of Agronomy and
several privately owned radio stations also transmit regular broadcasts
on rules of hygiene. All printed information and the use of the
motion-picture films are absolutely free.

The first of a series of health weeks which is being held in Caracas,
VENEZUELA, under the auspices of a group of prominent physicians,
surgeons, and specialists of the city, was opened with a radio address
on December 5, 1931. By this method it is hoped to arouse among
the mass of the population an appreciation of the value of preventive
medicine. The giving of lectures and radio addresses, distribution of
printed matter, publication of articles in the newspapers, and showing
of health films all have a place in the program. ‘The first week was
devoted to cancer; later, the prophylaxis of tuberculosis, syphilis,
alcoholism, and diseases caused by intestinal parasites will be con-
sidered.

Health education programs, however, are not the only means being
taken by the different Latin American Government and private
organizations throughout the various countries for promoting hygiene.
A scientific mission has been formed to assume control of the sanita-
tion and the water supply of several important Haitian cities, changes
have been made in the health service of Mexico, new clinics and
medical services opened or planned in Costa Rica, Haiti, and Mexico,
and the organization of a mental hygiene association effected in
Chile.

On October 1, 1931, in conformity with the provisions of the accord
signed by representatives of the Government of Harrr and of the
United States on August 5, 1931, a scientific mission was organized

PUBLIC HEALTH AND SOCIAL WELFARE 223

and assumed control of sanitation in the cities of Port au Prince,
Petionville, and Cap Haitien and the area within a radius of 2 miles
of the cities proper. The mission also has charge of the supervision
of the chlorination of the water supply of the cities of Port au Prince
and Petionville.

Water supplied to the city of Port au Prince is collected from
numerous springs in five different areas. All springs have been pro-
tected against pollution from surface drainage by concrete captations,
and from these the water is conducted by means of iron pipes to the
Turgeau, Bourdon, and Leclerc reservoirs where chlorinators are
installed. Petionville has a separate water system also equipped
with a chlorinator. Samples of water from each of the sources are
tested daily, and daily examinations are likewise made of selected
samples of milk from the dairy farm at Damien and of the ice from
the local ice plant.

Attached to the mission are three medical officers of the United
States Navy, one of whom is designated as director, three chief
pharmacists, and over 600 other employees.

By virtue of an order issued by the President, the Bureau of Public
Health of Mexico was authorized to empower the National Institute
of Hygiene to begin the production of serums and vaccines on a com-
mercial basis commencing with the first of the year 1932. Heretofore
the work of the institute has been chiefly experimental in character.
The new phase of activity, largely made possible through the excellent
nature of the work done by the institute in the past and its splendid
equipment, will probably necessitate the reorganization of its services
to provide for the creation of a special section which will devote its
full time to the preparation of the biological products to be placed on
sale. The chief of the bureau is interested that the institute shall also
engage in chemical and bacteriological analyses, and expects that both
this service and the serums and vaccines can be offered at prices which
will compare favorably with those charged by private firms.

The creation of a separate section in the Bureau of Public Health
to unify the services in charge of the prophylaxis of communicable
diseases was authorized early in January by Dr. Rafael Silva, chief of
the bureau. The work of the new section, whose staff will be formed
by persons already employed in the bureau, will be concerned primarily
with the diagnosis of disease and measures for immunization against
communicable diseases. All serums and vaccines used by the section
will be prepared by the National Institute of Hygiene.

A regulation was issued by the President of Costa Rica on Novem-
ber 7, 1931, authorizing the laboratory of the Public Health Service to
make examinations free in the case of needy patients sent by public-
health physicians, hospitals, the central and provincial public welfare
clinics, and the service of venereal prophylaxis. Inmates ofthe Orphan

224 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Home, the Duran Sanatorium, the Mercedes Leprosarium, children’s
clinics, and other social-welfare institutions are also included under this
provision. Any patient, regardless of his ability to pay, who has
been sent by a public-health physician in connection with the control
of communicable diseases will also receive the service of the laboratory
free, nor shall a charge be made for treatments given patients suffering
from hookworm.

Prior to the establishment of the dental hygiene service in the schools
of Port au Prince by the Department of Dental Surgery of the Medical
School of Hartr, no attempt had ever been made to instruct the chil-
dren in the importance of oral hygiene. Reports had often been sub-
mitted by members of the school medical corps stressing the need for
such a service, but no definite action had resulted. During the period
from October, 1929, to July, 1931, however, following the organization
of the new service, practically all the children attending school in the
city were examined and approximately 2,900 given free treatment.
The examination revealed that of the 8,459 children undergoing obser-
vation, 6,689 were ignorant of the use of the toothbrush and the major-
ity had teeth which needed attention.

Seventy-eight of the 82 schools in Port au Prince were visited by the
two dentists assigned to this task. Pupils of private as well as public
schools received careful examination, the only difference being that
in the case of the pupils attending private schools the work of the
dentists was limited to making recommendations regarding the dental
work necessary. More than 2,000 families have as a result received
detailed reports on the condition of their children’s teeth. Students
attending the public schools, on the other hand, were given the oppor-
tunity of receiving free treatment either at the dispensary of the
medical school or the public health center.

In view of the encouraging results obtained by the service during
the two years it has been in operation in Port au Prince, the Depart-
ment of Dental Surgery decided that if it were at all advisable it would
recommend extension to the rural schools of the Republic. During
June, 1931, therefore, a commission was sent to visit a number of
schools located on the outskirts of the capital to secure a basis for
comparing the need for dental hygiene in the rural districts with that
in the city, to determine the advisability of establishing a traveling
dental clinic, and to give dental students training which would permit
their later being enlisted to serve in such missions. The majority of
the schools visited were more than 20 kilometers (kilometer equals 0.62
mile) from Port au Prince, and many were in communities where there
was no local dentist.

The investigation proved that the need for dental hygiene and treat-
ment among the children of the rural schools was just as urgent as that
in the city, and the Department of Dentistry thereupon recommended

eaperetaesnnees

wenemsstios,

CHILE

SANTIAGO

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SERVICE,

This school for the instruction of social workers is under government auspices

226 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

the establishment of rural dental service. According to the plan
which has been formulated, the members of the mission will give
such treatment as may be necessary to relieve the patient of pain,
make urgent extractions, fill cavities, and teach rules of dental hygiene.
These services will be commenced as soon as necessary funds are avail-
able.

Other activities for the furtherance of public health and hygiene in
Mextco include the establishment by the Bureau of Public Welfare of
four additional dispensaries in Mexico City. The bureau already
maintains eight dispensaries in the capital, but so great was the number
of persons applying for treatment during the past year that it was
deemed imperative to open still others. Each dispensary will be
fully equipped to provide for minor surgical operations. At the time
of the original announcement of the creation of these new health
centers, no specific date had been set for their opening.

The first general session of the Mental Hygiene Association of
Cute, formed some months ago for the purpose of making a point of
contact for the many Chilean groups and individuals engaged in
endeavoring to assist in the mental adaptation of individuals to the
environment in which they work and live, took place under the
chairmanship of Dr. Hugo Lea-Plaza in Santiago on December 19,
1931. At a previous meeting the possibility of coordinating work
covering such a wide range of subjects as would necessarily concern an
organization of this nature was discussed and a preliminary declara-
tion of principles formulated. These last were read and explained in
the session of December 19, and following a brief historical review of
the activities of similar foreign organizations a provisional executive
committee entrusted with studying the definite organization of the
association, drafting by-laws and regulations, and planning a program
of activities, was appointed.

FEMINISM

At the General Disarmament Conference which opened in Geneva
on February 2, 1932, two of the delegates from American nations were
women—Miss Mary E. Woolley, president of Mount Holyoke College,
from the Unirep Srarxs, and Dr. Paulina Luisi, noted physician and
feminist, a former president of the National Council of Women, assist-
ant delegate from Urucuay.

In Panama the preliminary organization of a feminist party was
effected on December 17, 1931, in Panama City. The party was
organized especially to prepare the women of the Republic for the
intelligent exercise of the suffrage when it shall have been eranted.

NECROLOGY DapAg

Provisional officers were selected as follows: Sefiorita Otilia Arose-
mena, president, Sefiorita Clara Gonzalez, vice president, Sefiora
Corina de Cornick, secretary, and Sefiora Carolina Pérez de Morales,
treasurer.

NECROLOGY

During the month of December 1931, the American republics lost
four eminent leaders. On December 9 the only surviving member of
the cabinet of the Provisional Government of 1889 of Brazim, Dr.
Demetrio Nunes Ribeiro, died at the age of 77 in Rio de Janeiro.
Dr. Nunes Ribeiro served with distinction as first Secretary of Agri-
culture of the Republic, and after his resignation from the cabinet
was elected deputy from Rio Grande do Sul to the Constitutional
Congress. Jn later life he exerted great influence as editor of Federacao
of Porto Alegre, and as an engineer did much to promote the material
progress of his nation. On the same day Sefior Salvador Jurado died
in Panama City. As Governor of the Province of Chiriqui, Deputy
to the National Assembly, and Secretary of the Interior and of Justice,
Sefior Jurado rendered important services to his country.

The Minister of Public Instruction of Ecuapor, Dr. Francisco
Pérez Borja, died suddenly in Quito on December 19 at the age of 50.
After graduating from the law school of the Central University in
1906, Dr. Pérez Borja entered public life; among the positions that
he held were those of President of the Supreme Court of Quito,
President of the National Supreme Court, Councilor in the Ministry
of the Interior, Deputy for Pichincha to the National Congress, and
Minister of Public Instruction. In addition to these duties, Dr.
Pérez Borja was professor of penal law in the Central University for
14 years, president of the International Society of Penal Law, and
contributor of many important studies on law and jurisprudence to
journals of law.

By the death of Dr. José Figueroa Alcorta, who died on December
27 at the age of 71, AraenTINA lost one of her most distinguished
statesmen and jurists. Dr. Figueroa Alcorta had the privilege of
holding three of the highest constitutional positions in his nation—
President of the Republic, the Senate, and the Supreme Court.
As President of the nation, he served nearly five years of the unexpired
term of President Manuel Quintana, who died on March 11, 1906;
among the outstanding achievements of his administration was the
reorganization of public education.

SUBJECT MATTER OF CONSULAR REPORTS

REPORTS RECEIVED TO FEBRUARY 16, 1932

Subject Date Author
ARGENTINA
1931
Excerpt from report on general conditions prevailing in Argentina, | Dec. 31 | Embassy, Buenos Aires.
Dee. 15 to 28, 1931.
1932
Excerpt from report on general conditions prevailing in Argentina, Jan. 15 Do.
Dec. 29, 1931, to Jan. 11, 1932.
BOLIVIA |
Patino University Foundation selects graduates to continue their | Jan. 14 | Legation, La Paz.
studies abroad.
BRAZIL
1931
IMmenreasehMeEbrazilianspOstace ales eee aan ee eee Dec. 22 | Julian L. Pinkerton, consul
at Rio de Janeiro.
COLOMBIA
1932
Transmitting volumes V and VII of Memoria of Minister of | Jan. 22 | Legation, Bogota.
Industries for 1931. |
Completion of Barranquilla-Puerto Colombia highway-----------. Feb. 2 | Eric W. Magnuson, consul
3 at Barranquilla.
COSTA RICA
Arrival of a party to complete reconnaissance work on the Costa | Jan. 8 | Legation, San Jose.
Rican section of the Inter-American Highway.
HAITI
1931
Excerpt from report on general conditions prevailing in Haiti, | Oct. 10 | Legation, Port au Prince.
September, 1931. |
PERU |
1932
Preliminary returns of census undertaken Nov. 13, 1931, for | Jan. 18 | Embassy, Lima,
Provinces of Lima and Callao.
Law relating to appointment of members of city councils____-__---- | Jan. 21 Do.
VENEZUELA
QuarantinemresulationS: =. 5 se ee ee See een | Jan. 9 Legation, Caracas.

228

PRGA IONE IC ONAOCA INC ENO OBOATE

BULLETIN
OF THE

4 AMERICAN

YROWISOD) B

= =
UNION :
PERIODICAL ROOM KK

GITY LIBRARY ASSO. TION i

SPRINGFIELD, MASS.

PAN AMERICAN DAY
APRIL 14

| APRIL 1932

RSM Mimr ee (oleae malecirer a:

a 1) (GOMOD CE NEUEN VEN

GOVERNING: BOARD-OF-THE
PAN-AMERICAN
UNION

Mr. Henry L. Stiuson, Chairman
Sefior Don Fexirr A. Esprit,
1806 Corcoran Street, Washington, D. C.

Senor Don Luis O. ABELLI,
2830 Forty-fourth Street, Washington, D. C.

Suhr. Dr. R. pz Lima £ Sitva,
2437 Fifteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

Sefior Dr. MigueLCrucHacaTocorRNat, }

2154 Florida Avenue, Washington, D. C.

Colombia Sefior Dr. Fasro Lozano,
Hill Building, Washington, D. C.
Costa Rica Sefior Don Gur~tLERMo HE. GonzALzz,
3451 Newark Street, Washington, D. O.
Sefior Dr. Orestes FERRARA,
2630 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C. -
Dominican Republic. Sefor Don Roperto DEesPRADEL,
Woodward Building, Washington, D. C.
Ecuador Sefior Dr. GonzALo ZALDUMBIDE,
: 2633 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
El Salvador Sefior Don Roserto D. Mreténpez,
National Press Building, Washington, D. C.
Guatemala Sefior Dr. ApRiMAN RECINOS,
1614 Eighteenth Street, Washington, D. C:
M. Dant&s BELLEGARDE,
1703 Q Street, Washington, D. C.
Honduras Sefior Dr. Cé£tro DAvina,
1100 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C;
Sefior Dr. Jos& Manvuet Pure
CASAURANC,
2829 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D: C.
Nicaragua Sefior Don Luis M. Departs,
1711 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C;
Sefior Dr. Horacio F. ALraro,
1535 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C;
Paraguay Sefior Don Panto Max. YNSFRAN,
1726 Irving Street, Washington, D. C,
Sefior Don M. pz FreEYRE ¥ SANTANDER,
1300 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
United States Mr, Henry L. Stimson,
Department of State, Washington, D. O.
Uruguay Sefior Don Jos& RicHiine,
17 Battery Place, New York City.

Venezuela Sefior Dr. Pepro Manvuriz Arcidya,
1628 Twenty-first Street, Washington, D. O.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
NUMBER DEDICATED TO PAN AMERICAN DAY, APRIL 14

Page
HORE iOl Cl meee erate eros ee eee te te Pl SO er 229
By L. 8. Rowe, Ph. D., LL. D., Director General of the Pan American Union.
PhesEvolution of Pan Americanisme 2222222520 see eee 230
By Dr. Luis Anderson, Jurist, San Jose, Costa Rica.
The Lands of Bolivar and Pétion Express Their Friendship_______________ 235
SOULowAmlcticatic® QUILESY a2 se 2 <b eel oS es es 241

By Stephen P. Duggan, Ph. D., LL. D., Director, Institute of International Education.

Pan American Cooperation in Public Health Work: The Pan American San-

itary Conferences and the Pan American Sanitary Bureau______________ 246
By Bolivar J. Lloyd, M. D., Medical Director, United States Public Health Service; Assist-
ant to the Director, Pan American Sanitary Bureau.
United States Trade with Latin America in 1931_________________________ 259

By Matilda Phillips, Chief, Statistical Division, Pan American Union.

The Pan American Union as the Permanent Organ of the International
AmilericanyConterences ss =saeje ae ee a Ye 261

By William Manger, Ph. D., Chief, Division of Finance, Pan American Union.

Pane mencanGstudent. Clubsa.s22 220 2 227 Sa 8 ee eee Dae
By Heloise Brainerd, Chief, Division of Intellectual Cooperation Pan American Union.
Agricultural Cooperation in’ the Americas_..-..___._.__________________= 279
By Adam Carter, Member of the Pan American Union Staff.
Ee MME LIC ATU MIO: NOLCS 1552s jo ae 288
Pan American Progress:
Finance, Industry, and Commerce______-__-_-___-_= = 291
hmimigratlonyRestrictlonse.. so2 = 4 Sa. 2 ee ee 296
SOCIALE litate en aapeymnny et tee ue Bare oF er ON = ie Je 298
SHIT eCEatLeraor Consular Reports: =.) 59 e002 225i se 304

(The contents of previous issues of the BULLETIN OF THE PAN AMBRICAN
Union can be found in the Reader’s Guide in your library.)

IIt

4UOUUOD UROTIOUIY 9} Jo Sol[qndoy oy} WooM4oq ZuUIpURysiepuN Jesofa pus ‘oovod ‘osmods0} UI A[PUoLAy o}OULOI 0} ST WHE eSOy.M
‘sol[qndey UeolIeULy 1Z 94} Aq poulejUIeUL PUL PoyBO1D HOTVZIUeI10 [BUOTZVUI0}U! Oy ‘TOlu ) UBOTIOULY Ue 9} JO SUIP [Ing 94 JO epBdey poyeVUrTUIN][! oy, L,

LHDIN LY NOIND NVOIMHNVY NVd CHL

BULLETIN

= TOF MED SSS OS SENOS TSS NU FMA2UB SII S S27 seeests mais iirc -

Vout. LXVI APRIL, 1932 No. 4

BORE WOK D
By L. S. Rows, Ph. D. LL. D.

Director General, Pan American Union

HE celebration of Pan American Day in 1932 will in a very

real sense be a special celebration by the younger generation.
Throughout the continent public and private schools and universities
have arranged exercises designed to impress upon the student body
the larger significance of this continental event. Although but one
year has passed since the first designation of Pan American Day by
the 21 Republics of the Western Hemisphere, it has already become
the outward symbol and expression of the essential unity of purpose
and ideals of the nations of America.

The exercises, therefore, which are to be held on April 14 in educa-
tional institutions are indications of a growing spirit of solidarity
which is manifesting itself to an increasing extent both at the Pan
American Conferences and in the activities of the Pan American
Union.

Official ceremonies in the capitals of the American Republics and
municipal observances, not only in the large centers of population but
in the most remote localities throughout the continent, will mark the
day in 1932 as in 1931.

In view of the fact that the bicentennial of the birth of George
Washington is being celebrated this year, the representatives of the
Republics of Latin America, members of the Governing Board of the
Pan American Union, have decided to make a pilgrimage to Mount
Vernon on that day and at the tomb of Washington to read the
messages from their respective Presidents. This will undoubtedly
constitute one of the most impressive ceremonies incident to the cele-
bration of Pan American Day. It is difficult to imagine a finer
tribute to the memory of George Washington.

229

THE EVOLUTION OF PAN AMERICANISM

By Dr. Luis ANDERSON !

Jurist, San José, Costa Rica

REAT as have been the changes which in the course of time have
taken place in the international field, none equals in importance
and in fruitful results of many kinds the advent of the sovereign
American States into the family of nations. A constellation of new
republics was formed by vigorous and progressive groups of people
imbued with the spirit of liberty and living in a vast continent, whose
fabulous riches and splendid possibilities invited unremitting efforts
for common improvement. On this continent, removed from the
rest of the world by the mighty oceans surrounding its shores, these
States came into being after their glorious struggle for independence,
to destroy the former European balance of power and to change funda-
mentally the established order of things. Thus they marked a new
orientation in political and international relations and offered to the
world a new and highly fertile field where the noblest ideals of justice
and liberty might flourish.

In the struggle of the Spanish colonies against the mother country
for independence and incorporation into the international concert as
free and sovereign States, each competed with the other in heroic
exertions and when, victory theirs, the liberty attained at the cost of
so many sacrifices was threatened by attacks from the European
dynasties leagued in the Holy Alliance, the young Republics hastened
as one to defend their common patrimony of freedom. Thus from
the necessity of self-preservation and self-defense against a general
danger, from that proximity to one another productive of ties of
affection, and from their common democratic form of government—a
form essentially different from the absolutism which prevailed in
other continents—there arose early in the public consciousness of the
American States a strong and sympathetic attraction, which culmi-
nated in a sentiment of cooperation and solidarity in everything
relating to the consolidation and maintenance of the new nations, as
well as to their free development and civic and economic progress.

1 Doctor Anderson has rendered many distinguished services to his country, both at home and abroad.
He has served as Minister of Foreiga Relations, of Public Instruction, and of Justice; and he has represented
his nation on diplomatic missions in the United States, Mexico, El Salvador, and Nicaragua; he was a dele-
gate of Costa Rica to the Third Pan American Scientific Congress, the Fourth Pan American Commercial
Conference, a charter member of the American Institute of International Law, and a member of the Inter-
national Commission of Jurists, Rio de Janeiro, 1927. :

230

THE EVOLUTION OF PAN AMERICANISM 231

The peoples of all America, aware of their common destinies and
promising each other assistance, were of one mind in the dawn of
liberty; and those of Latin American origin found in the Anglo-Ameri-
can Republic, already strong and well organized when they gained
their independence, not only indispensable moral support against
latent external dangers but also a model of free institutions which
they copied and tried to follow with the faith and the enthusiasm
with which the Indo-Latin race welcomes the good, the just, the
noble, and the generous.

Far from lessening with the passage of time, the tendency toward
reciprocal protection and accord that seems to have been a corollary
of political emancipation becomes more confirmed every day; it is
nourished by the principles which attract peoples intimately leagued
not by political alliances nor by diplomatic understandings, but by
the firmest and most lasting ties of that community of interest arising
from proximity, from a like historical background, and from similar
institutions.

These bonds form the international American idea which we call
‘‘Pan Americanism,” to which all the Republics of the continent
gladly give their support. In this day and age the purpose of Pan
Americanism is not, as is readily understandable, defense against
external dangers, for the States of this hemisphere have an indispu-
table place in the international family, and each of them is fully capable
of watching over its own destinies and maintaining its own rights as
a sovereign nation. The Pan American ideal nowadays is that of
cooperation, reciprocal understanding, and mutual assistance in the
promotion of the civic and material welfare of all the American
Republics and of each one in particular, by means of the preservation
of the benefits of liberty, of justice, and of independent government,
in order to attain the fullest development of all their activities. This
ideal was expounded as a profession of faith, with the added effect of
a gospel of hope, by that great statesman, James G. Blaine, Secretary
of State of the United States, when he greeted the representatives of
the three Americas assembled in Washington at the First International
Conference of American States:

. we can not be expected to forget that our common fate has made us
inhabitants of the two continents which, at the close of four centuries, are still
regarded beyond the seas as the New World. Like situations beget like sympa-
thies and impose like duties. We meet in firm belief that the nations of America
ought to be and can be more helpful, each to the other, than they now are, and
that each will find advantage and profit from an enlarged intercourse with the
others.

We believe that we should be drawn together more closely by the highways of
the sea, and that at no distant day the railway systems of the north and south

will meet upon the isthmus and connect by land routes the political and commer-
cial capitals of all America.

232 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

We believe that hearty co-operation, based on hearty confidence, will save all
American States from the burdens and evils which have long and cruelly afflicted
the older nations of the world.

We believe that a spirit of justice, of common and equal interest between the
American States, will leave no room for an artificial balance of power like unto
that which has led to wars abroad and drenched Europe in blood.

We believe that friendship, avowed with candor and maintained with good
faith, will remove from American States the necessity of guarding boundary lines
between themselves with fortifications and military force.

We believe that standing armies, beyond those which are needful for public
order and the safety of internal administration, should be unknown on both
American continents.

We believe that friendship and not force, the spirit of just law and not the
violence of the mob, should be the recognized rule of administration between
American nations and in American nations. . . .

Ever since 1889, the year in which the important meeting to which
I have just referred took place, the Pan American idea of cooperation
and good understanding between the Republics has become more and
more firmly rooted in public consciousness throughout the continent,
as has been shown in the successive Conferences of American States
in Mexico City, Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires, Santiago, and Habana.
It was well, however, that the concept of Pan Americanism should
be defined in its strictest sense, and at the Second Pan American Scien-
tific Congress, which met in Washington in 1915, the idea was ex-
pressed clearly and eloquently by the Hon. Robert Lansing, then
Secretary of State, who, speaking with the authority of his high office,
enhanced by the solemnity of the occasion, said:

Nearly a century has passed since President Monroe proclaimed to the world
his famous doctrine as the national policy of the United States. . . .

During this later time, when the American nations have come into a realization
of their nationality and are fully conscious of the responsibilities and privileges
which are theirs as sovereign and independent States, there has grown up a feeling
that the Republics of this hemisphere constitute a group separate and apart from
the other nations of the world, a group which is united by common ideals and com-
mon aspirations. I believe that this feeling is general throughout North and South
America, and that year by year it has increased until it has become a potent in-
fluence over our political and commercial intercourse. It is the same feeling which,
founded on sympathy and mutual interest, exists among the members of a family.
It is the tie which draws together the 21 Republics and makes of them the Ameri-
can family of nations.

This feeling, vague at first, has become today a definite and certain force. We
term it the ‘Pan American spirit,’ from which springs the international policy
of Pan Americanism. ... It is a policy which this Government has unhesi-
tatingly adopted and which [it] will do all in its power to foster and promote.

When we attempt to analyze Pan Americanism we find that the essential
qualities are those of the family—sympathy, helpfulness and a sincere desire to
see another grow in prosperity, absence of covetousness of another’s possessions,
absence of jealousy of another’s prominence, and, above all, absence of that
spirit of intrigue which menaces the domestic peace of a neighbor. Such are the

‘UOIU) UBOTIOULY UG
oy} JO sroquIOUL ‘sol[qndos oy} JO S{Se10,UT OY} PUL UOTZTULZIO OYy JO SUOTOUNY OY} 07 pozBpor SJOolqns IOpISUOD 0} STRAIOJUT AB]NZeI 4V SyooUL
‘So}B1.G PopUy) oY} JO 07RIg JO ArBjoLOEg oy} PUL BOTLOUTY UNL] JO SUDYVU OY} JO SOATZLIMOSOIdOI OY JO posodurod ‘prvog BuTMTIBAOY oY} OIOFT

NOIND NVOIWHINVY NVd HHL tO NWOOU GUVOE ONINYUAHAOD FHL

ene,

2
2

234 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

qualities of the family tie among individuals, and such should be, and I believe
are, the qualities which compose the tie which unites the American family of
MA GLONS eee

And the President of Chile, on opening the Fifth International
Conference of American States, which convened in Santiago in 1923,
said:

Pan Americanism goes farther than the ideal: it is an effective dynamic force
born of the unavoidable power of geographical, historical and political causes, of
perfectly real factors which call for a common action. IJtis notin vain that nature
gathered a considerable group of strong and vigorous races in an enormous Con-
tinent, separated from the whole Universe by two vast oceans which enclose and
bathe them from one pole to the other in all its immense extension.

Separated from the rest of the world they feel themselves spontaneously im-
pelled to a union which shall determine the unity of the continent and of the wide
seas surrounding them, giving birth in this way to aspirations, interests and ideals
of a common nature between peoples linked together by the marvelous energy of
their natural elements.

Here we have in the words of two statesmen, one from North
and the other from South America, an expression of the evolution of
Pan Americanism. These ideas are undoubtedly shared and pro-
fessed by the statesmen and by the thinkers in all 21 Republics. In-
tellectual and moral cooperation in every department of life, approxi-
mation and good understanding—these are the goals of the Pan
American ideal. Its various expressions—the Pan American Union,
the scientific, commercial, and financial conferences, the various con-
eresses and other organisms—form an international consortium which
embraces the best and the most important activities of the 21 Ameri-
can Republics in the fields of politics, culture, and economics, coordi-
nating these activities without coercion in such a manner as to con-
stitute a great cohesive force. The day is not far distant, In my
opinion, when the Pan American Union will be transformed by the
will of the Republics members of the Union into a Permanent Coun-
cil of International Conciliation, to which all differences arising be-
tween American nations will be submitted for settlement. When
this occurs, Pan Americanism will have attained the crowning glory
of Bolivar’s dream, the formation of a Society of American Nations
‘“‘that should act as a council in great conflicts, to be appealed to in
case of common danger, and be a faithful interpreter of public treaties,
when difficulties should arise, and conciliate, in short, all our differ-
ences.”’ Such a society, with all American Governments permanently
represented therein on a basis of parity and with equal voice and
vote, will be an alliance more democratic, more expeditious in action,
and even greater in moral strength than that established by the
Treaty of Versailles.

THE LANDS OF BOLIVAR AND PETION
EXPRESS THEIR FRIENDSHIP

HE presentation of the letters of credence of His Excellency Dr.

Francisco Gerardo Yanes as Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary of the United States of Venezuela to the Republic of
Haiti was the occasion of a brilliant ceremony at the presidential
palace in Port au Prince. A diplomat and a man of letters, Doctor
Yanes has rendered distinguished services to his Government during
his notable career. His ability, well known in the Americas, will no
doubt be an important factor in strengthening the bonds of cordiality
and friendship which for more than a century have closely united
Haiti and Venezuela.

It will be recalled that late in December, 1815, Bolivar arrived at
the Haitian port of Les Cayes from the island of Jamaica, where he
had been in exile since the defeat of the insurrectionists at the hands
of Morillo. Alexandre Pétion, then President of Haiti, welcomed and
befriended the Liberator and treated in a most hospitable manner the
refugees who had succeeded in escaping from Cartagena. Despite
the fact that the newly born Republic of Haiti was at the time in
constant fear of an attack by the French and ran the risk of reprisals
from the Spaniards, who at that time were in possession of that part
of the island which is to-day the Dominican Republic, Pétion readily
agreed to contribute secretly the arms, food, and ammunition which
Bolivar sought for an expedition to South America. His only condi-
tion was that Bolivar should free the slaves in the Spanish Provinces
which he might liberate. Faithful to his word, Bolivar freed his own
1,500 slaves and proclaimed the emancipation of all slaves in his
native land. ‘‘Henceforward,” he said, ‘‘in Venezuela, there will be
only one class of men: all will be citizens.’”’ Defeated in his first
attempt, however, Bolivar was forced to return to Haiti, where Pétion
once more afforded him substantial aid and enabled him to return to
the continent, this time to win the independence of five countries.

Received on February 5, 1932, with the honors prescribed by the
protocol for such an occasion, Doctor Yanes spoke as follows on pre-
senting his letters to President Sténio Vincent:

Mr. PRESIDENT:

One could represent this hospitable land by a geographic symbol: The Gulf of
La Gondve, whose two open arms extend toward the sea in welcome to the
traveler.

Miranda, who had already won his spurs in the republican crusade, stopped at
Jacmel as he was returning to his fatherland. Dessalines and Magloire Ambroise

235

DE HAITI
NACIO EM PORT AU PR
EL 2 DEKSAIL DE I77G
SAUNIO EL 21 DE MARZO DE 120

aR 2

STATUE OF ALEXANDRE PETION, CARACAS, VENEZUELA

Monument to Alexandre Pétion, Haitian patriot and president, which was erected in Caracas
in recognition of his services to Bolivar in Venezuela’s struggle for independence.

THE LANDS OF BOLIVAR AND PETION Dat

received him with honors. Haiti gave him its youth to be offered as a sacrifice on
the sacred altar.

Later, here in Port au Prince, Pétion received the Liberator, and at the risk
of grave reprisals armed the expedition that set out from Les Cayes, thus placing
in the latter’s hands the means with which to free the mainland. When pressed
by Bolivar to name his compensation, your great President, always generous,
always Haitian, requested still more Liberty! Never did the Liberator give his
promise to accomplish a more agreeable task than that of emancipating brothers
who proved worthy of their rights.

One hundred years afterward, when Venezuelan historians had presented as a
“striking example of the ingratitude of nations” the fact that Venezuela had
failed to render public homage to the memory of Alexandre Pétion, a modest
and patriotic man assumed the reins of government in my country and determined
not only to remedy economic evils and save the country from bankruptey but
also to discharge the moral obligations contracted by the founders of our Republic.
It was then that the monument to Alexandre Pétion was erected in one of the
most beautiful parks of the Venezuelan capital. Through a happy coincidence I
was privileged to speak at the solemn ceremony of its unveiling and, standing
before the statue of the Haitian patriot and addressing myself to the President
of Venezuela, General Juan Vicente Gémez, I said, ‘‘ You have answered the call
of history !”’

Naturally, Mr. President, my confidence in the success of this mission of
friendship which to-day brings me to the Republic of Haiti, is thoroughly justified
because, besides counting on Your Excellency’s kind assistance in the fulfillment
of my duties, I come inspired by the sentiments of the President of my country
who, as a true Venezuelan, loves and admires this heroic nation.

Permit me, Mr. President, upon placing in your hands the letters which accredit
me Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary before the Republic of
Haiti, to transmit to you in the name of my country the wishes of the President
of the Republic, Genera! Juan Vicente Gémez, for the welfare of the Haitian
people and the personal happiness of Your Excellency and to add to them my
own good wishes for Haiti and its illustrious President.

To this eloquent address the President responded in the following
terms:

Mr. MINISTER:

This ceremony in which you hand me the letters accrediting you Envoy Extraor-
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of the United States of Venezuela to Port
au Prince will constitute one of the happiest memories of my presidency.

I am moved not solely by the historical sentiment that brings my country the
honor of your mission. I have a special pleasure in the fact that the eminent
Chief Magistrate now guiding the destinies of Venezuela was the first to recall
the debt of honor contracted by Bolivar with Alexandre Pétion, and to have
erected in one of the most beautiful squares of Caracas a monument to the great
Haitian patriot. Furthermore, words can but feebly express our appreciation of
a Plenipotentiary distinguished by his wide culture, his noteworthy career and
his great heart, and who attributes to simple coincidence, on the day when the
statue of Pétion was unveiled, the words by which he made amends for the
passing ingratitude which is so often the work of circumstances rather than that
of men.

The name of General Juan Vicente Gomez and yours, Mr. Minister, will be
forever graven on Haitian hearts,

*punoisyovq onbseanyoid
@ W110J ST[I1q Aq-1v9u oY} PUL sIBI] Op SduIvYyH Snofeds oy4 sulo{pe yy ‘SIVA JUDO UT [B{Ided 9Y} Ul pojoo19 SAUIP[ING [eJUSUTUAIAOS OU 94 JO aU SI soR[ed SIM,

ILJIVH ‘AONTUd OV LUOd ‘AOWIVd IVILNUGISHUd AAW

S9}VIG Patuy) 94} UL WLeP{ JO UOWeseT oY} Jo Asoyan0D

rea iee

COs

THE LANDS OF BOLIVAR AND PETION 239

You have imagined that you saw in the Gulf of La Gondve and its two arms
outstretched toward the sea to receive the voyager the symbol of the hospitality
of our land. But to receive a Venezuelan plenipotentiary, the Haitian people
has something more than a mere geographic configuration. It has arms, heart and
soul to give you the most cordial of welcomes and to assure you, Mr. Minister,
that all the extent of our territory is your home, as it was long ago that of Miranda,
the first comer—who was given a brotherly welcome by Dessalines—of Bolivar,
Marifio, Bermtdez, Piar, Palacios, McGregor, Aury, and Brion—all your great
chiefs and all your refugees who did my country the great honor of asking it for
asylum, for assistance, for consolation.

You have alluded to the danger of grave reprisals to which we were exposed.
Certainly, it is true that at that time our independence was not firmly established.
We were still on the alert, with a musket in one hand and a torch in the other;
the rage of our former mother country still rumbled, the Spanish monarchy was
still powerful. But to the men of those times what was one danger more or less?
The gesture of solidarity was made, for the liberation from European tutelage and
for the abolition of slavery on the mainland, and our two nations thus found
themselves in the forefront of emancipation in Latin America and in the first rank
of the States which abolished traffic in human beings, thus giving us a just claim
to dignity, to morality, and to intelligence.

These are the powerful bonds between the Republic of Venezuela and the
Republic of Haiti, and I ardently desire that the legation inaugurated by Your
Excellency shall remain the permanent symbol of the friendship between our two
peoples.

As for yourself, Mr. Minister, you have for the accomplishment of your mission
not only my good wishes and the whole-hearted cooperation of my Government,
but also the sympathy, esteem, and affection of the entire Haitian nation.

I beg you to transmit to General Juan Vicente Gémez the cordial good wishes
which I extend for his personal happiness, for the complete success of his under-
takings, and for the prosperity of his noble country.

*OSVIJULS JNOYSNOIYY po10}}Vos 01” SJUOTAyIVdOp SNOlIVA *AJJ0 OY} Jo 91eJYSNOIOYY [VdtoulId oy} “BpowMeTY 94} WO pojeNyIs “AZISIOAIUN OY] JO ZULpTING [B1}We0 oy,

ODVIENVS ‘AIIHO HO ALISHMAINA AHL

SOUlE AMERICAN COURTESY

By SterHen P. Ducean, Pu. D., LL. D.

Director, Institute of International Education

O much is written about ill will existing in South America toward
the United States that I am prompted to say a word about the
courtesy that I personally experienced everywhere in a recent visit
to most of the South American countries. There can be no question
that an unfriendly feeling does exist among certain classes, but even
among them there is a differentiation between the United States and
the individual American. I had long discussions with some severe
critics of our country but always in the best of spirits and frequently
while enjoying the most cordial hospitality in private homes.

The South American is not as exclusive as the Frenchman when it
comes to inviting foreigners into his home circle, but it is an evidence
of real confidence and friendship when he does. I was fortunate
enough to have this happen to me very often, and it was a delightful
experience. Interested as J am in international affairs, 1t was a real
joy to enter the homes of intellectual people who were thoroughly
informed about the events of the day throughout the world and could
discuss most intelligently their background and probable outcome.
But it was not merely in the field of foreign affairs but of literature,
art, music, and the life of the spirit generally that these discussions
took place. I believe that the home circle has a bigger place in the
life of the South American than with us, and conversation is not only
not a lost art, but figures largely in social circles.

But it was not only in the homes of the cultured that I experienced
the courtesy which seems to me so attractive a characteristic of the
South American, but among practically all classes. In some of the
universities I was fortunate enough to have round-table conferences
with groups of leading students. Some of them were very bitter in
their criticism of the foreign policy of the United States, but that fact
in no way destroyed the delightful spirit that animated the gather-
ings. Perhaps that spirit was to a slight extent due to my desire
to engage in cooperative thinking with the students. I mean when
we discussed a problem, whether it was a problem of internal univer-
sity administration or of foreign affairs, I tried to see whether we
could not together analyze it into its elements and then construct a
solution, instead of the students taking the offensive and I the
defensive in the discussion. Certainly at the end of every one of such

107586—32—Bull. 4 2 241

242 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

meetings the cordial attitude of the students was very gratifying to
me, and | always went away feeling that they and I understood the
situation and ourselves better than before we met.

This was equally true of the professors. I shall never forget the
delightful evenings I spent in the homes of some of my colleagues in
South America who had invited in a few of their fellow teachers. We
talked over all aspects of our respective civilizations as well as the dif-
ferences in university organ-
ization and administration
and methods of teaching.
I can not emphasize too
strongly how illuminating to
me these discussions were.
I do not know that J am
particularly well qualified to
speak of the psychology of
the South American, but
what I know of his psychol-
ogy is largely the result of
these delightful gatherings,
held in an atmosphere of
good fellowship and of give
and take. Itwas impossible
to go away from them with-
out having become much
better informed on the sub-
jects discussed.

I must digress sufficiently
to speak of the lighter side
of my association with pro-
fessors. I could mention

THE UNIVERSITY OF CORDOBA soya) msiemces Dut vel
ARGENTINA confine myself toone. While
This statue of the founder, Bishop Trejo y Sanabria, at Cordoba, in Argentina, I
occupies the center of the cloistered patio of the main F
building. delivered a lecture at the
university in the morning.
One of the professors invited me to lunch at his home in the coun-
try. I had a delightful drive among the mountains surrounding the
city until we reached his house, from which one had a lovely view of
the surrounding region. Upon arriving there I found that quite a
group of the professors I had met at the lecture had preceded us.
To my great delight the lunch was to be cooked and eaten out of
doors. A young lamb was put upon the spit and it was a joy to

SOUTH AMERICAN COURTESY 243

participate in the cooking among the embers of the many ingredients
of the meal—at least to participate, as I did, to the extent of watch-
ing. Such a meal! And many a health was drunk in the delicious
wine of the country. It was an afternoon of unrestrained fun and
happiness such as one seldom has in life. I shall never forget it.

The fine attitude toward the stranger that I have described was not
confined to the university and professional classes. I was anxious to
learn the views of as many groups as possible, and when I was at
Buenos Aires I had the good fortune to be invited to the House of the
People, where I had several conversations with a number of the labor
leaders. I found some of them men of unusual intelligence, able and
ready to discuss the economic and social problems not only of their
own country but of foreign countries, including our own. In fact,
they made some very trenchant observations concerning conditions
in the United States. But I was especially glad to get their opinion
of the direction which the labor movement will take in the next
decade. Buenos Aires is a center of labor unionism, and the rapid
economic development that has taken place since the war has brought
to the fore some interesting and difficult problems. These labor
leaders were most courteous in giving of their time to enlighten me
as to the situation.

I believe, however, that the finest evidence of South American cour-
tesy was shown in the degree of interest with which my lectures were
received. I read the lectures in Spanish in the Spanish-speaking
countries, and as | am by no means a Spanish scholar, to listen to me
must have been a real trial to my auditors. But I never saw any
evidence of it. In practically every instance the audience stayed till
the end of the lecture, generously applauded the speaker, and asked
many questions on the subject matter. This was also true in Brazil,
where I lectured in French. The average North American can learn
a great deal in this respect from his South American friends, for he
often exhibits a good deal of impatience of a lecturer whom he can
not readily understand and sometimes shows it by rising in the midst
of the lecture and leaving the room. I was even heard with courtesy
when I made extempore remarks in English at a meeting of a chamber
of commerce or a Rotary Club when most of my hearers could not
understand me at all.

My visit to South America impressed me as never before with the
value of personal contact. However open-minded one may be, it is
difficult to understand a person whom one has never met. One can
learn much from books concerning another people, but one can not
ask a question of a book. Personal intercourse is almost essential in
the removal of prejudice and misunderstanding. An incident in the
life of Henry Clay well illustrates this point. He was very attractive

AN ARGENTINE ESTANCTA ;

A peaceful scene on one of the country estates such as are found within easy reach of the principal cities of
Argentina.

SOUTH AMERICAN COURTESY 245

personally, but that did not prevent him being disliked by political
opponents.’ One such was asked by a mutual friend to permit him to
bring Clay and his critic together. The latter refused and when
asked for the reason answered ‘‘Because then I would like him.”
Personal contact will not always result in good will. I have seen
some of our countrymen wandering about Europe to come into contact
with whom would be the best way of arousing prejudice against the
United States and its people. But to have the fine people of one
country come into personal contact with the fine people of another is
one of the surest means of diffusing international understanding.
May such intercourse between the fine people of the United States
and of South America grow with the lengthening years.

THE CENTRAL UNIVERSITY OF VENEZUELA, CARACAS

The center of higher education in Venezuela was founded August 11, 1725, as the Royal and Pontifical
University of Caracas.

PAN AMERICAN COOPERATION
IN PUBLIC HEALTH WORK

THE PAN AMERICAN SANITARY CONFERENCES
AND THE PAN AMERICAN SANITARY BUREAU

By Bottvar J. Luoyp, M. D.

Medical Director, United States Public Health Service; Assistant to the Director,
Pan American Sanitary Bureau

NTERNATIONAL cooperation in matters relating to public health

is a development which originated in quarantine procedures.
Local quarantine, particularly the isolation of those suffermg from
leprosy, is of great antiquity. Maritime quarantine originated in the
countries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea in the sixth century
A. D., in efforts to prevent the spread of bubonic plague.

For more than a thousand years after maritime quarantine orig-
inated, efforts to exclude exotic disease were confined almost exclu-
sively to quarantine measures applied to persons and things at ports
or places of arrival. Gradually, it began to be apparent that the
spread of pestilences from one country to another was a matter of
mutual concern to all the Governments involved.

In the year 1527, bills of health began to be issued in Europe, to
vessels bound from one country to another, but they did not come
into general use until about the year 1665. In 1847, the Republic of
France originated the practice of stationing medical officers in foreign
consulates to keep contagious disease from being imported into her
territory. This procedure is still recognized as a valuable cooperative
measure.

For nearly a century international conferences on one phase or
another of public health have been held in various countries at irreg-
ular intervals, participated in, at least in recent years, by nearly all
civilized countries.

In 1824 Simén Bolivar, the Liberator, called an inter-American
Congress which met at Panama in 1826. At this congress delegates
from four Latin American Republics were present. Representatives
were also sent by the United States, but embarked too late to reach
Panama in time to participate in the deliberations and, in fact, one
died on the way. In 1847 and 1864 inter-American conferences were
held in Lima, Peru. None of these conferences treated of health
matters, nor did that of South American countries held in Montevideo
im 1888-1889.

246

PAN AMERICAN COOPERATION IN PUBLIC HEALTH work 247

PATIO OF THE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND CHARITIES, HABANA

Statue of Dr. Carlos Finlay, who, for 20 years, persisted in reiterating to an unbelieving world his theory
that yellow fever is transmitted by the bite of a particular mosquito, a theory demonstrated to be fact by
the work of Reed, Carroll, Lazear, and Agramonte.

In 1881 delegates from twenty-three countries, including Argentina,
Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Haiti, Mexico, Peru and Venezuela from among
the Latin American Republics, met in Washington for a general health
conference. Resolutions were adopted providing that each govern-
ment should establish a public health service, report its contagious
diseases and publish a weekly bulletin giving the causes of death in
its principal cities; that the consuls of the country of destination
should have the right to be present at the medical inspection of vessels
made on departure, and that a Sanitary Commission should be formed
to study and report upon yellow fever.

248 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

It is interesting to note that Dr. Carlos Finlay announced at this
Conference his famous theory that yellow fever is transmitted in
nature by the bite of an infected mosquito.

In 1887 the Governments of Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay entered
into an agreement at Rio de Janeiro with regard to quarantine and
sanitary procedures. This conference defined such terms as infected
and suspected ports and vessels, provided for the establishment of
sanitary services, for direct communication between health authori-
ties, and that uniform measures should be applied in the control of the
spread of quarantinable diseases.

In 1888, a sanitary convention was concluded in Lima by Bolivia,
Chile, Ecuador and Peru, quite similar in nature to the one just
mentioned entered into by Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay, but
providing further that inspection and other sanitary measures should
be enforced on vessels at ports of departure and that foreign consuls
should have the right to be present when these precautions are being
carried out.

THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF AMERICAN STATES

In 1889, there assembled in Washington the First International
Conference of American States.. This Conference provided for the
calling of subsequent conferences, and created as its executive organ
the Bureau of American Republics, now known as the Pan American
Union.

At the time that this First International Conference of American
States met, quarantinable diseases, particularly yellow fever, formed
perhaps its most vexing and difficult problem. Accordingly, a com-
mittee selected from among the delegates of Brazil, Nicaragua, Peru,
Venezuela and the United States was named to study disease condi-
tions and formulate sanitary regulations. Little was accomplished
other than to recommend that the Conference adopt the measures
outlined in the conventions of Rio de Janeiro and Lima.

A decade passed with little further advance in the international
control of communicable diseases. Bubonic plague, the dreaded
“Black Death” of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, suddenly
appeared for the first time in the Western Hemisphere, adding
ereatly to the perplexities of the health authorities.

In 1898, Dr. Henry Rose Carter, of the United States Public Health
Service, announced his proof of the “extrinsic period of incubation” in
yellow fever, an expression meaning that after the introduction of a
“first case” of this disease into any community, a period of about
twelve days must elapse before secondary cases will develop. Carter
suggested that this “latent” period might well be the time required
for the ‘‘germ”’ of the disease to undergo a cycle of development in
the body of some insect.

"YOM YQTRoY OITGnd oAyVI9d00d UvolIOULY UR UT s9oUOTd OY JO OUO ‘VARQDTT JO QUI) OY} 4B STBIOIYO YATeoy poYsInsuNsIp 1oyjo pue ‘oorxe py
Jo oljqndoexy oy} JO YQ[BVOH{ JO [BIOUOY) 10}DIIIG, ‘VATIS JoRVY “Aq ‘nvoing Areywueg uvolwoury Uv OY} JO IOJOOITG ‘BUIUIUIND ‘*S YsnFT ‘ueH “Sang

ALIO OOIXHW ‘VOVAOIT OGUVOGH 40 ANOL

heoing Aveyueg UvoleUly UL ay} JO Asayno0D

250 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

That Carter’s conclusions were correct and that Finlay’s theory
that yellow fever is conveyed by the Aedes egypti mosquito is right
were then definitely demonstrated by the epoch-making work of
Reed, Carroll, Lazear and Agramonte in their experiments in human
volunteers in Habana, Cuba, in 1900.

In 1901, the Second International Conference of American States
met in Mexico City and its members were confronted by virtually
the same public health problems as were presented to the First
Conference in 1889.

By this time statesmen had begun to realize that such problems
might best be dealt with by physicians trained in public health work.
Accordingly it was decided to create a permanent international body
similar in character to the conferences dealing with general matters
but limited in action to matters affecting the public health. Resolu-
tions were adopted authorizing the creation of ‘International Sani-
tary Conferences”’ and as their executive organ an ‘International
Sanitary Bureau’’, with permanent headquarters at Washington, D.C.

In accordance with these resolutions, the First International Sani-
tary Conference met in Washington in October, 1902, and under the
guidance of such men as Licéaga, of Mexico, Finlay, of Cuba, Wyman,
of the United States, and their colleagues from the same and other
countries, there were created the International Sanitary Conferences
and the International Sanitary Bureau.

Almost the first act of the First Sanitary Conference was to accept
the mosquito theory of the transmission of yellow fever, thereby
throwing into the discard many of the former quarantine measures
directed against this disease. This was perhaps the greatest step
in advance that had been made in international quarantine procedures
for more than a century.

It will be recalled that Gorgas and his associates soon demonstrated
the enormous practical value of the discovery of the manner of yellow.
fever transmission by ridding Cuba, and the Isthmus of Panama,
including the cities of Panama and Colon, of yellow fever.

Subsequently, through individual effort on the part of various re-
publics, and through international cooperation, particularly with the
aid of the International Health Board (Rockefeller Foundation)
yellow fever has been eradicated from all American countries except
certain parts of Brazil and possibly certain districts in Colombia,
very few cases of the disease being reported even from those countries.

The Second International Sanitary Conference, also held in Wash-
ington, formulated and adopted the ‘‘Washington Convention”
which may be regarded as the first Pan American Sanitary Code.
Briefly, this code prescribed regulations for combating the spread of

1 The Fifth International Conference of American States changed these names to Pan American Sanitary
Conferences and Pan American Sanitary Bureau, respectively.

PAN AMERICAN COOPERATION IN PUBLIC HEALTH WORK 251]

plague, cholera, and yellow fever; provided for mutual notification of
the presence of these diseases; defined the conditions under which
any country or territory should be regarded as “‘infected,’’ and for-
mulated the measures which might be applied by one country against
persons and things arriving from infected districts in another. This
code modified and greatly simplified international quarantine pro-
cedures.

In 1904 an agreement was formed between the Republics of Ar-
gentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay, known as the Sanitary Con-
vention of Rio de Janeiro. The terms of this agreement embodied
chiefly the abolition of sanitary cordons, promises of mutual notifica-
tion of the presence of plague, cholera and yellow fever, suggestions
for measures to be followed in combating these diseases and restric-
tions in the application of quarantine procedures by one country
against another.

The Third International Sanitary Conference met in Mexico City
in 1907. This body reiterated the principles adopted by the First
and Second Conferences and went on record as favoring compulsory
vaccination, intensive campaigns of education in methods for com-
bating malaria, the exclusion of immigrants suffering from trachoma
or beri-beri, the centralization of public health administration in the
Federal Government and special measures for the combating of
tuberculosis.

The Fourth Pan American Sanitary Conference met in San José,
Costa Rica, in 1909-10. This Conference was occupied chiefly with
matters pertaining to measures for combating bilharziasis, leprosy,
hydrophobia, typhus fever, hookworm, plague and yellow fever; the
sanitation of seaports; measures for securing safe water and adequate
sanitary disposal of sewage, and measures to be applied to outgoing
vessels at infected ports in order to protect other countries.

The Fifth International Sanitary Conference met in Santiago,
Chile, in 1911. Among the resolutions passed by this Conference
were those recommending: the study and subsequent revision of the
International Sanitary Code adopted by the Second Conference; the
training of physicians and others to become specialists in hygiene
and sanitation; the establishment of laboratories for the analysis of
foods and drinks; the establishment of leprosariums; the establishment
by each country of a permanent commission to study and combat
tuberculosis; and the provision for municipalities of safe water sup-
plies and sanitary disposal of sewage at actual cost of operation.

The occurrence of the World War interrupted the holding of inter-
national sanitary conferences for a period of nine years. However,
the Sixth International Sanitary Conference was called to meet in
Montevideo, Uruguay, in 1920. This Conference recommended that
measures be taken to combat the social diseases; made typhus fever

252 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

a reportable disease; called attention to the necessity of combating
intestinal parasitoses; recommended an extensive revision of the
Washington Convention; called attention to the necessity of popular
education in hygiene and sanitation; and reorganized the International
Sanitary Bureau, authorizing it to publish a monthly bulletin devoted
to the dissemination of information concerning matters affecting the
public health. Surgeon General Hugh S$. Cumming, of the United
States Public Health Service, was elected Director, and is now serving
his third term in this capacity.

Courtesy of the Pan American Sanitary Bureau

CAMPAIGN AGAINST RATS

Vessels from plague infected ports are required to fend off at least 4 feet and to place guards on lines
when anchored in ports of the United States.

The Fifth International Conference of American States met in
Santiago, Chile, in 1923, and changed the names of the Sanitary
Conferences and the Sanitary Bureau from International to Pan Amer-
ican Sanitary Conferences and Pan American Sanitary Bureau. The
latter body was charged with the duty of preparing a complete revi-
sion of the Washington Convention, as had already been recom-
mended by the Fifth and Sixth Sanitary Conferences. This led to
the drafting of—

THE PAN AMERICAN SANITARY CODE

The Pan American Sanitary Code is primarily an international
sanitary treaty the objects of which are: (a) To prevent the interna-

PAN AMERICAN COOPERATION IN PUBLIC HEALTH WORK 253

tional spread of communicable disease; (b) to promote international
cooperative measures; (c) to standardize morbidity and mortality
statistics; (d) to stimulate the mutual interchange of information
which may be of value in combating disease, and (e) to further
standardize quarantine measures. It was adopted by the Seventh
Pan American Sanitary Conference at Habana, Cuba, in 1924, and
subsequently ratified by eighteen American Republics. It is also
effective in the other three, pending formal ratification.

The provisions of the Pan American Sanitary Code, while simple,
are somewhat technical in character and will therefore not be given
here. In addition to perfecting and adopting the code, the Seventh
Conference strengthened and enlarged the powers of the Pan Ameri-
can Sanitary Bureau and imposed upon it many additional duties.
Perhaps it will be well here to review in some detail the development
of—

THE PAN AMERICAN SANITARY BUREAU

As already stated, the creation of the International Sanitary Con-
ferences and the International Sanitary Bureau was authorized by
the Second International Conference of American States, and the
name changed to Pan American Sanitary Conferences and Pan Ameri-
can Sanitary Bureau by the Fifth.

Organization was effected by the First International Sanitary Con-
ference, in 1902, and members of the International Sanitary Bureau
were elected. As only the Director of the Bureau resided in Wash-
ington and there were no funds to pay traveling expenses, the mem-
bers of the Bureau could never meet except at the time of their elec-
tion at a Sanitary Conference. This of course did not detract from
the importance of the work of the Sanitary Conferences themselves,
but there was no organized body to ‘‘carry on” during the interim.
What few activities there were during the intervals between confer-
ences were carried out by the Director of the Sanitary Bureau and
the Director of the Bureau of the American Republics (Pan Ameri-
can Union). In 1920, the Sanitary Bureau was reorganized and its
funds increased to $20,000 per annum; in 1924, its powers were
broadened, its duties further increased and its funds raised to $50,000
a year.

As at present constituted, the Pan American Sanitary Bureau con-
sists of an honorary director, a director, an assistant to the director,
and five members who meet in Washington once in twelve to eighteen
months; in addition, there are scientific and clerical personnel who,
under the supervision of the Director, are daily engaged in carrying
on its work. An office is provided for the Bureau in the building ot
the Pan American Union, in Washington. There are also scientific
personnel who, as traveling representatives, visit the various repub-

254 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

lics from time to time for the purpose of conferring with the health
and other authorities on matters pertaining to sanitation and the
public health, and actually to assist in cooperative public health work.

The Second International Conference of American States provided
that the expenses for the maintenance of the Sanitary Bureau should
be paid by the various affiliated republics on a basis of population.

The resolutions creating the Sanitary Conferences provided that
“authority shall be conferred by each government upon its delegates.

. . to join. . . in the conclusion of such sanitary agreements and
regulations as may be in the best interests of all the republics re-
presented.”’ It will thus be seen that the Sanitary Conferences are
authorized to conclude treaties (ad referendum) in dealing with
matters pertaining to the public health. The Pan American Sanitary
Bureau as the executive organ of the Sanitary Conference is (by
implication, and in recent years by direction) charged with the duty
of urging that the agreements made at the conferences be carried
out. In the resolutions referred to it is stipulated that ‘the said
republics shall promptly and regularly transmit to said [Sanitary]
Bureau all data of every character relative to the sanitary condition
of their respective ports and territories and furnish said Bureau
every opportunity and aid for a thorough and careful study and
investigation of any outbreaks of pestilential diseases which may
occur within the territory of any of the said republics, to the end that
said Bureau may be able to lend its best aid toward the widest pos-
sible protection of the public health of each of the said republics and
that commerce between said republics may be facilitated.”

The First International Sanitary Conference meeting in Washing-
ton, in 1902, reiterated the duties of the Sanitary Bureau just out-
lined and added, “‘it shall be the duty of the Sanitary Bureau to
encourage and aid or enforce in all proper ways the sanitation of
seaports . . . including the destruction of mosquitoes and other
vermin. ”’

Subsequent conferences, both sanitary and general, have from
time to time granted additional powers and imposed additional
duties on the Sanitary Bureau. Following the Sixth International
Sanitary Conference (1920) the publication of the Pan American
Samtary Bulletin was begun (1922). The Fifth International Con-
ference of American States (1923) charged the Sanitary Bureau with
the duty of drafting an international sanitary code revising the
Washington Convention. The Seventh Pan American Sanitary
Conference (1924), in adopting the Pan American Sanitary Code,
confirmed in the Code (now a treaty) all the powers previously
granted to the Pan American Sanitary Bureau and reimposed all
previously mentioned duties. In addition the Pan American Sani-
tary Code made the Bureau the central coordinating sanitary agency

PAN AMERICAN COOPERATION IN PUBLIC HEALTH WORK 255

of the various republics; authorized the detail of representatives to
visit and confer with the sanitary authorities of the signatory Govern-
ments on public health matters; directed the Bureau to supply signa-
tory Governments with all available information relative to the
status of communicable diseases, new methods of combating disease,
information regarding public health organization and administration
and of progress in all branches of preventive medicine; authorized
the undertaking of cooperative epidemiological and other studies,
the facilitation of research, the acceptance of gifts, benefactions and
bequests; provided for the detail of officials of the National Health
Services for duty with the Bureau and, upon request, steps to bring
about an exchange of professors, medical, and health officers, experts
or advisers in public health or any of the sanitary sciences.

From the foregoing brief summary of the powers and duties of the
Pan American Sanitary Bureau, it is manifest that the Conferences
of the American Republics have always recognized the importance of,
the necessity for the continuous existence of an autonomous body
which would carry out the expressed will of these and of the Sanitary
Conferences in matters pertaining to the prevention of the spread of
disease, which would represent the mutual sanitary interests of all the
American Republics, harmonize their differences if these should exist,
meet new situations and mediate to adjust new difficulties as they
might arise, and promote in every way possible within the limits of
international law and in accord with mutual agreement, progress in
health and sanitation in all the American Republics.

Let us now review briefly, in concrete form, the actual work of the
Sanitary Bureau. What are its achievements, its possibilities, its
needs? What may it undertake to do? What is its future?

The activities of the Pan American Sanitary Bureau may con-
veniently be grouped into five classes, namely:

(1) Those involving international relations.

(2) Efforts directed toward encouraging the development of effi-
cient Health Services for all the people, both urban and rural, in all
the American Republics.

(3) Special studies, investigations and, when mutually agreed upon,
special activities to combat outbreaks of disease or to improve san-
itary conditions in any republic in cooperation with national and
local authorities.

(4) It acts as a consulting bureau for the health departments of
all the American republics.

(5) The Pan American Sanitary Conferences and the Conferences
of the National Directors of Health are held under the auspices of
the Sanitary Bureau.

In the absence of preventive measures, the prevalence of many
communicable diseases is proportionate to density of population and

THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

K Tartine.
S mee \ 0
‘ . i
x . IM Backadac
Se HS Dae ae;
A si! OF
Swe 6 = Se Sees
»y Kpistobal ye __ + Co ‘TD,
~y < as => SS ae
MAS ES VENEZUELA 9
Ss ¢ 1 L ~
rue On bag eats
x : ® Socevto t Va ee aoe \
Rog Peedi es
Burravintargrde _jefaTleuda BOS fey os Ss
la Juwa, ie ea
é +) ,
fe a CO*\LOMBIA .
all 7 \ .
“ . ay
Boule Kk N 20-3 ae
Sai ON fF --
AY, s ECUADOR. Ber ROCHE Sona ae
qnoatie} Ce ee too xeon
of ‘ Iqulos MRC = sony Ox ot
Galera. ’ zs
> Lambsyrqvue f . ba’
a \ eftn ' “ ‘ M0 Grande dom (
No atataye! Al at Jtatot
Baskaya? . A . é . Janata 9
ae aa ed / Q Feurambuce
See A .
we 2 Me B R A * s ' LS 2 de Sergipe igs
San ‘ - - . a. De
Sf Mom an i nant
Calas Sone EO ‘ y
PERU ca * uy e ¢
AS 4 K ,
SS Sunidad. “teres el, B
aes B O; IVIA S05. ri
oa Bencts Cokabonbad = S aabee) es y
Set se .
Cuca i. hi SOS +5 g
1 ies Wie lata ee eee -.£% Minas GCerses x
Jquique F ri Bee ‘ Yo zs
A Ss . ,
(AN yousbe ae ated Oe) Comps
a 2 7
ror * PARAGUAY E of Matherny
1m p $ Duo de Janerre
a
is comin :
e) ,
Copreper RE. r y
é Sta Cothorume

/ REPUBLICA

(ee eee

Cordoba, RK yi,
eae, KRio Grande
f S es oon Li BUCUAYEY S
Brecon See eee aoe <7”
3 Prunes Cray olen Ace
<
ARGENTINA
<
«
Bahia

Adapted from publications of the Office International d’Hygiéne Publiaue, Paris
MAP OF YELLOW FEVER AREAS, 1910-1930, AND AIR ROUTES
This map and that on the opposite page indicate how dangerous yellow fever would be to-day if it
were not under control. Practically all of the territory shown here is infectible. Few people
realize what a scourge this disease once was or the enormous commercial value of the work that has

been done by health authorities in the Americas in combating it. Dash lines represent air routes,

either established or projected. Dots indicate localities on air routes which have had yellow fever
at soe time during the period from 1910 to 1930. Circles indicate other localities which have had
yellow fever.

the amount and rapidity of means for intercommunication, in other
words, of transportation facilities. If present preventive and san-
itary measures for the protection of the public health should be
suspended for any considerable length of time, former epidemics and
pestilences would seem mild in comparison with those that could
reasonably be expected to follow such a period of inactivity. In order
to prevent the spread of disease, particularly with our present means
of rapid transit, it is necessary to know where the disease exists. It
is the duty of the Sanitary Bureau to be informed of the existence of
plague, yellow fever, cholera, smallpox and other dangerous conta-

[ased 9y1soddo uo deur 1apun puese] 909]

SULNOW HIV ANY ‘O&6I-Ol6T “‘SVAUV UMAGA MOTIXA NVOINUNYV H

seg ‘enbi[qng ougisAy.p

‘
‘

fe)

age

more & .

LYON HO dVIN

[euolyeus9}UyT 8dBFO AY} Jo Suo1jyBoI]qnd wos pojdepy

egree mnie

wwuio70 9

‘ ASK
SevfeyopenS eo.

s ‘
4‘ A
‘

u Ke semen H Y

Pupp rus "
pore een eee eee aN

9
vo

—Bull. 4

107586—32

258 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

gious diseases throughout the American Republics and to inform all
republics of the presence of such diseases in any one or more countries.

Conversely, it is the duty of each republic promptly to inform the
Sanitary Bureau of the existence of dangerous communicable disease
in any of its territory. In addition to collecting and transmitting
information of outbreaks of disease as they may occur in the American
Republics, the Sanitary Bureau also forwards this information to the
International Office of Public Hygiene of Paris and in turn receives
reports from that office of the presence of such diseases throughout
Europe, Asia and Africa, which it transmits to the health authorities
of all the American Republics.

Not infrequently outbreaks of disease in one country will cause
great alarm in others, particularly if such outbreaks are featured in
the daily press, and health authorities are apt to be stampeded by
public clamor into resorting to drastic and even obsolete quarantine
measures. In such cases it devolves on the Sanitary Bureau to
remind al! countries concerned of their treaty obligations made in
calmer moments in order to limit quarantine activities to a minimum
of restrictions consistent with safety. At the same time the Nation
in whose territory the outbreak of disease has occurred is pledged to
keep the Sanitary Bureau informed of the progress of the outbreak
and the measures being taken to prevent the spread of disease to
other countries and to eradicate it from her own territory.

Efforts toward developing efficient health services throughout the
American Republics are limited only by the resources of the Bureau
and the desires of the Government concerned. At present such efforts
are being fostered by information published in the Pan American
Sanitary Balletin and to some extent by traveling representatives
engaged principally in special lines of work.

Special studies and active cooperation in field work have so far
been chiefly in connection with combating bubonic plague. It is
expected that other special work will be begun in the near future.

Directors of Health and others are privileged to write the Sanitary
Bureau for information or advice on any matters which may affect
the public health and such consultations occur with relative frequency.
The Sanitary Bureau, in addition to other activities in connection
with the holding of the Sanitary Conferences, assists in preparing the
scientific programs and publishes their proceedings.

COOPERATION WITH THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

As has been already said, in the early days of its existence, the few
activities of the Sanitary Bureau were carried on by the. Director of
the Pan American Sanitary Bureau and the Director General of the
Pan American Union. Close cooperation is still maintained between

UNITED STATES TRADE WITH LATIN AMERICA IN 1931 259

the two offices, each rendering the other every possible mutual
assistance.

THE PAN AMERICAN CONFERENCES OF DIRECTORS OF HEALTH

The Fifth International Conference of American States (1923)
recommended that the Directors of Health of all the American
Republics should meet in Washington in general conference at inter-
vals of not less than five years. The programs for these conferences
are prepared by the Sanitary Bureau after consultation with the
Directing Heads of the Public Health Services of all the affiliated
republics. The Bureau also publishes the proceedings of these
important conferences.

In conclusion it may be said that the Pan American Sanitary
Bureau is a permanent international body whose usefulness is limited
only by its resources, by the powers granted it, by willingness on the
part of affiliated Governments to accept its services and by the
wisdom of those who guide its destinies.

UNITED STATES TRADE WITH LATIN
AMERICA IN 1931

By Matitpa Pxriuires

Chief, Statistical Division, Pan American Union

HE total trade of the United States with the 20 Latin American

Republics for the year ended December 31, 1931, as shown in
the table below, amounted to $792,060,000. The imports were $478,-
251,000, and the exports, $313,809 ,000.

The total trade shows a falling off in value of 39.3 per cent as com-
pared with the preceding year. There was a decline of 29.2 per cent
in imports and 50 per cent in exports.

Imports from the northern group of countries and from South
America showed almost the same relative decline—29.8 per cent and
29.2 per cent, respectively, as compared with 1930. Commenting on
the decline in imports from Latin America, Commerce Reports, in its
edition of February 15, 1932, says:

In the case of Argentina, the decrease of 50 per cent in value was mainly attrib-
utable to low prices of flaxseed, wool, and cattle hides, and a decrease in quantity
of imports of meats and cattle hides. Imports from Brazil fell off only 16 per
cent in value—attributable largely to low prices of coffee. ... Purchases of

sugar from Cuba and of copper, lead, and petroleum from Mexico were consider-
ably smaller.

260 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Exports to the northern group of republics fell off 46.4 per cent as
compared with 1930, while those to South America declined 53.1 per
cent.

Referring to this decline, Commerce Reports, quoted above, states:

Substantial reductions in shipments of iron and steel, agricultural machinery,
automobiles, and other classes of finished articles account for the sharp drop in
value of United States exports to Mexico and the countries of South America.

The trade of the United States with the various Latin American
countries for the year ended December, 1931, compared with that of
the preceding year, is shown in the following table, which has been
compiled from statements furnished by the Statistical Office of the
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, United States Depart-
ment of Commerce:

Trade of the United States with Latin America, 12 months ended December

[Values in thousands of dollars, i. e., 000 omitted]

| Imports Exports Total trade

Country
| 1930 | 1931 1930 | 1931 1930 1931
ae

IVC xa CO sees a eer eas he Tee Nas | 80, 293 | 47, 611 116,135 | 52,365 196, 428 99, 976
Guiatem alasle = tele ek ee ee eae oe a 7,400 | 4, 651 7, 305 | 5, 197 14, 705 9, 848
BG Saliva OTs seas ee BO Ee 2, 875 2, 231 4, 457 3, 483 7, 332 5, 714
PET OM GUTS Bee ees aera ene cae ee ns pap 12, 600 11, 870 9, 602 5, 980 22, 202 17, 850
TIN FAN GE HES Oe NR i ee oe 3, 522 2, 383 4, 869 3, 565 8, 391 5, 948
CostavR Cantera ss alos ie sae A eee 4,813 3, 735 4, 555 3, 524 9, 368 7, 259
IBA AINA oe nie Sweet eee ae See weer eae 4, 735 4, 590 35, 900 23, 728 40, 635 28, 318
CU a eee nee Ee ee Sa NN 121, 949 90, 059 93, 550 47, 985 215,499 | 138, 044
BD) OTTATAT CATE E YO Ur oC eee ee 7, 255 5, 126 9, 271 6, 010 16, 526 11, 136
RFE Si Gee aie eee eee A Re ae ae ee 1, 123 760 7, 104 4, 823 8, 227 5, 583

North American Republics__________ 246, 565 173, 016 292, 748 156, 6€0 539, 313 329, 676
PACS GTA TN ao 2 Ses kL ee er i Bn ae | 71, 891 35, 979 129, 862 52, 636 201, 753 88, 615
iB Olin ahs cae Seo eee Se ae a 152 43 4, 219 1, 784 4, 371 1, 827
TENE Alla eee Ee hee iy ire SUA ie Dera Ue ei | 130,854 | 110, 301 53, 809 28, 579 184, 663 ! 138, 880
@hileeeeee AES ae SURE Ae ee ee | 64,812 39, 977 46, 374 21, 462 101, 186 61, 439
COLON ABR ee Oa eee ee | Oz wet) 75, 481 25, 130 16, 052 122, 269 91, 533
IH} CHaAd OSE ees nae ee ee en eS ey 5, 554 3, 603 4, 866 2, 935 10, 420 6, 538
AAT AL UAV esse ee Se EO = mae rae 247 155 1, 067 €02 1,314 757
LOYD NDE Sse See Se ss ee ee Se = 21, 284 8, 974 15, 721 7, 9385 37, 005 16, 909
Wm Sa yaaa oes Re A ee | 12,354 3, 877 21, 413 9, 519 33, 767 13, 396
NYAS NaS ABLE) (es eae Oana sana Tes ee PE 36, 868 26, 845 32, 967 15, 645 69, 835 42, 490

South American Republies___-______ 431, 155 305, 235 335, 428 157, 149 766, 583 | 462, 384

Total Latin America__________--___- 677,720 | 478,251 | 628,176 | 313,809 | 1,305,896 | 792, 060

]

1 United States statistics credit commodities in considerable quantities imported from and exported to
Bolivia and Paraguay via ports situated in neighboring countries, not to the Republics of Bolivia and Par-
aguay but to the countries in which the ports of departure or entry are located.

THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

AS THE PERMANENT ORGAN
OF THE INTERNATIONAL AMERICAN CONFERENCES

By Witt1am Maneer, Ph. D.

Chief, Division of Finance, Pan American Union

OUR years have now elapsed since the Sixth International Con-

ference of American States adjourned at Habana on February 20,
1928. The place of meeting of the Seventh Conference has been set
as Montevideo, and the time as December, 1932. At each Interna-
tional Conference of this series a number of resolutions and conclu-
sions is adopted calling for special or technical conferences or requiring
some further action in order that the aforesaid resolutions and conclu-
sions may be made effective. In fact, the effectiveness of the recom-
mendations of the International Conferences of American States, as
of any gathering meeting at relatively long intervals and then only
for short periods, lies in having a permanent organization charged with
the responsibility of carrying out the conclusions of the Conference.
Under the statutes of the Pan American Union, as adopted at the
fifth of these conferences, one of the functions of the Union is to
serve as the permanent commission of the International Conferences,
to keep their records and archives; to assist in obtaining ratification
of the treaties and conventions, as well as compliance with the resolu-
tions adopted; and to prepare the program and regulations of each
conference.

The present would therefore appear to be an opportune time for a
review of the steps that have been taken by the Pan American Union
to give effect to the conclusions adopted at the Sixth International
Conference of American States. At the outset, it may be said that at
the Conference at Habana a larger number of conclusions were adopted
than at any previous gathering, 11 conventions haying been signed
and 62 resolutions, 7 motions, and 4 agreements approved. Many of
these conclusions specifically intrusted certain functions to the Pan
American Union to be carried into effect. Broadly speaking, the
duties devolving upon the Pan American Union in giving effect to
the conclusions reached at the International Conferences may be
erouped under three general headings:

1. Those relating to the calling of conferences of a special or tech-
nical character.

261

*Ssol[qndes UBdTIOULW TZ 94 JO seoeyd [eoTI04SIY WO’ WYBZNOAQ [IOs Ut ‘soyeyg UvOTIOULW
JO 9USIJUOH [VUONVUIOJUT YAXIS OY} 0} sojesotop Aq ‘gz6I ‘pe ATenAGoT pojyuvd sv ‘joyIdVyH oy} SulUTolpe oureu sures oy} Jo ezeid oy} Ut ‘9014 BqIOD SIN,

Va ‘VNVEVH ‘AAU ALINUALVad CAL

BND ‘SILOM Ol[qng JO Jueu4edeq ey} Jo Asey1n0D

THE PAN AMERICAN UNION 263

2. Those involving special investigations and the preparation of
specific reports.

3. Those relating to the deposit of ratifications of the conventions
signed at the conferences.

The activities of the Union under these categories since 1928 may
be briefly summarized as follows:

I
SPECIAL AND TECHNICAL CONFERENCES

The Sixth International Conference of American States authorized
the calling of a series of special conferences which, because of the
technical character of the subjects, or the lack of time in which to
give to the topics the detailed consideration which their importance
required, the Conference itself was unable to resolve. The Governing
Board of the Pan American Union was generally intrusted with the
designation of the date and place of meeting of these special or tech-
nical gatherings. The conferences which have met during the last four
years as a result of resolutions adopted at Habana, with a summary
of the conclusions at which they arrived, are listed below:

1. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF AMERICAN STATES ON CONCILIATION
AND ARBITRATION

The first and one of the most important of the special conferences
erowing out of the Habana meeting was the International Conference
of American States on Conciliation and Arbitration, which met at
Washington from December 10, 1928, to January 5, 1929. The
peaceful solution of international controversies was one of the major
questions on the agenda of the Habana conference, but lack of time
in which to consider the topic in all its details made it necessary to
refer it to a special conference. Twenty nations were represented at
the gathering in Washington, at which three instruments of far-
reaching significance were signed: a General Treaty of Inter-American
Arbitration; a General Convention of Inter-American Conciliation;
and a Protocol of Progressive Arbitration.

At the very outset of this Conference a striking demonstration was
offered of the unity of spirit which prevails among the Republics of
the American Continent: the Conference offered its good offices to
the Governments of Bolivia and Paraguay in the conflict which had
occurred between the two countries in the Chaco region. The offer
was immediately accepted, resulting in the creation of the Commission
of Inquiry and Conciliation, Bolivia and Paraguay, which brought
about a resumption of diplomatic relations between the parties and
the reestablishment of the status quo in the disputed territory as it

264 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

existed prior to December 5, 1928. Delegates met again at Wash-
ington on November 11, 1931, to discuss a nonaggression pact.'

2. PAN AMERICAN TRADE MARK CONFERENCE

Shortly after the close of the Conference on Conciliation and
Arbitration, the Pan American Trade Mark Conference convened
at Washington under the auspices of the Pan American Union and
continued in session from February 11 to 20, 1929. Representatives
of nineteen countries participated in the Conference, at which a general
Inter-American Convention on Trade Mark and Commercial Protec-
tion and a Protocol on the Inter-American Registration of Trade
Marks were signed. A draft of convention prepared by the Pan
American Union served as a basis of discussion for the delegates.

3. PAN AMERICAN HIGHWAY CONGRESS

The First Pan American Highway Congress met at Buenos Aires
in 1925, pursuant to a resolution adopted at the Fifth International
Conference of American States in Santiago. At the Habana Confer-
ence specific recommendations were made of studies to be undertaken
at the Second Highway Congress, particularly with reference to the
construction of an Inter-American Highway and the regulation of
automotive traffic. The Second Congress met at Rio de Janeiro
from August 16 to 28, 1929. The Pan American Union, in cooperation
with the Pan American Confederation for Highway Education,
prepared documentary material on the regulation of automotive
trafic, including a draft convention which was submitted for the
information of the delegates; and a report on possible routes of an
Inter-American Highway.

Both of these matters received further consideration at subsequent
conferences and became the subject of definite agreements between
representatives of the American Republics.

4. INTER-AMERICAN HIGHWAY CONFERENCE

Shortly after the adjournment of the Pan American Highway
Congress at Rio de Janeiro the Government of Panama convened the
Inter-American Highway Conference at Panama on October 7th, 1929.
This Conference, which continued in session until October 12, and in
which many of the delegates attending the Rio Conference participated,
was called for the express purpose of considering questions involved
in the construction of an Inter-American Highway, and particularly
that section extending northward from Panama to the United States.
As a consequence representatives of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guate-
mala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, and the United States only

1 See Bulletin of the Pan American Union, December, 1931.

THE PAN AMERICAN UNION 265

were in attendance. The Government of Mexico had already laid
out the route of the road that will constitute the Mexican Section of
the Inter-American Highway and for that reason did not deem it
necessary to participate in the Conference. The outcome of the
deliberations was the creation of an Inter-American Highway Com-
mission composed of members of each of the countries represented
at the Conference for the purpose of making surveys to determine
the most practical route of the road through the respective countries.
A meeting of the Commission was held at Panama in March, 1931, and
engineers of the Commission have made reconnaissance surveys of the
most feasible route to be traversed by the highway.

5. PAN AMERICAN CONFERENCE ON THE REGULATION OF AUTOMOTIVE
TRAFFIC

The draft convention on the regulation of automotive traffic,
submitted to the Second Pan American Highway Congress at Rio de
Janeiro, received the approval of that body, but was not formally
signed, inasmuch as the delegates did not possess plenipotentiary
powers. For that purpose the Governing Board of the Pan American
Union took advantage of the presence in Washington in October, 1930,
of the delegates of the American Republics to the Sixth International
Road Congress to convene a special Conference on the Regulation of
Automotive Traffic.

This gathering met at the Pan American Union from October 4 to
6 and formally approved and signed the Pan American Convention
on the Regulation of International Automotive Traffic, with minor
modifications. Certified copies of the Convention have been sent by
the Pan American Union to the Governments of all the American
Republics.

6. PAN AMERICAN COMMISSION ON CUSTOMS PROCEDURE AND PORT
FORMALITIES

A resolution adopted at Habana authorized the calling of a confer-
ence on the elimination of unnecessary port formalities and the estab-
lishment of steamship lines. Prior to the Habana Conference the
Governing Board of the Pan American Union had taken steps to
convene a commission on the simplification and standardization of
customs procedure and in view of the close relation of port formalities
to customs procedure, the two subjects were combined and submitted
to the Pan American Commission on Customs Procedure and Port
Formalities. That portion of the Habana resolution relating to steam-
ship lines was considered at the Fourth Pan American Commercial
Conference and will be referred to under the discussion of that con-
ference.

266 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The Commission on Customs Procedure and Port Formalities met
at the Pan American Union from November 18 to 26, 1929, with
twenty countries represented. In advance of the meeting documentary
material was prepared and principles were formulated which were
made the basis of discussion by the Commission. The conference
resulted in the adoption of a series of resolutions as well as a draft
convention covering port formalities, customs procedure and regulations
applicable to airports.

The project of Convention on Customs Procedure and Port For-
malities was considered at the Fourth Pan American Commercial
Conference in October, 1931, at which a number of modifications
were proposed. It was agreed that the project and the proposed
amendments should be forwarded to the Governments for observation
and comment and that the draft convention should be submitted to
the Seventh International Conference of American States at Monte-
video, with a view to arriving at a final agreement on the subject.

7. PAN AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY

A resolution of the Sixth International Conference of American
States created the Pan American Institute of Geography and History
to serve as a center of cooperation and coordination in geographical
and historical studies in the Republics of the American Continent.
The seat of the Institute was to be established in the capital of that
Republic designated by the Pan American Union. The Governing
Board of the Union selected Mexico and the first meeting of the
Institute was held in the Capital of that Republic from September 16
to 22, 1929. Representatives of eighteen countries were in attend-
ance. The next meeting will be held at Rio de Janeiro.

8. INTER-AMERICAN CONGRESS OF RECTORS, DEANS, AND EDUCATORS

The Inter-American Congress of Rectors, Deans, and Educators met
at Habana from February 20 to 23, 1930, to prepare the definitive
statutes of the Inter-American Institute of Intellectual Cooperation
which had been created by the Sixth Conference. The place and date
of meeting were determined by the Governing Board of the Pan Ameri-
can Union in agreement with the Government of Cuba, and pursuant
to the terms of the resolution authorizing the Congress, the Pan
American Union also prepared a draft of organization of the Institute
of Intellectual Cooperation and formulated a program for the Congress
of Rectors, Deans, and Educators.

The Program of the Seventh International Conference of American
States provides for the consideration of the results of the Congress of
Rectors, Deans and Educators.

THE PAN AMERICAN UNION 267

9. INTER-AMERICAN COMMISSION OF WOMEN

Simultaneously with the Congress of Rectors, Deans, and Educa-
tors, the Inter-American Commission of Women was in session at
Habana, the meeting extending from February 17 to 24, 1930. This
body was also provided for by resolution of the Habana Conference
for the purpose of preparing juridical and other information that will
enable the Seventh International Conference to consider the civil and
political equality of women on the American Continent.

The resolution of Habana creating the commission requested the
Pan American Union to designate the first seven members, which
was done at a session of the Governing Board in April, 1928. The
headquarters of the commission have been established at the Pan
American Union.

At the Seventh International Conference, consideration will be
given to the report of the Commission of Women on the political
and civil equality of women. A topic to this effect has been incor-
porated in the program of the Montevideo Conference.

10. INTER-AMERICAN CONFERENCE ON AGRICULTURE

No fewer than four proposals on inter-American agricultural
cooperation were introduced into the Sixth International Conference
of American States. Three of these were referred to the Pan Ameri-
can Union with the recommendation that they be submitted for
study to the Seventh Conference, to a commission of experts, or to
the Fourth Pan American Commercial Conference; while the fourth
authorized the Pan American Union to designate the date and place
of meeting of an inter-American conference on plant and animal
sanitary control.

The outcome of the study of these various proposals by a special
committee of the Governing Board was the Inter-American Con-
ference on Agriculture which met at the Pan American Union from
September 8 to 20, 1930, with representatives of all the countries
members of the Union in attendance.

In anticipation of the Conference, and pursuant to the resolution
adopted at Habana, the Pan American Union established a new
Division of Agricultural Cooperation. National committees of agri-
cultural cooperation were appointed in each of the countries members
of the Union and documentary material was prepared for the informa-
tion of the delegates to the Conference.

11. FOURTH PAN AMERICAN COMMERCIAL CONFERENCE

The Fourth Pan American Commercial Conference met at the
Pan American Union from October 5 to 13, 1931. As in the case of
its predecessors, the Conference was held under the immediate

268 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

auspices of the Pan American Union, with representatives in attend-
ance from the Governments and commercial associations of all the
American Republics. In formulating the program the special com-
mittee of the Governing Board included therein a number of topics
which the Sixth International Conference of American States recom-
mended should be treated at special conferences, and which were
considered by the program committee as properly falling within the
scope of the Commercial Conference. These topics, with the action
taken thereon, are as follows:

a. The Development of Ocean Steamship Services between the Ameri-
can Republics——This topic was intended to cover that portion of
the resolution adopted at Habana relative to steamship lines and
unnecessary port formalities, the latter subject having been sub-
mitted to the Pan American Commission on Customs Procedure and
Port Formalities. The Commercial Conference confirmed the reso-
lution adopted at Habana and recommended that the Governing
Board of the Pan American Union convene a meeting of technical
experts to study the question of maritime services among the countries
of America. As a preliminary step to such a meeting, the Govern-
ing Board has authorized the appropriate Division of the Pan Ameri-
can Union to undertake a study of existing steamship services and
to submit its findings to the Governing Board for transmission to
the respective Governments.

b. The Compilation and Dissemination of Financial and Economic
Statistics —This topic was intended to include the consideration of
the compilation of statistics on maritime, land, and aerial com-
munications which the Sixth Conference recommended should be
made the subject of study by a special commission. In preparation
for the Commercial Conference documentary material was prepared
on the type of statistical information that might be compiled by the
several Governments. The Commercial Conference recommended
that every endeavor be made to have the Governments compile
and publish statistical data on all phases of the national economy.

c. Uniformity of Consular Fees in the American Republics—The
Fourth Pan American Commercial Conference gave careful consider-
ation to this subject and recommended to the Governments of the
American Republics that they charge only fixed minimum consular
fees on shipping documents and that no additional surcharge or tax
of any nature be collected at the port of embarkation; also that the
collection of any other charges on imports be made solely at the ports
of entry.

d. Standardization of Commodities as an Aid to Commerce.—The
Commercial Conference recommended that the American Republics
make known the specifications, composition, and analyses of their

THE PAN AMERICAN UNION 269

agricultural and mineral products which enter into their export trade;
and also that they subscribe to the draft convention formulated by
the Inter-American High Commission for the establishment of uni-
form specifications and common nomenclature in the countries of the
Continent.

12. OTHER CONFERENCES

The foregoing represent the conferences, congresses, and commis-
sions mentioned in or growing out of resolutions of the Sixth Inter-
national Conference of American States, which have already been
held. In addition a number of others are still pending, as follows:

a. Second Pan American Congress of Journalists —The First Con-
egress of Journalists met at the Pan American Union in April, 1926,
and pursuant to the resolution adopted at that time, Montevideo has
been designated as the seat of the Second Congress. The precise
date of meeting, however, has not yet been determined. Pursuant
to the terms of the resolution adopted at Habana a draft of permanent
organization of the Pan American Congresses of Journalists has been
prepared by the Pan American Union and will be submitted to the
Congress at Montevideo when it convenes.

b. Inter-American Bibliographic Commission.—This Commission
was originally scheduled to assemble at Habana at the time of the
Inter-American Congress of Rectors, Deans, and Educators, in Feb-
ruary, 1930. Because of a conflict of dates with several other confer-
ences held in Habana at that time, the meeting of the Bibliographic
Commission was postponed and thus far no new date has been fixed.
As a step in the promotion of bibliographic cooperation, national
bibliographic committees have been formed in a number of countries
and an Inter-American Bibliographic Association has been organized
and has prepared a comprehensive program of inter-American cooper-
ation. Bibliography appears as a topic in the program of the Seventh
International Conference.

ce. Pan American Pedagogical Congress.—A resolution adopted at
Habana requested the Pan American Union to determine the time
and place of meeting of the Pan American Pedagogical Congress, in
which representatives of normal and upper elementary schools should
participate. Santiago, Chile, has been designated as the seat of the
Congress and 1932 as the year in which it will meet, but the precise
date has not yet been fixed.

d. Pan American Congress of Municipalities—The resolution
adopted at the Sixth Conference provided that the Pan American
Congress of Municipalities should be held at Habana during the year
1931. The meeting, however, was postponed and a new date has not
yet been selected.

270 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

In addition to the conferences held pursuant to recommendations
of the Sixth International Conference of American States, a number
of other Pan American Congresses have met since 1928. To complete
this record of Pan American activity as represented by conferences,
there is given below a list of such assemblages which have been held
during the last four years:

1. Fourth Pan American Congress of Architects, which met at Rio
de Janeiro from June 19 to 30, 1930.

2. The Sixth Pan American Child Congress, which met at Lima
from July 4 to 11, 1930.

3. The Second Pan American Congress of National Directors of
Public Health, which met at the Pan American Union under the
auspices of the Pan American Sanitary Bureau from April 20 to 28,
1931.

4. The Third Pan American Postal Conference, which met at
Madrid, from October 10 to November 10, 1931.

II
MiscELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES

Whether the special conferences and congresses are held at the
Pan American Union or under the auspices of one of the Govern-
ments members of the Union, that organization cooperates in every
possible way in making preparations for them and in making effec-
tive the conclusions that may be adopted. Reference has already
been made, in speaking of the special or technical conferences grow-
ing out of the Sixth International Conference, of some of the activi-
ties of the Pan American Union in preparing documentary material
for the information of the delegates. Among this material may be
mentioned the project of convention on trade mark protection pre-
pared in anticipation of the Pan American Trade Mark Conference
in 1929; the formulation of a draft convention on the regulation of
automotive traffic, submitted to the Second Pan American Highway
Congress and signed at the Pan American Union in October, 1930;
the formulation of a draft of organization of the Inter-American
Institute of Intellectual Cooperation for the Congress of Rectors,
Deans and Educators which met at Habana in 1930; the preparation
of a draft of permanent organization of the Pan American Congresses
of Journalists to be submitted to the Second Congress when it con-
venes at Montevideo; the compilation of material on the Inter-
American Highway and cooperation in the arrangements for the
reconnaissance survey to determine the most feasible route; the survey
of existing steamship facilities among the American Republics as
authorized by the Governing Board pursuant to resolutions adopted
at the Sixth International Conference and the Fourth Pan American

THE PAN A*°=RiCAN UNION 27 I

Commercial Conference; an inquiry into inter-American commercial
arbitration, the results of which will be submitted to the Seventh
International Conference of American States.

For those conferences which are held at the Pan American Union,
the duty also devolves upen the Union of making the necessary prep-
arations for the organization and conduct of the sessions.

As a result of the conclusions adopted at the Sixth International
Conference several enlargements were made in the administrative
organization of the Pan American Union. To enable the Union to
carry out the recommendations adopted at Habana pertaining to
agricultural cooperation on the American Continent, a Division of
Agricultural Cooperation was created in 1928.2 This Division has,
since its foundation, published numerous reports on all phases of
agricultural endeavor and is actively engaged in giving effect to the
recommendations of the Inter-American Conference on Agriculture
which met at Washington in September, 1930.

It was also found advisable to change the title of the Division of
Education of the Pan American Union to that of Division of Intellec-
tual Cooperation, in order that the scope of its activities might include
the promotion of closer cultural and intellectual relations among the
American Republics and the Pan American Union be enabled more
effectively to put into execution the recommendations adopted at
Habana.

In continuation of the work of codification of international law, a
resolution adopted at Habana recommended the establishment of
three committees, one at Rio de Janeiro on Public International Law,
another at Montevideo on Private International Law, and a third at
Habana on Comparative Legislation and Uniformity of Legislation,
the work of these committees to be carried on in cooperation and con-
junction with the American Institute of International Law. The Pan
American Union was also requested, in so far as its organization would
permit, to cooperate in the preparatory work of codification. The
Committees at Rio de Janeiro, Montevideo, and Habana have been ap-
pointed, and provision has been made in the program of the Seventh
International Conference of American States for the presentation and
consideration of projects that may be formulated by these bodies.

At the same time the American Institute of International Law has
been requested to undertake the preparation of projects on certain
topics of international law appearing in the program of the Seventh
Conference and to place them before the delegates at Montevideo.

Since the Conference at Habana the Pan American Union has been
in constant touch with the members of the Pan American Railway
Committee and has endeavored in every way to cooperate with the
Committee in carrying out the duties intrusted to it. With a view

2 See ‘‘Agricultural Cooperation in the Americas,” p. 279.

Pe, THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

to facilitating the construction of those links which yet remain in the
projected railway, the Governing Board of the Union has recom-
mended the establishment of national committees in each country
through which the railway is to run, which committees it 1s proposed
shall make studies of the present status of the railway and submit their
findings to the Central Committee. Provision has been made in the
program of the Seventh Conference for the submission and considera-
tion of the report of the Pan American Railway Committee.

As approved by the Governing Board, the program of the Seventh
International Conference contains a number of topics recommended
for inclusion therein by resolutions adopted at Habana. Among these
are the regulation of the agricultural and industrial use of international
rivers, the navigability of rivers, and the possibility of adopting a
standard coin. On the two last-mentioned topics the Pan American
Union has communicated with the Governments members of the
Union, and the reports which may be received will serve as a basis of
discussion at Montevideo. On the subject of the regulation of the
industrial and agricultural use of international rivers, the program of
the Seventh Conference contemplates the preparation and submission
of a project by the Permanent Committee on International Law estab-
lished at Rio de Janeiro. <A topic on the condition and standards of
living of workmen has been included in the program of the Seventh
Conference pursuant to a resolution adopted at Habana, and the
American Institute of International Law has been requested to formu-
late a project on the rights and duties of States, pursuant to the
recommendation of the Sixth Conference that the fundamental bases
of international law and of states be considered at Montevideo.

Notwithstanding the fact that they are not the direct result of
action taken by Conferences of American States, mention should be
made of some other Pan American events of outstanding importance
which occurred during 1931. Among them was the renewal on
August 17 of diplomatic relations between the Republics of Colombia
and Ecuador, severed since November, 1923. This felicitous event
came about through the good offices of the Argentine Government and
its able diplomatic representatives in Quito and Bogota, Dr. Atilio
Daniel Barilari and Capt. Rodolfo Freyre, respectively. The second
occurrence was the assembly in Washington on December 15, 1931, of
the Arbitral Tribunal between Guatemala and Honduras, to terminate
the boundary question which for almost a century has existed between
these two neighboring Republics.®

inter-American initiative in the field of finance was shown in the
meeting of five South American Central Banks, held’in Lima, in
December, 1931, at the suggestion of the Central Bank of Bolivia.

3 See BULLETIN of the Pan American Union, February,"1932.

THE PAN AMERICAN UNION Dike

Observers from the Federal Reserve Bank of the United States were
also present.*

Another interesting assemblage was the conference on economic
subjects held between Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay, at the invita-
tion and in the capital of the last-named Republic.®

DEPOSIT OF RATIFICATIONS

One of the new functions intrusted to the Pan American Union at
the Sixth International Conference was that of serving as a depository
of the ratifications of conventions signed at the Conference. A pro-
vision to this effect appears in the convention on the Pan American
Union, and notwithstanding that the articles of the convention do
not become effective until ratified by all the countries members of the
Union, nine of the conventions signed at Habana provide that the
Pan American Union shall be the depository of the ratifications
and shall notify the other signatory States of the receipt of the rati-
fications. The present status of the conventions signed at the
Sixth International Conference is as follows:

CONVENTION ON THE STATUS OF ALIENS

Ratified by: Ratification deposited
TERRE AIIM oy ees a epee a Se ear September 3, 1929.
(Ca A ep eg ea SO (Not yet deposited.)
(CUS TD Sea pe Sa a September 25, 1931.
INA 6 pares ey eee ee SEL ees March 28, 1931.

ING 2a veers omer tan leh tant eee A Ste eS March 20, 1930.

VERSVGATOONS fe es ae hee May 21, 1929.

Wintec sitatesse ees. oes se a es eee 8 May 21, 1930.
CONVENTION ON ASYLUM

Ratified by: Ratification deposited
VEAP So See i ag ee September 3, 1929.
© aNionanllo eters oak Se eh te eg eal (Not yet deposited.)
CHUTE Sa fa NP ep ti May 4, 1931.
Cieibennenl apis seek ere ee ee Pe a a Soe September 25, 1931.
INC xi COm ps eee aia: Se Bye RS Foe we al SS February 6, 1929.
UINGL @ Antc ey NUE coe ty Sree eS ey ge ae ers Be te dye S March 20, 1930.

JP Yahyan es eee ee ok ae New ere me eA A Pe May 21, 1929.
CONVENTION ON CONSULAR AGENTS

Ratified by: Ratification deposited
SJ BSICEN A 2 4 a ie Ce September 3, 1929.
(Colom 0) la ae ee eee eee (Not yet deposited.)
HIN TU xe (Semen ST sas Rs, Pe Nl es RS ys December 26, 1929.
ING Gait 2: Oi a eee emis eigen ess 1 March 20, 1930.
JPYSNMGNTOOUE Sa Sek Diptera nv ae ey ol May 21, 1929.
UimibedeS tatesmeme saan ssenimad GS acy Soa Do ole February 8, 1932.

4 See BULLETIN of the Pan American Union, March, 1932. 5 See pp. 291.

107586—32— Bull. 4-4

274. THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

CONVENTION ON DIPLOMATIC OFFICERS

Ratified by: Ratification deposited
UPS Tea eae eh Ree ee pe ae ce September 3, 1929.
INVES C0 eet ers 2 Reb Mey ea ee, pe AY ee eS eae February 6, 1929.
INGC AT USE ete gets alge Ba els BION mre A Lie Ate sua, ape June 9, 1930.

IPSN AINA Ae ea os reese EM age ache Diten e May 21, 1929.

Venezuela (Approved by Congress but not yet ratified by the President).

CONVENTION ON MARITIME NEUTRALITY

Ratified by: Ratification deposited
1B YG) Ud ke Haren eee Ce eaten SAYS Ca ere URL March 9, 1932.
Col Orn a ie aes a a ain ay ee eee (Not yet deposited.)
IN Gaye UA Sees rarer Says han, ee OER os yt 2 eee rere January 12, 1931.
Rana Mgrs so eee ee ao te eke ae ee ee oes May 21, 1929.
WinitedltS tates wx. ee eee ise ae a Pere fe eet ee March 22, 19382.

CONVENTION ON THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Ratified by: Ratification deposited
LONE WAilleesracht a SIS et eet ater ee ets Ree e SORE Re Ma eA new Cs August 9, 1929.
Domini Came ve po ul i cesta te eee eee March 12, 1929.
Guatemala 422 er ae oy tee ees ieee April 30, 1930.
IMG xi COS Sao Jas Sores MeN aes A ees ee February 6, 1929. ©
SPATE TANG oe 5 oe ae ale eye es See RRND Dee Aik SN eee May 21, 1929.
UmitedsS tates. Snes. Sa ea Aen se ee March 18, 1931.

Venezuela (Approved by Congress but not yet ratified by the President).

CONVENTION ON PRIVATE INTERNATIONAL LAW

Ratified by: Ratification deposited
TES © Lad AS ete eS i sh ee eee eh a Aires pe ee March 9, 1932.
SPS Tea Zalll Speen hie es he Ek Pon Eo iets coal We nea a pele August 3, 1929.
@osta ORC ares een mae Sees haan. in 1 eine iaea ae February 27, 1930.
CCU a epee eee ls ie Sra Pa lcs PR eee OLE HUA a April 20, 1928.
IDewatrnGain INC om... ek March 12, 1929.
INE Salva OF Se ee ate Re See Se Deer ee eens ee November 13, 1931.
(ENDER ite) ana) eersatee Mee erie ee 2 NRE et pkg iene Sr wee November 8, 1929.
et Gitte: <= oot IE Net Beem Le Sia ey 9s) Head Ss See February 6, 1930.
ERO NUT A See ee Ey Na ee May 20, 1930.
JN STC a2) a Caer Ga ae a ne Sa ed a ene nee ee February 28, 1930.
JEAEWAEH COVE Ee Me Stes 8 ee Bente eer eae coe eS ee October 26, 1928.
1 (2 et ae re Paes PR A Oar ia ena Wie Seat gee A arte hs See, August 19, 1929.
AY/(SOV Ee AUVs ets eta see I we area ae ete NE Red at ee eB March 11, 1932.

Chile (Approved by Congress).

CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF STATES IN THE EVENT OF CIVIL

STRIFE

Ratified by: Ratification deposited
IBLE AUPE NE eee eee me A i ae UR a dee go. eee. September 3, 1929.
© OT Oral eh er eee ty eee ee Be a eae eS (Not yet deposited.)
IMEX COR pate eRe 8 Fear Lr Caer ae ee ene February 6, 1929.
UNG CSU Uae ee Se ee, eh ee ee ees March 20, 1930.
VERON One wee ere ate eens aR e Sebt a De oop Ae Se May 21, 1929.
WinitediStatec:ssemes0s Ws a owe ayy woe ces May 21, 1930.

CONVENTION ON TREATIES ;

Ratified by: Ratification deposited
Betz ey ee cee ee ME NE enya MIE oe pays =) coy eee eS September 3, 1929.
Nicaragua Ee Fee te ee Be ea Ko ae ae AB ba, NR gM Ss, January 12, 1931.
LREEy Ect 0s eee ee omer katie coo Hote al a EY Bene age May 21, 1929.

THE PAN AMERICAN UNION Das

CONVENTION ON COMMERCIAL AVIATION

Ratifications deposited with

Ratified by: the Government of Cuba
Crier Se aa pe a ee December 28, 1929.
MOSS OD) ees i SE 2 Ba Ce April 24, 1929.
INTI@RIRA GUY. = =e ES Se ee ee May 4, 1929.
IPOS Se ae Se oe eee May 138, 1929.
HWhoitteciesuaesmes. S22. sep e e July 17, 1931.

CONVENTION ON THE PROTECTION OF LITERARY AND ARTISTIC PROPERTY

Ratified by: Ratification deposited
Cruanteniateall etpurancee gee aes S21 E Sy CR ere re ae er May 20, 1931
Date of ratification
AMNews oe ee ea Se Bee Rarer May 138, 1929.

The ratifications of the treaties and conventions signed at the special
conferences growing out of the Sixth International Conference of
American States have been as follows:

‘TREATY OF INTER-AMERICAN ARBITRATION

(Signed at the International Conference of American States on Conciliation and
Arbitration at Washington, January, 1929)

Ratifications deposited with
the Government of the

Ratified by: United States
TESVPISN ZAI 25 lS NES i aU Loe en January 25, 1932.
AO tle ne nee Pg a OE Sn se AO Oe February 27, 1930.
Cul, 5 hese Aes ee RS a ee oe ee November 8, 19380.
IDomminiGam IRC omolie= 2 = se September 17, 1929.
IES ahvevol Ole ares a ance en tee Rs en So a ra December 28, 1929.
Choraite rnc yen Mn Mesa irae eae: eee eS = ek ._-. October 28, 1929.
IO Es Se arc ie gk a Fae gc ee ee January 8, 1930.
AFL EA TAN apa ie ee ed, a ce NNO ee pce es ek ea (Not yet deposited.)
Peru (Ratified by Congress).
(Wisc): SHER ESS Rasa au i 8 ae (Not yet deposited.)

CONVENTION ON INTER-AMERICAN CONCILIATION

(Signed at the International Conference of American States on Conciliation and
Arbitration at Washington, January, 1929)

Ratifications deposited with

Ratified by: the Government of Chile
(Glave os ee ee ee Mee eee December 28, 1929.
(Collect ya) Se i De ee ee (Not yet deposited.)
(CUIDS 5 Sie See lla aa ea a wee August 7, 1930.

ES alhyacl Oe eee een ee tae te ee December 28, 1929.
Chuarberatel aerate ce eed LR ER ak November 15, 1929.
IN GSROO) Se eo Se ee ns ee ge January 8, 1930.

IP yeaa Soy Wc) See eae yee Sy aey in od ieee ee eee ee (Not yet deposited.)
Peru (Ratified by Congress but ratification not yet deposited).

WO imibedestatestee Lene es cee oe te March 27, 1929.

Venezuela (Approved by Congress but not yet ratified by the President).

276 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

INTER-AMERICAN CONVENTION ON TRADE-MARK AND COMMERCIAL PROTECTION

(Signed at the Pan American Trade Mark Conference at Washington February

20, 1929)
Ratifications deposited with
Ratified by: the Pan American Union
Ulf Bier A ie eed a pela Se a cp April 2, 1930.
GEGEN ae = Sse ee an eG ols hci le eee December 30, 1929.
cs EET (eae ie OY cE a ORE August 14, 1931.
United iS tatesee se she iS he en ee ee February 17, 1931.

PROTOCOL ON THE INTER-AMERICAN REGISTRATION OF TRADE MARKS

(Signed at the Pan American Trade Mark Conference at Washington, February

20, 1929)
Ratifications deposited with
Ratified by: the Pan American Union
Clb etic Ben ea ie, Dip arte Nie ar ee April 2, 1930.
aFERep a(t ey as 2 RN A ER ESSE ATES A 2 RN a nee hee eae August 14, 1931.
WmitediS tates: <2) 5sexsa els ie ok te Pty a ee February 17, 1931.

CONVENTION ON THE REGULATION OF AUTOMOTIVE TRAFFIC

(Signed at the Pan American Conference on the Regulation of Automotive
Traffic at Washington, October 6, 1930)
Ratified by: Ratification deposited
INT @xdiC Oe aos ies Reo a eee oc ec aan eh ny February 28, 1932.

WV 7

PAN AMERICAN STUDENT CLUBS

By Hevotse BRraInerpD

Chief, Division of Intellectual Cooperation, Pan American Union

HE clubs that are found in many high schools and colleges of

the United States having as their purpose the study of inter-
national relations are at the same time an evidence of the growing
‘“international-mindedness”’ of the American people and one of the
factors that are bringing about that attitude. Among these groups
may be mentioned the International Relations Clubs affiliated with
the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace; the World League
of International Education Associations, with headquarters at San
Francisco; and the Los Angeles City Federation of World Friendship
Clubs. Many colleges, too, have organizations, such as the Cosmo-
politan Clubs, composed of both American and foreign students,
through which the members have an opportunity to become better
acquainted with each other. A similar service is rendered by the
“International Houses”’ at New York City, Chicago, and Berkeley.
In this connection mention should be made of the strong interest
taken by the National Student Federation of America in international
affairs.

The special importance to the United States of inter-American
relationships is so self-evident that as far back as 1920 a Pan American
Student League, having Latin American student federations repre-
sented in its membership, was organized in New York under the
leadership of Mr. Philip Leonard Green. This association did
valuable work during the years of its existence. In 1927 a group of
high-school teachers in Dallas, Texas, headed by Miss Fletcher Ryan
Wickham, launched a new Pan American League among the students
of Spanish in that city. Regular meetings have been held, with
addresses by various distinguished Latin Americans, plays given in
Spanish by the students, Spanish music and other features by which
the members have learned a great deal about their Latin American
neighbors and much impetus has been given to the study of Spanish.
A yearbook is issued annually. Furthermore, beginning with the
present term an annual award, to be known as the Bolivar-San Martin
Medal, will be given in each high school having a Pan American
Club as a chapter of the Pan American Student League of New York
to the student who, in the opinion of the Faculty Leader, has con-
tributed most to the advancement of the Pan American ideal in his
school. This award is made by the Pan American Society of the

277

278 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

United States with headquarters in New York under the auspices of
the Pan American Student League of that city.

From the beginning the Pan American League contemplated a
nation-wide and eventually a Pan American membership. It now
has several high-school and college chapters besides the original one
at Dallas, and is looking forward to the establishment, before long,
of chapters in the Latin American countries.

Among the most enterprising of the chapters are those in the high
schools of New York City. The first of these was organized in Sep-
tember, 1930, in the James Monroe High School, by Mr. Joshua
Hochstein, a member of the faculty. A year later Mr. Hochstein,
who had been transferred to the DeWitt Clinton High School, organ-
ized one there. ‘These clubs became chapters of the Pan American
League with headquarters at Dallas. Mr. Hochstem began an
energetic campaign in the other New York high schools, with the
backing of school officials, and was so successful that on December
19, 1931, 17 clubs—one composed of alumni—came together and
formed the Pan American Student League of New York City. The
League now has a 4-page organ, ‘‘The Pan American Student.”
The clubs are taking advantage of the extraordinary facilities offered
by their city, such as the foreign consulates, the large Spanish and
Portuguese speaking colonies, the Pan American Society of the
United States, and other organizations having Pan American interests,
and are putting on most interesting programs. Among the special
features have been a lecture by a noted Cuban caricaturist and an
illustrated address by the Peruvian Consul on the development of
Peru. The DeWitt Clinton Club has a Pan American section in
the library in which, besides many books and pamphlets, some 75
newspapers and journals from Latin America are found, and has
planned a special Latin American Exhibition to be held in April.
The New York City clubs are open not only to students of Spanish
but to all who are interested in Latin America.

It should be mentioned here that the Pan American clubs are not
interested exclusively in the countries of Spanish speech, since their
members are well aware that the Haitians, in their beautiful moun-
tainous republic, speak French, and that Portuguese is the language
of the Brazilians throughout their country, more vast in extent than
the 48 States of the American Union.

The young people who compose these Pan American clubs are
carrying on a very important piece of work. They are learning to
understand and appreciate their Latin American neighbors and will
grow up with an intelligent attitude in what is becoming the most
important sphere of the United States’ foreign relations. May they
have the enthusiastic support not only of educational authorities but
of all who have vision to see the possiblities of this Pan American
‘‘youth movement.”

AGRICULTURAL COOPERATION
IN THE AMERICAS

By Apam CarRTER
Member of the Pan American Union Staff

HE development of agricultural cooperation bolds a prominent

place among the important Pan American events of recent years.
Many agricultural problems are common to all the nations of the
Continent, who find it mutually profitable to give the utmost publicity
possible to all progress in solving such questions.

In 1928, a Permanent Committee on Agriculture was appointed by
the Governing Board of the Pan American Union, and a Division of
Agricultural Cooperation was established in the Union. Since that
time, the amount of information collected and distributed by the
Division, and the innumerable subjects which have engaged its atten-
tion, bear witness to its usefulness, even if the nature of the work done
does not allow results to be measured in terms of dollars and cents.

Educational activities naturally rank high in the work of agricul-
tural cooperation. The dissemination of information forms a con-
siderable part of these activities, and the agricultural subjects that
can be covered by the written word are as numerous as the results
may be fruitful. For instance, many varieties of crops produced in
certain regions can be adapted to others, and knowledge of the
improvements made in one country in some of the existing species
used to advantage by the agriculturists of other nations. Cultivation
methods, the use of fertilizers, discoveries made in connection with
the diseases and pests of plants and animals, and animal husbandry
are also suitable material for publicity. And if all this can be said in
general terms, it may be taken for granted that there are innumerable
individual cases in which an increase in knowledge means also an
increase in profit.

The Division also makes a point of obtaining data on the agricul-
tural conditions and developments in each member nation of the Pan
American Union, said data being kept available to the general public.
Furthermore, the office studies continental problems in agriculture,
collaborates with experts in the various countries, and obtains for
publication in the BuLueTin of the Pan American Union articles on
some of the multiple aspects of the cultivation, production, and dis-
tribution of the staples that in many cases are a source of great
wealth. In brief, a center of agricultural cooperation.

279

we
en

A FIELD OF PINEAPPLES

Pineapples are imported by the United States from Cuba, Mexico, and Central America.

EXPERIMENTAL RICE GROWING, PALMIRA

Various Latin American countries are making special efforts to promote the growing of this important
cereal, which is much better adapted than wheat to tropical and subtropical climates. This isa field at
the Agricultural Experiment Station, Palmira, Cauca Valley, Colombia.

AGRICULTURAL COOPERATION IN THE AMERICAS 281

The following examples show the great diversity of the subjects
with which the Division of Agricultural Cooperation has occupied
itself: Matters pertaining to the control of the pests and diseases
of plants and animals; improvement of the principal existing crops;
propagation of new varieties; irrigation problems; soil study and
analysis; fertilizers; insecticides; modern methods for the control of
cattle diseases; improvement of breeds of cattle and adaptation of
breeds to certain regions of the continent; scientific feeding of stock;
development of the poultry industry; cereals and cereal products;
cover crops; and analysis of woods.

Mention of a few titles will show the wide variety of agricultural
matters covered by the series of pamphlets published regularly in
Spanish and Portuguese by the Division and distributed among the
agriculturists in the countries south of the United States: Agricul-
tural Progress in Latin America; Some Aspects of Coffee Raising;
Cattle Parasites in Latin America; Fertilizing: A New Science; The
Dairy Industry; Propagation of Citrus Fruits in Brazil; and Diseases
of Cacao in the Caribbean Zone. These articles are frequently repro-
duced, wholly or in part, in some of the most important agricultural
publications appearing in Latin America.

The development of intercourse among the agricultural organiza-
tions established throughout Pan America is another avenue through
which educational work is now being performed. In Latin America
alone, there are at the present time about 300 periodicals which deal
with agricultural matters; more than 700 agricultural societies; more
than 200 experiment stations, and approximately 250 agricultural
educational institutions. The establishment of friendly relations
between these organizations multiplies the beneficial results of their
activities, changing their sphere of action from national to continental.
The Division of Agricultural Cooperation of the Pan American Union
keeps up to date, and has distributed widely in Spanish and Portu-
suese, a list of these organizations and institutions. The Division
has also prepared and published in three languages a bibliographical
compilation entitled Selected List of Publications on Tropical Agri-
culture. Copies of laws, regulations, and similar material on the
prevention and eradication of cattle diseases were requested and
received from many governments, and many publications on that
subject have been prepared, compiled, and distributed. In many
cases, the Department of Agriculture of the United States has fur-
nished, through the Division of Agricultural Cooperation of the Pan
American Union, educational films to be used by various agricultural
institutions in Latin America.

In September, 1930, the first Inter-American Conference on Agri-
culture met at the Pan American Union. The numerous scientific
contributions presented to the Conference were published in three

282 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

languages and distributed extensively throughout the Americas.
Many of the resolutions adopted outlined the course to be followed in
the development of agricultural cooperation in the New World.

It may be of interest to mention a few of the many agricultural
activities influenced by the Conference. As a result of its decisions
the Committees on Agricultural Cooperation existing in all the Pan
American nations have begun the study of prevailing agricultural
conditions and it is expected that their conclusions and recommenda-
tions will be submitted to the Seventh International Conference of
American States.

National agricultural congresses have been held in various Latin
American countries, and have proven to be of great educational and
commercial value.

> : i hb 3 me Si
FIELD FOR HENEQUEN DRYING
After extraction, the fiber is washed and hung on wires for drying, bleaching, and combing. It is widely

used in the United States for the making of various twines and ropes. Henequen, or sisal, is grown exten-
sively in Yucatan.

Reports on insect pests and on plant diseases are being received
from various American countries and distributed by the Division of
Agricultural Cooperation. This office is also preparing an agricul-
tural nomenclature, and has already compiled more than 2,000 terms,
with equivalents in Spanish and English, comprising sections devoted
to various classes of soils; insects; plant and animal diseases; fungus
diseases; agricultural machinery; forestry; agricultural engineering;
bacteriology; and chemistry. When this nomenclature is completed,
it will be published and distributed throughout the Americas.

To conclude this reference to some of the many phases of agricul-
tural enterprise which have felt the influence of the work of the
Conference on Agriculture, it may be said that because of the efforts
of that assembly a great deal of attention is now being given in Latin

AGRICULTURAL COOPERATION IN THE AMERICAS 283

America to forest and soil surveys. The conclusions reached by the
Conference on these points have served to emphasize the great im-
portance of such surveys, and to increase noticeably the number
being made throughout the nations of the Continent.

The Division of Agricultural Cooperation of the Pan American
Union maintains close relations with all Pan American agricultural
bodies in general, and in particular with the National Committees on
Agricultural Cooperation. Part of the work of these Committees
consists in reporting to the Pan American Union, every three months,
upon the most important agricultural events that have taken place
in their respective countries during that period. At the request of
the Division of Agricultural Cooperation, the members of these com-
mittees have in many cases prepared special reports on subjects per-
taining to agriculture and animal husbandry. All these data are at
the disposal of any organizations or private individuals from any part
of Pan America who may request them; they will also serve in the
preparation of the program of the Second Pan American Conference
of Agriculture.

The cooperation of the agricultural departments, experiment sta-
tions, botanical gardens, and agricultural educational organizations
of the various nations has greatly aided the Pan American Division
of Agricultural Cooperation. Likewise the cooperation of the United
States Department of Agriculture has been exceedingly helpful to
many official and private correspondents of the Division in Latin
America, on account of the vast facilities at the disposal of that
Department, and the promptness with which it has always answered
requests from the Division of Agriculture of the Pan American Union.
These services on the part of the United States Department of Agri-
culture are well known and widely appreciated in Latin America.

Besides maintaining close relations with the agricultural organiza-
tions established in the various countries, the Division of Agricultural
Cooperation is also in contact with many individuals, as its services
are at the disposal of the general public. The number of private
persons who have requested information from the Division runs into
the thousands, as is shown by the respective card index.

Requests are constantly being received from organizations and
individuals in all of Pan America. The following may be mentioned
as examples of the more important subjects upon which concrete data
have lately been furnished:

In a certain region of Peru, a variety of barley was introduced which
can be harvested in three and a half months. The varieties formerly
planted there were harvested in from six to seven months. ‘The seed
obtained from the first crop of the new variety was distributed among
interested farmers.

CULTIVO ve TRIG

EWOSTRATARS SOBRE

PROFUNDIDAD | GBORES ¥-
SIEMBRA

4a te ‘ f ane te 3 ; <
“a cs : é fee ‘ $
sa ¥ ees cs. ae 2 : i ote me As ge

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, SAN JACINTO, ARGENTINA

Field demonstration showing the results of wheat seed disinfection.

A VANILLA PLANTATION

Mexico is one of the leading producing countries in the world of vanilla beans, her principal competitors
being the French and Dutch tropical island possessions.

AGRICULTURAL COOPERATION IN THE AMERICAS 285

Seed of six varieties of wheat grown in the United States was sent
to be planted in Venezuela, and the results obtained were highly
satisfactory. With the seed were sent the necessary data on its culti-
vation and production.

The Division has obtained and sent to Venezuela and Ecuador seed
of several varieties of sugar cane from Porto Rico.

Until recently, the cultivation of soy beans in a certain Peruvian
region had proven practically impossible due to the fact that the seed
employed was not properly inoculated. At the request of the national
government, the Division sent a sufficient amount of eight of the
main soy bean varieties produced in the United States, together with
the necessary cultures for the inoculation of the seed.’ It is expected
that satisfactory results will now be obtained.

Several varieties of grape vines cultivated in the United States were
sent to the National Agricultural Center at San Jose, Costa Rica, to
be planted there. The Director of that institution recently advised
the Union that acclimatization had been successfully accomplished.
The outcome of this experiment will undoubtedly serve to develop
the cultivation of those varieties in Costa Rica.

It should be stated that all the seed, trees, and propagation material
furnished have been certified by the authorities as free from disease
and pests, assurance being thus given that no new infections will be
introduced into the country of destination.

Detailed information on the organization and functions of the
United States Weather Bureau was furnished to the Government of
Colombia, to be used by that Government in the reorganization of its
own bureau. A correspondent in the Department of Bolivar of that
same nation wished to irrigate some rather extensive rice fields with
water from the Sint River. The fields were situated at a level con-
siderably higher than that of the river, 1t being therefore necessary to
raise the water by means of pumps. The correspondent was given
all necessary facts on the various irrigation systems that might be
employed under the existing conditions and on appropriate types of
machinery. The Union was recently advised that work was pro-
ceeding in accordance with the instructions given.

In a section of Costa Rica, the roots of the plants cultivated were
being destroyed by a certain disease. The Division of Agriculture
undertook to have the soil analyzed, and once the microbe responsible

1 The successful growth of every leguminous plant is dependent upon certain microscopic bacteria living
on its roots, which draw nitrogen from the air and store it in nodules on the plant roots for the use of the
plant. Inoculation, in connection with legumes, means supplying the soil with the type of bacteria neces
sary to aid the developrrent of the particular kind of plant.

There are two ways of making the inoculation: 1, by inoculating the soil with soil taken from a field in
which the legume had been growing, and 2, by usingapure culture. The pure culture 1s obtained by using
a liquid medium into which the desired bacteria have been introduced and are growing. This culture is
mixed with finely sifted soil and broadcast on the field, or, better still, the seed to be inoculated is placed
in a pail or tub, the culture poured over it, and the whole stirred until each seed is thoroughly coated with
the culture.—EDIToR.

FIELD OF SELECTED SOYBEANS CULTIVATED IN ROWS FOR PRODUCING SEEDS

This important cover crop is rapidly increasing its popularity in Latin America, having demonstrated its
value in the protection, conservation, and rebuilding of scil.

Courtesy of the United States Department of Agriculture

A GOOD STAND OF BARLEY

A new type of barley, now being cultivated experimentally in Peru, is one of the grains recently introduced
into Latin America from the United States. One ofits chief advantages is its early maturity in three and
a half months.

AGRICULTURAL COOPERATION IN THE AMERICAS 287

for the damage was identified, the necessary data for its destruction
were communicated to the interested persons.

The Government of Venezuela desired information concerning
methods for the importation and acclimatization of fine breeds of
cattle. This advice was supplied and the Government placed in con-
tact with some of the important breeders in the United States.

From time to time, also, information on some phase of Latin
American agriculture is obtained for individuals or officials in the
United States. Not long ago the Division secured from various Latin
American countries detailed information on the subject of applied
entomology as practiced in each of those countries; this was in
answer to a request from an eminent entomologist of the United
States Department of Agriculture who wished to incorporate the
information in his projected world history of applied entomology.
Since the author had previously had difficulty in getting information,
the Division derived a particular satisfaction from its efforts in helping
to secure and translate the needed data, later incorporated in the
above-mentioned book.

Many persons interested in studying agricultural matters in various
sections of the Continent have requested the assistance of the Division
of Agricultural Cooperation of the Pan American Union. Among
them, the following may be mentioned: Agricultural experts from the
United States who have visited or intend to visit certain Latin
American countries; special groups or delegations from various parts
of Latin America, interested in studying agricultural matters in the
United States; and Latin American students coming to the United
States.

In conclusion, it may be said that agricultural cooperation is now
established in America upon a firm basis, and that it is highly bene-
ficial to all the nations of the Continent. The great progress made
in these activities in the comparatively short time that has elapsed
since their inception shows how much may be accomplished in the
future if there is no decline in the spirit of cooperation and mutual
aid in agricultural matters now existing throughout Pan America.

If the Division of Agricultural Cooperation of the Pan American
Union is to intensify its work, it must enjoy as it has in the past, or
in an even greater degree if possible, the approval and the assistance
of all the Pan American agricultural organizations and of the indi-
viduals established in the twenty-one American Republics who take
an interest in agriculture. It is among those organizations and those
individuals, and for their profit, that agricultural cooperation exists,
and if the Pan American Union is to keep up its work of coordination
and development the growth of this spirit of cooperation must
continue.

PAN AMERICAN UNION NOTES

THE GOVERNING BOARD

Homage to Washington.—The Governing Board met in special ses-
sion on the morning of February 22 to commemorate the two
hundredth anniversary of the birth of Washington. The session
was held in the Hall of the Americas of the Pan American Union.

The vice chairman of the board, Hon. Orestes Ferrara, Ambassador
of Cuba, made the address on behalf of his colleagues, to which the
Secretary of State, Hon. Henry L. Stimson, chairman of the board,
responded on behalf of the Government of the United States. Follow-
ing the addresses a wreath was placed at the bust of Washington.

As a part of the exercises the Marine Band orchestra played a
program of music. The ceremonies were broadcast over nation-wide
chains throughout the United States and were also sent by short-wave
to all the other countries of the American Continent.

A complete account of this session will be given in a future issue of
the BuLLETIN which will commemorate the bicentenary of the birth
of Washington.

COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY NOTES

Reading list on inter-American relations —The Library has just com-
pleted Number Seven of its Bibliographic Series under the title Selected
list of books and magazine articles on inter-American relations, limited
to books and magazine articles that should be readily available in
any large library. The list is designed to be an aid to schools, women’s
clubs, travelers, students, and authors in the United States who desire
to read more extensively on the relations between the Americas than
may be done by consulting only one or two books on the subject.
Copies are distributed gratis.

288

PAN AMERICAN UNION NOTES 289

Mexican art magazine.—The first issue of Nuestro México, pub-
lished for March, 1932, has reached the Library. This new monthly
magazine appears under the directorship of Armando Vargas de la
Maza, Avenida Juarez No. 88, Mexico City, and is a fine example of
the printing art in that city. Comprising eighty pages, 9 by 124
inches in size, it is profusely illustrated, and includes seven color plates.
Reproductions of paintings by Diego Rivera, Montenegro, Leal, and
of many photographs and drawings portraying Mexican life make this
an outstanding art magazine. The articles are from the pens of
Alfonso Toro, José Martinez Sotomayor, Baltazar Izaguirre Rojo,
Enrique Fernandez Ledesma, and others. The magazine is priced
in the United States at 50 cents per copy.

Accessions.—Among the 150 accessions during the past month was
a collection of 10 pamphlets by Dr. Antonio Serrano of the Normal
School of Parana, Argentina, on the natural history, archaeology and
ethnology of that country, and six pamphiets by Dr. Anibal Matrtua,
of Peru, on economic and political affairs in that republic. Some
other publications received during the past month are as follows:

Directorio industrial y comercial. Publicado por Luis O. Peynado. Santo
Domingo, Imprenta de J. R. Vda. Garcia, 552 p. 8°.

La crise de la codification et la doctrine argentine de droit international. Por
Carlos Saavedra Lamas. [Vol.] 1-2. Paris, Les Editions Internationales, 1931.
2 vols.

Congreso nacional de ingenieria. Organizado por la Asociacién Politécnica del
Uruguay y patrocinado por la Comisién Nacional del Centenario. 14-21 de
Marzo de 1931, Montevideo. Montevideo, Lit. y Imp. del Comercio, 1931.
463 p. illus. 4°.

Greater America, an interpretation of Latin America in relation to Anglo-Saxon
America. By Wallace Thompson. New York, E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc. 1932.
279 p. 8°.

Derecho internacional publico (Curso universitario). Por Alberto Ulloa. . .
Tomo 2°. Lima, Talleres Graficos Sanmarti y Cia., 1929. 466 p. 8&e.

Panorama de la literatura chilena durante el siglo XX. Por ‘‘ Alone.” Santiago
de Chile, Editorial Nascimento, 1931. 181 p. 12°.

Crénicas de Valparaiso. Por Benjamin Vicufia Mackenna. Valparaiso,
Imprenta Victoria, 193i. 239 p. i2¢.

International legislation. A collection of the texts of multipartite international
instruments of general interest beginning with the covenant of the League of
Nations. Edited by Manley O. Hudson. Vol. 1, 1919-1931. Vol. 2, 1922-1924.
Washington, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1931. 2 vols.

In addition to the magazine Nuestro Mézico mentioned elsewhere
the library has received for the first time the following periodicals:

Architectura e Construccées (Orgéo official do Instituto Paulista de Architectos),
Saomeaulo. brasil, “(M.)) “VWol 2, No: 23, Novembro, 1931. 30) p: illus:
7% x 10% inches.

107586—32— Bull. 4——5

9290) . THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Revista da Academia Sergipana de Letras, Rua de Pacatuba, N. 110, Aracaji,
Sergipe, Brasil. (M.) Anno 1, No. 1. Novembro, 1931. 100 p. illus.
6 x 9 inches.

Revista Postal (Organo oficial del Correo Nacional de El Salvador, C. A.), San
Salvador. (M.) Ano 1, No. 1. Julio, 1931. 40 p. illus. 8% x 12 inches.

Revista del Distrito Nacional (Organo del Comité Ejecutivo del Distrito Nacional,
para dar a conocer la labor desu administracién). Managua, Nicaragua. Afnol,
No. 1. Diciembre 30, 19380. 71 p. 6 x 814 inches.

Universidad (Publicado por el Departamento de Extensién Cultural de la Uni-
versidad Mayor de San Marcos), Lima, Peru. (M.) Afio 1, No. 1. Septiem-
bre, 1931. 16p. illus. 10x 14 inches.

Revista Postal de Guatemala (Organo del Servicio de Correos, Ministerio de Fo-
mento). Guatemala. (M.) Afio 3, No. 26. Octubre de 19381. 12 p. 7% x
10% inches.

Ordo (Revista de Derecho, Jurisprudencia y Legislacién). Maracaibo, Vene-
zuela. (M.) Tomo 1, No. 1. Enero 31, 1932. 32 p. 6x 9 inches.

Revista Postal y Telegrafica Boliviana (Organo oficial de la Direccién General),
La Paz, Bolivia. (M.) Ano 1, No. 1. Enero, 1932. 64 p. illus 74x 10
inches.

Santo Domingo y Puerto Rico (Quincenario ilustrado). San Juan, Puerto Rico.
Afio 1, No.9. Febrero 15, 1932. 16p. illus. 8% x 11% inches.

Resumen (Un periédico diferente—publicado por la Compania Editora “La
Razon’’, 8. A.). México, D. F. Tomo 3°, No. 25. Noviembre 4, 1981. 48 p.
illus. 8 15 x 11 inches.

PAN AMERICAN PROGRESS

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE

The Montevideo Economic Conference—At the invitation of His
Excellency, Dr. Gabriel Terra, President of Uruauay, delegates from
ARGENTINA and Brazit met at Montevideo on December 15, 1931,
to discuss bilateral trade agreements concerning the interchange of
products between those two countries and Urucuay and to study the
possibility of an agreement between the three countries for joint
action in the promotion of their meat packing industry.

At the inaugural session of the conference, after formally welcoming
the delegates, President Terra outlined in general the purposes of the
meeting. ‘‘This conference,” he said, “has no other aim than to
secure for the economic life of our people the practical application of
the principles of cooperation. . . . The idea and the purpose are not
extraneous or novel, but constitute the very essence of economic Pan
Americanism. ... As a representative of my country to the
Washington financial congress J had the honor of . . . suggesting the
advisability of the American Republics granting reciprocal custom
facilities and adopting other measures tending to facilitate the export
of surplus production. This measure, Pan American customs
reciprocity in defense of our industries, I said then, was necessary as
the first and most logical step in continental economic policy in
order to correct the evils of exaggerated nationalism. ... The
truth of this statement remains unaltered. The economic health of
these countries depends on the maintenance and progressive develop-
ment of our industries.”’

In advocating a freer interchange between Argentina, Brazil, and
Uruguay President Terra recalled the example of the United States,
which he believes owes its greatness to free trade among the States.
He also believes that these nations should unite in the defense of their
export trade in products common to all three ‘not to establish unjust
impositions, but in order to obtain equitable compensation for the
labor which produces these goods, and thus promote the welfare of the
rural workers, who to-day do not earn enough to establish homes and
support their families.”

President Terra added that no sentiment of hostility toward other
continents should be inferred from the actions of the conference.
‘‘We are persuaded,” he said, ‘‘that the best manner to serve the

291

292 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

interests of the international community consists in seeking the highest
possible development of each nation, so that all will be in a position to
offer the largest possible contribution to human civilization.
Interdependence will always exist, and it can be only helpful and
beneficial to Europe if these new countries enlarge their consuming
power by increasing their prosperity. European countries are our
best customers. We can not pretend to sell them our products with-
out buying from them.”

The President emphasized the fact that the limitation of the
conference to Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay in no way meant lack
of confidence in the more general idea of Pan Americanism. The
Planet proposal ! he believes was probably not carried through because
it sought to include too great an area. ‘“‘Inside the community of
continental interests,” he explained, ‘‘ there exist particular or regional
problems, determined by certain economic characteristics or geo-
graphical positions. The solution of these problems can only facilitate
the wider task of including under the same principles all the republics
of America.”

The conference in Montevideo was organized into three commis-
sions: One under the chairmanship of Dr. Joaquim Eulalio Nasci-
mento Silva, of Brazil, to study the bases for a trade agreement be-
tween Uruguay and Brazil; another headed by Dr. Carlos M. Mayer,
of Argentina, to discuss the removal of barriers in trade between that
country and Uruguay; and a third, of which Dr. Horacio N. Bruz-
zone, of Argentina, and Dr. Francisco Rodolpho Simch, of Brazil,
were chairman and vice chairman respectively, to study the possibili-
ties for joint action by the three countries in the promotion of their
meat industry. The agenda of the latter commission contained four
principal topics: The opening of new markets and the recovery of
lost ones, the establishment of State-owned packing houses to con-
trol prices, joint advertising in consuming countries, and the creation

1 On June 23, 1931, Sefor Antonio Planet, then Minister of Foreign Affairs of Chile, made a statement
urging the Latin American nations to call a conference to combat economic depression, take up the idea ofa
customs union, move to aid the unemployed, and formulate a joint policy on the limitation of armaments.
In contrast to Sefior Planet’s proposal of a Latin American customs union, proposals for more restricted
economie unions, of varying groups of nations in the southern continent, have for several years been ad-
vanced by prominent South American economists.

Sefior Alejandro E. Bunge, of Argentina, advocates the formation of a customs union between Argentina,
Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay. To carry this plan into effect he suggests that a convention con-
taining the following features be adopted at a conference attended by representatives of the five countries
eoncerned: 1.—A single customs tariff for the five nations among themselves with respect to outside coun-
tries; 2—A reduction of 20 per cent annually in customs duties among the five nations, which would thus
disappear in four years; 3.—A duration for the customs convention of 20 years, with the possibility of its
renewal. In Chile, Sefior Guillermo Subereaseaux sponsors an economic union between Bolivia, Chile,
and Peru, with the object of making more effective the commercial relations uniting those nations, and
Seficr Eliodoro Yanez, also of Chile, recommends in addition to a single tariff with respect to outside coun-
tries and free trade with one another, the formation of a monetary union to eliminate the problems of ex-
change between the countries constituting the customs union.

yk ed ieee Dn i

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 293

of a permanent commission for the protection of the industry. On
December 30 the delegates met to sign an agreement recommending
to their governments that they organize strict control of the meat-
packing business in each republic, such control to serve as the possible
basis of future joint action through a permanent commission composed
of two delegates from each of the three countries. The conference con-
sidered the organization of this commission an urgent matter and
recommended that the respective Governments organize it at their
earliest convenience.

The Brazilian and Uruguayan delegations unanimously approved
suggestions for a commercial treaty between the two countries which
have already been submitted to the respective governments. The
proposed treaty is: of a reciprocal nature but it is understood to con-
tain a most-favored-nation clause. Several of its clauses aim to facili-
tate the handling of transit trade. By one of them Uruguay is to
grant free warehousing for Brazilian goods in transit, this privilege
to continue for one year after the signing of the treaty. Uruguay is
to grant the minimum rate for loading and unloading Brazilian
goods in the Port of Montevideo, and merchandise or products from
the Brazilian state of Matto Grosso sent down the Paran4-Paraguay
River system and consigned to Brazilian Atlantic ports will be con-
sidered as goods in transit. Reciprocal treatment is to be accorded
vessels of both nations.

The treaty also proposes the establishment as an experiment of
reciprocal duty-free importation of certain products, the list of which
includes manioc meal; livestock for breeding purposes; farm prod-
ucts such as chickens and other fowls, cheese, eggs, milk, etc.; maize,
linseed, oats, barley; oleaginous seeds; and plants and leaves for col-
oring and dyeing. In addition to the foregoing free list, it is suggested
that the following quotas be admitted free of duty when entering
either country across the land frontier only, which limits the quotas,
as far as Brazil is concerned, to the State of Rio Grande do Sul:
10,000 metric tons of wheat or its equivalent, 7,000 metric tons of
flour; 4,000 metric tons of potatoes; 8,000 tons of Brazilian pine
boards and planks; 200,000 head of cattle for fattening or slaugh-
termg. Brazil will admit free of duty 4,000 metric tons of jerked
beef when destined for Pernambuco or ports north of there. This
concession it is said would provide a market for about 40,000 head
of Uruguayan cattle per annum. It is proposed that the list of arti-
cles on the free list and on the quota list be revised annually by a
jot commission. The appointment of three other permanent joint
commissions is recommended as follows:

A railway commission to recommend freight reductions or adjust-
ments designed to increase the rail traffic between the two countries;

294 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

a commission of veterinarians to study especially the diseases of
cattle in the region of the Brazilian-Uruguayan frontier and to recom-
mend sanitary measures; and a commission for the suppression of
smuggling.

Brazil exports to Uruguay yerba maté, cattle, coffee, tobacco,
bananas, rice, pine wood, manioc meal, and cacao and in return
receives principally Uruguayan wheat and wheat flour, jerked beef,
and live cattle. The value of this trade, according to Uruguayan
statistics, is shown in the following table:

Foreign trade of Uruguay with Brazil

Imports: | Pet con Exports | a cout
Year (tariff 1, of vote (realy of tota

values) ROAD Se values) DADE Ne

imports exports

Pesos ? Pesos

1.9 2G eS Bieter Les Nps eae Nn ee ey Aer eye ee a ee ite Re 3, 848, 421 5.18 | 4,360,995 4. 62
NOD S223 SOS ee ee Se ea So Ss SW eee 4,427,172 | 5. 41 4, 454, 009 4.62
{OP aa EE MOS Gn OR ora eo MELE TR ie whe oe 4, 727,070 | 5.03 | 4, 706, 517 4. 65
TR Ne Se ee eS ce Se eS eee ara Sie nero Bene 4, 618, 521 | 4.87 | 2,763, 650 2.98
1930 eee ee BS nay i Ie ek Efe ee a eee ve 7,474, 917 | 8.37 | 3,252, 777 3022
193" CantianyatOlsep tem bel) =e eee 5, 543, 545 8. 55 614, 661 1.06

1 According to Brazilian statistics Uruguay is credited with a much higher value of imports of Brazilian
merchandise than is shown in the Uruguayan trade figures. Since the ultimate destination of merchandise
exported is not always ascertainable, the destination of Brazilian exports is given as that specified in the
manifests of ocean-going vessels cleared at Brazilian ports. Thus merchandise exported from the States of
Matto Grosso and Rio Grande do Sul to be reshipped from Montevideo to European and other ports is
credited to Uruguay.

2 The Uruguayan gold peso at par is worth $1.04in U.S. currency. Average exchange rate: In 1926, $1.014;
in 1927, $1.013; in 1928, $1.026; in 1929, $0. 986; in 1930, $0.858, and in 1931, $0.554.

The Argentine-Uruguayan commission worked on a commercial
treaty providing for a reduction of one-half of the Uruguayan import
duty on Argentine fruit in exchange for the duty-free entry into Argen-
tina of Uruguayan cattle; means to prevent smuggling; and Argentine
import duty concessions on Uruguayan stone, flowers, and fish in
return for Uruguayan duty reductions on Argentine newspapers and
magazines. No definite agreement had been reached between the
Argentine and Uruguayan delegates when the Argentine delegates
returned to Buenos Aires at the end of December; on February 1,
1932, negotiations were resumed for a time but no definite results have
as yet been announced.

The trade of Uruguay with Argentina consists principally in an
interchange of Argentine potatoes, cattle, quebracho extract, charcoal,
and corn for Uruguayan stone, sand, and cattle. The value of
Uruguay’s foreign trade with Argentina during the last six years
(according to Uruguayan statistics) and the percentage that this
interchange represents in the total foreign trade of Uruguay is shown
by the table appended below. As in the case of Uruguay’s foreign
trade with Brazil, Uruguayan and Argentine trade figures are not
comparable. The statistical reports of the former country show

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 295

higher exports than those credited to her in the reports of the latter,
a large number of “ to order’’ shipments apparently being included in
the Uruguayan trade figures as exports to Argentina.

Foreign trade of Uruguay with Argentina

Imports ae sony Exports Bey aoe
Year (tariff _ Os WON (real _ of tota

values) |Utuguayan| vaines) |Utuguayan

imports exports

Pesos Pesos

1923. «aes A ee ee eee 7, 238, 422 9.76 | 8, 640, 582 9.16
O27... ee eee ee ee 9, 140, 736 11.17 | 12, 679, 830 | 13.15
[1G 25 eu tee pice Ra eg Fo Ee le ee 8, 032, 070 8. 54 | 16, 610, 137 | 16. 41
in) 2 lee NS ie Os te eS Bete eS 7, 752, 900 8.18 | 11, 611, 792 12. 51
[193 0 aR eyes Pie ee Se ER ee oe | 8, 757, 281 9.80 | 12, 452, 121 12. 34
NOsie GantiaryetOMSe ptember) = 22-82-28 = ae ee ee | 7, 722, 266 11. 91 7, 590, 744 iB}, 12

Yerba Maté Conference.—Before the return of the Argentine dele-
gates to Montevideo, another trade parley was opened in Buenos
Aires on January 25, 1932, where at the invitation of the Government
of ARGENTINA delegates of Brazin and PaAraaguay met to discuss the
yerba maté question. To protect local producers an Argentine decree,
issued on March 14, 1931, restricted the importation of yerba maté
to 60,000 metric tons per annum in allotments of 5,000 tons per
month, and a measure enacted on August 11 of the same year estab-
lished certain sanitary regulations in regard to the importation of
this product. Yerba maté is one of the principal items in the trade
of Brazil and Paraguay with Argentina, and the Argentine restric-
tions against this commodity led to Brazilian restrictions against
Argentine wheat and flour. The object of the meeting was to examine
the point of view of the three countries in respect to this matter
and through a series of informal conversations open the way for a
friendly agreement.

The views of the Brazilian and Paraguayan delegations were sum-
marized in two separate statements presented to the conference.
After the two delegations had an opportunity to examine and discuss
each other’s proposals, the statements were studied by the Argentine
delegation which, with the aid of an advisory committee composed of
representatives of the leading commercial and agricultural associa-
tions interested in the yerba maté trade, prepared a statement which
was presented to the Brazilian and Paraguavei delegates at the clos-
ing session of the conference on February 6, 1932. This statement
contains the measures which the Argentine delegation recommends
to the Ministry of Agriculture, so that this department in coopera-
tion with the Ministries of Finance and Foreign Affairs may issue the
necessary regulations to carry them into effect. The Argentine dele-
gation recommends the abrogation of the system of import quotas

296 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

established by the decree issued on March 14, 1931, in lieu of which
it proposes an increase of the existing import duties on this com-
modity, which it considers low, and the establishment of an internal
tax on all yerba maté which does not contain a certain percentage of
the locally grown product. The statement that the duties ‘‘should
be increased according to a plan of reciprocity which will permit
their graduation”’ has been interpreted to mean that the rates will
be fixed on a cost-of-production basis. The Argentine delegation is
in favor of keeping in force the sanitary regulations instituted by the
decree issued on August 11, 1931.

Other Economic Conferences.—At the suggestion of the Minister of
Paraguay in Buenos Aires, His Excellency Dr. Vicente Rivarola,
delegates of ARGENTINA and Paraguay met at the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs in Buenos Aires on February 17, 1932, to inaugurate a
conference which is to study the commercial interchange between
these two countries. Sefores Alejandro EK. Bunge, Alfredo Lucadamo,
Luis Colombo, Pablo Della Costa, Ernesto Aguirre, Javier Padilla,
and Isidoro Ruiz Moreno represent Argentina, the Paraguayan dele-
gation being composed of the Minister in Buenos Aires, and Sefiores
Manuel Benitez, Juan B. Gaona, Alberto de los Rios, and Ismael
Candia. <A decree issued by the Argentine Government on February
19 also appoints a commission which will meet with a delegation from
Boxivia to study measures for the promotion of their reciprocal
trade.

IMMIGRATION RESTRICTIONS

Considering the necessity for doing everything possible to prevent
an increase in the ranks of the unemployed, several of the Carib-
bean countries have recently passed legislation further restricting
immigration.

On November 30, 1931, a decree was issued by Dr. Ricardo J.
Alfaro, First Designate in charge of the national executive power of
Panama, prohibiting the entrance of all immigrants not traveling
first class. All persons traveling first class must have their passports
visaed by a Panamanian consul, furnish proof that they are able to
support themselves and any dependents in their company, and have
at least 500 balboas if they are traveling alone and an additional 250
balboas for each person accompanying them. Persons passing
through Panama will be required to surrender their passports to the
immigration authorities in exchange for an identification card for
use while they are in the country; the passport will be returned when

IMMIGRATION RESTRICTIONS 297

they are ready to proceed on their journey. These provisions apply
to persons intending to remain longer than 30 days.

Exception will be made, however, in the case of persons traveling
on scientific missions, members of theatrical troupes having duly
authorized permits, officials of foreign governments, employees of the
Panama Railway, patients coming for treatment in Panamanian
hospitals, and students whose purpose is attested by the proper
documents. Persons who are under contract for professional services
with firms within the country and whose entrance meets the approval
of the Department of Foreign Relations, wives, and minor children.
of persons who are already resident in the country and can prove
their ability to maintain them, and tourists continuing on the same
ship or having their return tickets are likewise exempted from the
provisions of the decree.

The expense involved in the detention and return of persons not
fulfilling the requirements of the decree shall be met by the steamship
company which gives them passage to Panama.

These regulations became effective with their promulgation and
will remain in force as long as present economic conditions continue
to prevail.

The quota system of immigration was introduced into CoLoMBIA
on December 18, 1931, when President Olaya Herrera issued a decree
placing on a quota basis the immigration of all persons of Bulgarian,
Chinese, Greek, Hindu, Libanese, Lithuanian, Palestinian, Rumanian,
Russian, Syrian, Turkish, and Yugoslavie origin. Diplomatic and
consular representatives of Colombia may visa passports of persons
of these nationalities only when authorized by the Ministry of Foreign
Relations. During the year 1932, the quota for immigrants from
these countries will be limited to 10 each. Persons of these nationali-
ties who have been residents of Colombia for at least three years and
have been away from the country not more than a year and the
parents, children, husband or wife of such persons resident in Colom-
bia will not be subject to the quota law. In the case of the entrance
of members of the family, however, it must be proved to the satis-
faction of the Ministry of Foreign Relations that the member of the
family already resident in the country will be able to support them.

According to a law passed by the Congress of the Dominican
REFUBLIC on January 26, 1932, all immigrants, irrespective of their
occupation, must secure permission from the Department of the
Interior, Police, War, and Marine before they can enter the country.
Diplomatic or consular representatives of foreign Governments,
university graduates, and tourists who expect to remain in the coun-
try not more than 30 days will, however, be exempt from compliance
with the provisions of the law.

298 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Persons of the Mongolian race or natives of Africa other than those
of the Caucasian race will be subject to the payment of 300 pesos for
permission to enter the Republic and 100 pesos to remain in the
Republic. For other immigrants the charge for the entrance permit
will be 6 pesos and that for their stay in the country will be 6 pesos for
each year that they remain.

Persons who enter the Republic to engage in commercial activities
and do not remain longer than 30 days will not be subject to the
immigration law nor will they be obliged to meet the other specified
requirements.

Permits for entering the country will be valid for a year. Non-
citizens once in the country but away at the time of the passage
of the law will be required to secure an entrance permit before they
return. Those who have established a legitimate business in the
Republic and made their residence there during the past two years
will be exempt from these provisions.

SOCIAL WELFARE

New public health services and institutions —The launching of health
and sanitation campaigns, the organization of public welfare societies,
and the opening of further child welfare services all formed an impor-
tant and absorbing chapter in the record of social welfare activities
in Latin America during the past few months. GuaTremaLa, Hon-
puras, Mexico, and Paraauay marshaled their public health services
in new combat against disease; CHitn and Mexico reported the
organization of important welfare associations; public and private
agencies in Cusa, Mexico, and Prrv announced the opening of addi-
tional services for the protection of the child and from the Dominican
REPUBLIC came news of the completion of a fine, well-equipped hospital
building.

Two important phases of the work planned by the public health
service of Guatemala for the present year are the extension of the
work of the public health units and the waging of an intensive cam-
paign against malaria. Public health units have already been estab-
lished in the cities of Retalhuleu, Mazatenango, San Jose, Nueva
Santa Rosa, and Puerto Barrios, and in view of the success obtained
it has been decided to spread the service to other cities. The new
units are expected to be similar in organization to those already
formed and will probably include visiting nurses. The antimalaria
campaign will center in the departments of Santa Rosa, Jalapa, and
Zacapa; it will be in charge of public health brigades under the direc-
tion of the departmental engineering commissioner. One of the first

SOCIAL WELFARE 299

tasks of the brigades will be to drain the swamps which afford a breed-
ing place for mosquitos.

Considerable progress in the adoption of measures obliging persons
engaged in the sale of food or beverages to have health certificates was
reported during February by the Bureau of Public Health of Mexico.
The regulation is now being strictly enforced in Monterrey, Torre6én,
and Saltillo, as well as the Federal District, and action will be taken
by the Bureau to extend the benefits of the ruling to all parts of the
Republic.

The Bureau of Public Health of Asuncion, Paraguay, is under-
taking a campaign to rid the city of rats. The plan outlined by the
health office has received the official approval of the mayor and it is
hoped that there will be no delay in the beginning of actual work.
In order to arouse the interest of the public and enlist its cooperation,
three or more weeks will be set aside each year when efforts for the
extermination of the rodents will be intensified. On these occasions
everyone will be requested to assist by clearing away waste and
taking specific steps for the extermination of the pest. Regularly,
such activities will be carried on by a special corps of workers detailed
from the National Bureaus of Hygiene and Public Welfare. The
cooperation of the press is expected and much printed matter will
also be distributed by the officials in charge.

Recognizing the importance of the work being done in Honptras
for the betterment of social conditions by the leagues against alcohol-
ism the Government has passed a resolution according them official
status. The present action on the part of the President will undoubt-
edly greatly facilitate their work and since they have already been
closely cooperating with the Government in its social welfare activi-
ties, it gives them the position which they justly deserve.

Unusual interest was manifest in the organization of the National
Association of Public Welfare of Cu1LE on October 16, 1931. Those
present at the inaugural session included professors from the School of
Medicine, the President of the National Child Welfare Committee,
the Director of the School of Social Service, the Director of the School
of Public Health Nurses, the directors of the different public welfare
institutions in Santiago, and public health physicians. The purposes
of the new organization will be to disseminate health information, to
cooperate with national public health organizations, to participate in
international movements for the modernization and improvement of
the construction, administration, and service of hospitals, asylums,
dispensaries, and other similar institutions, to engage in a technical
and administrative survey of the progress and efficiency of social
welfare institutions, and to encourage members to fit themselves for
the better discharge of their profession.

300 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The purpose of the Society of Eugenics, organized in Mexico, is to
assist in the improvement of the race through publicity concerning the
proper care and training of the child. The activities of the society are
divided into two main lines of endeavor, one involving investigation
and the other active social work. A number of lectures on subjects
related to questions under study have already been sponsored by the
society and others are announced for the near future.

During December the National League against Tuberculosis of
Cusa opened a dining room in Habana where children of poverty-
stricken parents registered in the dispensary of the League may secure
free a wholesome noon-day meal. Eighty children were served the
first day the dining room was opened. It is understood that the
League expects to establish another similar restaurant at an early date.

An interesting innovation recently introduced in its child welfare
work by the Bureau of Public Welfare of Mexico is the creation in
the bureau of a section of psychiatry. The work of the new office,
which is in charge of a woman specially trained in universities of the
United States and Europe, will concern itself entirely with a study of
the aptitudes, character, and mentality of the children receiving their
education in the institutions under the direction of the Bureau and
will undoubtedly play an important role in assisting the Bureau to
aid these children in developing along normal and useful lines.
Another new line of work being carried on by the Bureau involves the
application of the knowledge regarding the aptitudes of the children
once they have been determined, and in this particular case concerns
their musical training. A band and orchestra have been formed by
children of musical talent in the public welfare institutions and these
after proper training are presented in public concerts.

The organization of an open-air school in the buildings erected for
the purpose at the Pérez Aranibar Children’s Hospital in Lima,
Perv, has been intrusted to the Society of Public Welfare of the city
by virtue of a recent Government decree. The administration of the
school, whose purpose is to afford a place where undeveloped children
from the public schools may improve their health without being re-
tarded in their studies, will be entirely in charge of the Society. It
will, however, be subject to regulations issued by the Government.
The school will be under the supervision of a physician and all instruc-
tion will be in the open air. The selection of the children for the
school will be made by the school physicians. Not more than 1,000
pupils can be accommodated at one time. Special taxes were set
aside for this purpose, but the decree provides that should their yield
be greater than was expected, all over and above that necessary for
the maintenance of the school shall be applied for the establishment of
school lunch rooms in Lima and the coastal region of the country.

SOCIAL WELFARE | 301

Hospital services in Santo Domingo, Dominican Repustic, have
been greatly improved by the completion and opening of the new
building of the International Hospital during February. Involving an
expenditure of 200,000 pesos, the new 3-story building represents the
best to be had in modern hospital facilities. On the first floor are the
offices of the directors, a dental clinic, general clinic, pharmacy,
kitchen, and laundry; the second floor provides space for the dining
room and offices of the nurses, wards for men and children, a children’s
clinic, laboratory, X-ray room, and operating room. The third floor
is devoted to the women’s wards, private rooms, another operating
room, maternity ward, sterilization room, and nurses’ dormitory.
The roof affords a place for the recreation of convalescents. The
technical direction of the hospital is under a medical council composed
of the heads of the three departments into which its work is divided,
and its general administration has been delegated to an executive
secretary. It is staffed by 5 graduate and 12 student nurses.

Activities of the Red Cross.—While at instant command, ready to
succor the victims of disaster at a moment’s notice, the Red Cross
Societies of Latin America, like those in other parts of the world, do
not confine themselves wholly to such ministrations. Indeed, it is
perhaps in the less spectacular but no less important work of aiding
the needy, treating the sick, training nurses, and disseminating health
information that they render their greatest and most effective service.

In the promotion of hygiene and child welfare throughout the
Republic, the Red Cross of CHIL is greatly assisted by its local
committees, which, as reports from Vallenar, Curico, Los Angeles,
La Union and Calama reveal, are doing a highly important work.
New committees are constantly being created to extend the benefit
of welfare services to other localities; prevailing economic conditions,
with the consequent increase in the number of persons needing aid,
have necessitated a still further expansion of all activities.

During the first six months of 1931, 39,669 feedings were dis-
tributed by the milk station of the Red Cross in Vallenar. This was
an increase of 14,881 over the number distributed during the same
period of the preceding year. The dispensary in that city treated
369 persons and filled 244 prescriptions free of charge during the
six months’ period.

In Curico a milk station and dental clinic have been recently opened
and a considerable quantity of children’s clothing distributed to
mothers registered with the committee. According to available
information, a mothers’ canteen will probably also be opened within
a short time to supplement the work of the milk station.

302 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The committee in Los Angeles reported that 9,236 children had
been treated in its dispensary, 6,040 attended in the dental clinic, and
2,806 prescriptions filled free of charge in the pharmacy during the
15 months this service had been open to the public. In September
the committee moved into new quarters which provide ample space
for all the needs of the work.

One of the most important activities of the committee at La Union
during the past year has been the distribution of clothing and food to
the families suffering need as a result of the widespread unemployment.

The Calama committee recently announced that preparations were
being made for the opening in that city of a dispensary for mothers
and children needing medical care. While the work of the new dis-
pensary will be principally among destitute mothers, supplementing
the treatment available to them in the hospitals, it will also be open
to others and include services for children.

More than 25,000 persons were treated during the year 1931 in the
dispensary of the Women’s Red Cross in Santiago, according to an
announcement made by the press. Prescriptions filled free of charge
totaled over 2,000, and the number of articles of clothing distributed
was also very large. The milk station of the Red Cross was said to
have distributed more than 500,000 quarts of milk to needy mothers,
while through its other services 786 families were given assistance
during the months of October, November, and December alone.

A special dispensary for the prophylaxis and treatment of tubercu-
losis was opened in San José during the latter part of the year 1931
by the Red Cross of Costa Rica. At present this society is making
arrangements for the organization of a national league for the pre-
vention of the disease, an activity in which it has been promised the
full cooperation of the Government.

One of the outstanding features of the work being done in Caracas
by the Red Cross of VENEZUELA is the maintenance of hospital serv-
ice. While this service is open to both adults and children, no pro-
vision has as yet been made for child patients suffering from commu-
nicable diseases, and in the case of adults only those requiring surgical
operations are admitted. All medical care is free; persons undergoing
operations ordinarily pay sufficient to cover the expense incidental
to their operation and a nominal fee for hospitalization, but often in
an emergency case or for poor patients no charge whatever is made.
Free hospital service for children was established during February,
1931. Should an operation be necessary, the charges are made on the
same basis as those for adults, with the exception that in cases where
the treatment covers an unusual length of time no payment is asked.

SOCIAL WELFARE 303

The Red Cross also maintains a dispensary, pharmacy, laboratory,
dental clinic and X-ray service in Caracas. In these, as in the hospi-
tal, the patient is expected to pay only a nominal sum sufficient to
cover the cost of surgical dressing, medicines, and other materials;
poverty-stricken patients are treated free.

During the first six months of 1931, 5,798 visits were made to the
various services in charge of the Red Cross. Treatments numbered
1,858, operations 108, and inoculations 3,648. A total of 5,299 pre-
scriptions was filled in the pharmacy and much important work done
by the dental clinic, which reported 1,488 extractions and 116 fillings.

A short course in nursing was opened by the Red Cross of Paraguay
in its national headquarters in Asuncién on January 20, 1932. The
practice work of the course, which is being offered free of tuition, will
be done in the clinical and military hospitals. The classes are under
the direction of Dr. Jacinto Riera, the secretary general of the Red
Cross, who is also a professor in the School of Nursing of the National

University.

SUBJECT MATTER OF CONSULAR REPORTS

1932. (Foreign commercial interests in Venezuela, and pearl fish-

REPORTS RECEIVED TO MARCH 15, 1932
Subject Date | Author
ARGENTINA
1932 |
Excerpt from report on general conditions prevailing in Argentina, | Jan. 29 | Embassy, Buenos Aires.
Jan. 12 to 23, 1932.
Contemplated road and bridge construction in Argentina___---__-__ Feb. 4 A. M. Warren, consul at
Buenos Aires.
COSTA RICA
Report on annual report of Chamber of Commerce of Costa Rica_-_-| Feb. 10 | David J. D. Myers, con-
sul at San Jose.
ECUADOR
Copy of Boletin General de Estadistica, No. 2, August, 1931__________ Jan. 12 | Legation, Quito.
Excerpt from report on general conditions prevailing in Ecuador | Feb. 1 | Do.
during January, 1932.
EL SALVADOR
Excerpt from miscellaneous notes (The National University) ------- | Feb. 9) A. E. Carleton, consul at
San Salvador.
MEXICO
Work on Nogales highway to be resumed_____----_--_______-_-_-___-_- Feb. 20 | Bartley F. Yost, consul
| at Nogales.
PERU |
Decree-law of Feb. 3, 1932, establishing control over archzological | Feb. 20 | Embassy, Lima.
monuments of Peru.
URUGUAY |
| |
Excerpt from report on general conditions in Uruguay for January, | Feb. 3 | Legation, Montevideo.
1932. |
VENEZUELA |
Excerpt from report on general conditions in Venezuela for January, Feb. 4} Legation, Caracas.

eries of Nueva Sparta and the Peninsula of Araya.)

304

SCOR GDA 06 CGO D THT

ee: | gO
ooh <2 _00"

ai? Bu LLETIN

ae \
a Way \
y il Say | i )
LLL LLL AS ibnny)\
LLLLLEV AK A y)
ia Z

ae nile hi
p gy

THE “SANTA MARIA”

COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIGHTHOUSE
IN THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

1932

NT BOOMONEES ACME

SCHCICCRA WENA RCI TA ORATION AOC HRCI E

Kgs
Ke
Se

GOVERNING-BOARD-OF-THE
PAN-AMERICAN
UNION

Mr. Henry L. Stimson, Chairman

Argentina Sefior Don Fr.irse A. Esprit,
1806 Corcoran Street, Washington, D. C,

Bolivia Senor Don Luts O. ABELLI,
2830 Forty-fourth Street, Washington, D. C.

Snhr. Dr. R. pe Lima £ Sitva,
2437 Fifteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

Sefior Don Oscar BLANCO VIEL,
2154 Florida Avenue, Washington, D. C.
Colombia Sefior Dr. Fasro Lozano,
Hill Building, Washington, D. C.
Costa Rica Sefior Don GuiLLERMo E. GonzALeEz,
3451 Newark Street, Washington, D. C.
Sefior Dr. Jost T. Baron,
2630 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
Dominican Republic. Sefor Don Roperto DrsPRADEL,
Woodward Building, Washington, D. C.

Ecuador Sefor Dr. GonzALo ZALDUMBIDE,
2633 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

El Salvador Sefior Don Roserto D. MELENDEZ,
National Press Building, Washington, D. C. <
Guatemala . Sefior Dr. Apri4n ReEcINos,
1614 Eighteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
M. Dantés BELLEGARDH,
1703 Q Street, Washington, D. C.
Sefior Dr. Catn0 DAvina,
1100 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

Mexico seen Sefior Dr. Jost Manvueu Pura
CASAURANC,
2829 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

Nicaragua Sefior Dr. Luis M. Drsayrtsz,
1711 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C,

Panama Sefior Dr. Horacio F. ALFARo,
1535 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. O. ,

Paraguay Sefior Don Pasto Max. YNsFRAn,
1726 Irving Street, Washington, D. C.

Sefior Don M. pz FREYRE YSANTANDER,
1300 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
United States Mr. Henry L. Stimson,
Department of State, Washington, D. C.
Sefior Don Jos& RicHuineG,
17 Battery Place, New York City.

Venezuela Sefior Dr. Pepro Manus Arcaya,
; 1628 Twenty-first Street, Washington, D. C.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIGHTHOUSE NUMBER

Page
Columbus’s Flagship (from a woodcut published in 1494)____________ (Cover)
Message of Gen. Rafael L. Trujillo, President of the Dominican Republic____ 305
The Monument to the Discoverer of America and Its Significance________ 308

By L. S. Rowe, Ph. D., LL. D., Director General of the Pan American Union.

The Columbus Memorial Lighthouse Architectural Competition: Its History__ 309
By C. Keech Ludewig, Assistant Foreign Trade Adviser, Pan American Union.

The Columbus Memorial Lighthouse Competition: Ceremony of Award of
Prizes; The Opening of the Final Exhibition_________________________ ayail

By Albert Kelsey, F. A. J. A., Technical Adviser to the Permanent Committee of the Govern-
ing Board of the Pan American Union on the Columbus Memorial Lighthouse.

Addresses Delivered at the Ceremony of Award of Prizes________________ 325
I. Address of Horacio Acosto y Lara, President of the Jury of Award.
If. Address of His Excellency Dr. Tulio M. Cestero, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipo-
tentiary of the Dominican Republic on Special Mission before the Government of Brazil.
Jit. Address of His Excellency Senor don Alfonso Reyes, Ambassador of Mexico in Brazil.
IV. Address of Nestor E. de Figueiredo, President of the Brazilian Institute of Architects.

The Columbus Memorial Lighthouse Design. ___________________________ 343
By J. lL. Gleave, A. R. I. B. A., Author of the Design.

The Dominican Republic, Ancient and Modern (Photographs)____-_______- 352

Columbus as Seen by His Contemporaries_____________________________-_ 364

By Dorothy Pletcher Howerth.

ColumibuspDIScomerssHispaniolas 22 = ee ee ee ee 375

From the Journal of Columbus.

(The contents of previous issues of the BULLETIN OF THE PAN AMERICAN UNION
can be fownd in the READERS’ GUIDE 77 your library.)

oouIyoIy ‘eAvOTH “TT ‘f¢ ‘snquinjoH JeqdoystayoO jo
AIOMLOM OY} 0} OI[Gndey URoIUIMO(, OY} UT 49070 [[IM SUONU 94} YOIYA OSNoyIYSI] [eYUSMINUOML 9} 10} UOT{TOduIOD [BUOT{VUIN}UI OY4 UI SIG Pooe|d usisep oy,

HSNOHLADIT TVIMOWAWN SOANOTOO CHL

O8WOd Ivavy—, ASVdE S,ANLVLS AHL G1IYOM V ACVW LSVH Yaad LNOHLIM SNINAS NOHL,,

fa : Pp Ss
Sr aten 10007 MD DSO 22a Ware yy

Vou. LXVI MAY, 1932 No. 5

THE COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIGHTHOUSE

MESSAGE OF GENERAL RAFAEL L. TRUJILLO,
PRESIDENT OF THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

PECULIAR satisfaction is mine on seeing that the momentous

project for the erection of a memorial lighthouse to Columbus

in the capital of the Dominican Republic, the place destined by

Providence to be the cradle of European civilization in the New

World, should have progressed so far toward becoming a glorious
reality.

Now at last our cherished project, sponsored also by the Pan
American Union and the League of Nations, which has recommended
it for world consideration, is about to take form in a marvel of
hallowed stone.

Not only will the lighthouse symbolize the homage paid throughout
the ages to the Great Navigator and stand as the heroic expression
of his brilliant vision and accomplishment, but, more nobly still, it
will be the sign of brotherhood among the nations—the emblem of
an international peace born through the application of the highest of
all laws, the law of love.

How appropriate it was that the plan of the design awarded first
prize in the second stage of the lighthouse competition should be the
Cross, the highest symbol of love, most eloquent expression of Chris-
tian idealism, and purest representation of the closer relations of men
and nations!

Such was the inspired concept of Gleave, the architect, whose skill
has enabled him to envision embodied in everlasting stone that deed
considered by many the greatest episode in history since the advent
of Christianity.

305

306 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

On behalf of the Republic of which I am President, permit me to
express most profound gratitude to all the countries that have thus
far had a part in the erection of the lighthouse and to take this
opportunity of rendering special thanks to the Pan American Union
for its cordial assistance. I venture the hope that every country
which has not yet had a share in rendering homage to Columbus
may join these others so that the monument to his name shall be a
universal tribute to his genius and his deeds.

Because of the extraordinary influence which the discovery of
America has had on the progress of humanity, Columbus, aided by
the noble and heroic Spanish nation, may be considered one of the
greatest instruments for the achievement of international good will.
It is therefore to be hoped that the rays from the lighthouse erected
to his memory shall be like a banner of love under which all the
peoples of the earth may partake of the sacrament of peace.

= ee
GOsis aLIBERM,

.
HIS EXCELLENCY GENERAL RAFAEL L. TRUJILLO

President of the Dominican Republic and enthusiastic supporter of the plan for erecting a monu-
mental lighthouse to the memory of Columbus.

THE MONUMENT TO THE DISCOVERIES
OF AMERICA AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE

By L. S. Rows, Ph. D., LL. D.,

Director General of the Pan American Union

HE plan for the erection of a continental memorial to the Great
Discoverer is one that is certain to kindle the imagination of all the
nations of this continent.

Warmly approved by the Fifth International Conference of Amer-
ican States held at Santiago, Chile, and by the Sixth Conference held
at Habana, the project may be said to have the united support of the
nations of America. The resolution adopted by the Assembly of the
League of Nations carries this approval one step further by giving to
the project world-wide support.

Every one interested in this great memorial owes a debt of gratitude
to the Government of the Dominican Republic, which at considerable
sacrifice has defrayed all the preliminary expenses. This has involved
in the first place a world-wide competition of architects whose projects
were exhibited at Madrid in April, 1929, and subsequently at Rome.
The international jury which viewed this exhibit selected the 10 best
designs, and the architects thus selected entered upon the second
competition. The designs submitted in this competition were
exhibited at Rio de Janeiro in October, 1931. The international jury
awarded the first prize to Mr. J. L.. Gleave, of Manchester, England.
The premiated design is in every respect worthy of its great purpose.

Now that all the preliminary steps have been taken, the time has
arrived for the assembling of funds necessary for the construction of
the lighthouse. The Government of the Dominican Republic has
generously set aside a magnificent park, and it is confidently expected
that not only the Governments of the American Republics will make
their contribution but that popular subscriptions from every part of
the world will also be forthcoming.

The memorial, in addition to its great monumental significance, will
also serve a highly useful purpose as a beacon to navigators by sea
and by air. The Dominican Republic has become a great cross-roads
of aerial navigation, and a beacon such as that which the Columbus
Memorial Lighthouse will afford will mean much to the safety of
travel.

308

THE COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIGHTHOUSE
ARCHITECTURAL COMPETITION

iS STORY

By C. Kercu Luprwica

Assistant Foreign Trade Adviser, Pan American Union

XACTLY 360 years after Columbus sighted the lands of the New
World, which he took to be the western coast of the Indies, there
appeared in print for the first time the suggestion that the achieve-
ment of the Great Navigator be commemorated in the form of a last-
ing monument in Santo Domingo, the first permanent settlement of
Old World inhabitants in the Western Hemisphere, on the shores of
the island known to the world as Santo Domingo or Haiti and to
Columbus as ‘‘La Espafiola.”’
The following is an excerpt from the History of Santo Domingo
written by Antonio del Monte y Tejada, a son of Santo Domingo, and
published in 1852:

The time has arrived with this Era of Enlightenment, the nineteenth century,
when the verdict of posterity should be anticipated and proclaimed. This
verdict must be as noble, generous, memorable, and eternal as his deeds. Let all
America proclaim it in unison, and let her acknowledge by all means and by every
manner that the honor of the Discovery belongs to Columbus; that to him, as the
initiator of such great exploits, are due the many discoveries that have been
made by others to this day; that all the influence exerted by this inestimable act
on the history of civilization is his because of the revolution that it effected in
the sciences and in the spirit of modern nations; that without exception all nations
who have possessions in America owe him a debt of gratitude because he was the
instrument chosen by the Divine Providence to help them to achieve such posses-
sions and the happiness that it had prepared, in the course of time, for their
subjects in this hemisphere; and in order that this acknowledgment may be
worthy of the New World let us erect in the most visible and notable place in
America, in a central point and where it may be visited by travelers as they
approach her shores, the statue that his greatness and remembrance demand. I
am daring enough to designate as such a place, Cape Isabela on the island His-
paniola, because there the first city in America was founded. Let this statue be
a Colossus like that of Rhodes, and let it be designed by the best sculptor available
and paid with funds raised by popular subscriptions in all the cities of Europe and
America; and let this statue have its arms extended and pointing to the one and
the other American Continents. In order that this symbol may carry within
itself all the attributes of perpetuity, let there be established in it a lighthouse so
travelers from the Old and New Worlds may look, full of gratitude and emotion,
toward that venerable image when they sight the first land from the ocean. If
the descendants of the illustrious House of Veragua feel that to them belongs the

309

4
<<
Re

wo
* PONEL AKER
RGR SG

MONUMENT TO CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS

This imposing monument of marble and bronze in the nave of the cathedral at Santo Domingo was
dedicated December 6, 1896, the four hundred and fourth anniversary of the discovery of ‘‘ La Espamiola’’
by Columbus. Plans provide for the removal of this monument to a chapel contained within the pro-
posed Memorial Lighthouse.

THE LIGHTHOUSE ARCHITECTURAL COMPETITION 311

right to promote this act of recognition to the greatness of Columbus, no one is
better able than they are to see that the memorial is worthy of the Great Navi-
gator, and that it may serve posterity as a beacon of light and enlightenment in
the dark night of the Ages.

It will be noted that the suggested site of the memorial is Cape
Isabela, and that the first suggestion for a memorial was that it take
the form of a lighthouse.

Not until 1880, under the provisional presidency of Gen. Gregorio
Luperén, did the project again receive public mention—this time of
an official character. In that year General Luperén issued a decree
calling upon all the nations of the Americas, upon Spain, Italy, and
all other nations of Europe to cooperate in the erection of a monu-
ment. The decree contained comprehensive plans for the formation
of a committee composed of the diplomatic and consular corps in
Santo Domingo to receive contributions from the various Govern-
ments, and in collaboration with the Government of the Dominican
Republic to see that the project was carried to a successful completion.

The decree, however, failed to provide the spark to touch off the
imagination of the world. Again in 1887 the idea was revived, and
there stands to-day in the Plaza de Colén, in Santo Domingo, a statue
to the Discoverer, which was placed there in that year as a result of
the labors of the committee which had been formed. This was far
from sufficient, however. The magnitude of the achievement de-
manded a more impressive memorial for its commemoration.

On October 12, 1892, the four hundredth anniversary of the dis-
covery of America, there was formed in Santo Domingo the National
Columbian Committee, which was charged with the erection of a
suitable monument to commemorate the Discoverer. This was dedi-
cated on December 6, 1896, 404 years to the day after the discovery
of Hispaniola, and is now in the cathedral at Santo Domingo.

The committee did not believe that its work was completed by the
construction of this memorial. In its opinion its labors were only
partially finished, the committee expressing the hope that the memo-
rial would eventually be moved to a lighthouse, which would serve
as a lasting tribute to the Great Navigator.

With the advent of the twentieth century the project gained addi-
tional support, when in 1914 Mr. William E. Pulliam, General Re-
ceiver of Dominican Customs, initiated a publicity campaign in
which the idea received the attention of the press throughout the
Americas. Mr. Pulliam also appeared before the Committee on
Foreign Affairs in the United States House of Representatives urging
that the Nation support the project.

It became evident that interest was international when in 1923,
at the Fifth International Conference of American States, held at
Santiago, Chile, Dr. Tulio M. Cestero, Delegate of the Dominican

312 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Republic, proposed the following resolution, which was signed by
all the nations participating in the conference:

The Fifth International Conference of American States

RESOLVES:

To recommend that the Governments of the American Republies honor the
memory of Christopher Columbus by the erection of a monumental lighthouse
which shall bear his name on the coast at Santo Domingo, capital of the Dominican
Republic, and which shall be built with the cooperation of the Governments and
people of America and any others who may so desire.

Subsequent to the adoption of this resolution at the Fifth Confer-
ence, various of the Republics, members of the Pan American Union,
officially indorsed the project in their legislative bodies. The con-
current resolution passed by the House of Representatives on January
17 and by the Senate of the United States on January 27, 1927, reads
as follows:

Resolved by the House of Representatives (the Senate concurring), That it is the
sense of the Congress that the United States approves the international project
advocated at the Pan American Conference, held at Santiago de Chile, April,
1923, to erect a memorial lighthouse at Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, to
Christopher Columbus, and that the several States participating in that confer-
ence be notified through the usual diplomatic channels of the desire of the people
of the United States to participate in this movement to honor the memory of the
Great Navigator and Discoverer. —

Following the action at the Fifth Conference, events moved more
quickly in the direction of a practical working out of the idea. On
May 5, 1926, the Governing Board of the Pan American Union adopted
the resolution given below:

The Governing Board of the Pan American Union has heard with deep interest
the presentation made by the Minister of the Dominican Republic of the plan
for the erection of a Columbus Lighthouse. In view of the fact that the Fifth
International Conference of American States recommended to the Governments
of the American Republics that a memorial be erected to Christopher Columbus,
to take the form of a lighthouse off the coast of Santo Domingo, which lighthouse
will bear his name,

BE IT RESOLVED: By the Governing Board of the Pan American Union, to
express its concurrence with the proposed memorial in honor of the Discoverer
of the New World and its adherence to the recommendation made by the Fifth
International Conference, and to recommend to the countries, members of the
Pan American Union, that they cooperate in the erection of this memorial.

Some months later the Pan American Union was officially intrusted
with the task of bringing to a successful conclusion the erection of the
memorial in the Dominican Republic, through the following resolution
adopted by the Governing Board on March 2, 1927:

BE IT RESOLVED: That the Pan American Union take the necessary steps to
assure the realization of the project to erect the Columbus Lighthouse. The
Governing Board of the Union understands that the Dominican Government will

pay all the necessary expenses incidental to the preparation of plans and awarding
of prizes, ete., from the $300,000 appropriated by the Dominican Republic. The

*SOIIJUNOD USIO10] JO WOISSTUL
JO sjoIqo pue yourqeo 9Y4 JO slequieuT
eq) 818 wWoYy, puoAeq pue ‘oouRIA
O[[PIN. EP OLUVI;Y “Aq ‘Sie y USIEIOy Jo
JOISIUITAL OY} “FJ9] SI] MO YouLI'T OVTYSVqIg
‘@ [eulpie,) eoueulury SITY St 4yst
SIq WO ‘{IzeV1g JO JUOPIselg [BUOISIAOIg
‘sesI@A O1njesy) “Iq AdueTeoxy sty
ST 9[GB} 94 JO 10jU00 ey JV ‘OLlEUEL
9p Ory JO SJty 9UTA JO [OOYDS ey} Ut
*TE6L ‘LT 19qG0}00 JO WOOUIE};e yy Ved
yoo} UOIWeduM0H YssnNoUIYSIT [e1our
-OI SNQUIN[OH 9Yj JO Auome190 [vUy eT,

NOITLIL
“AdWOO HWSNOHLHOIT SNANNT
“OO AHL HO ANOWAYHO IVNIA

314 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Pan American Union will do everything possible to obtain the cooperation of the
other Republics of the American Continent in the appropriation of the total con-
tribution necessary, in accordance with a plan approved by the Governing Board.

A report adopted by the Board on April 12, 1927, contained the
following resolution:

The Governing Board of the Pan American Union, in order to comply with the
resolution of the Fifth Pan American Conference, which recommended to the
nations of America that they cooperate in the erection of a memorial lighthouse
to the glory of Columbus and the discovery of the New World:

RESOLVES:

That the Committee appointed by the Board to study the form in which the
project should be executed constitutes itself a Permanent Committee to study and
recommend to the Board the best means of complying with the resolution of the
Fifth Conference.

The Board authorizes the Committee to employ the services of an American or
Spanish architect residing in the United States to determine, on the ground, in
agreement with the Government of the Dominican Republic, the most appro-
priate site for the erection of the lighthouse, and to advise the Committee in
regard to the conditions to be established for a contest which will be open to all
architects in Spain and all the countries of America.

When the preparatory studies have been concluded, the Committee shall submit
to the Board the conditions of the contest and the bases for the cooperation of the
American nations in the erection of the monument.

On June 1, in accordance with the terms of the above resolution,
Mr. Albert Kelsey, one of the architects of the Pan American Union
building, was secured as technical adviser to the Committee.

As will be noted from the basic resolution adopted at the Fifth
Conference, its explicit recommendations were restricted to the Gov-
ernments of the American Republics. In order to widen the scope
of the project so as to include all the countries of the world, especially
those directly connected with the history of Columbus, the resolution
cited below was adopted by the Governing Board on November 2,
1927:

Whereas, the resolution of the Fifth International Conference of American
States, although limited to a recommendation that the Republics forming part
of the Pan American Union cooperate in the erection of the Columbus Lighthouse,
contemplates the possibility of other countries of the world participating in

the tribute to the memory of the Discoverer,
The Governing Board of the Pan American Union,

RESOLVES:

1. That the governments and peoples of all the nations of the world be per-
mitted to participate in the tribute to the memory of the Discoverer;

2. That the competition for the erection of the Columbus Lighthouse be open
to all architects without distinction of nationality, the resolution of the Governing
Board of April 12, 1927, being amended in this respect;

3. That the report of the Committee be approved, together with the modifi-
cations recommended therein of the report of the architect, Mr. Kelsey;

THE LIGHTHOUSE ARCHITECTURAL COMPETITION 315

4. That the Permanent Committee be authorized to have the report of Mr.
Kelsey printed, together with the bases of the program of competition with the
modifications recommended in the report of the committee;

5. That the committee be authorized to develop a plan of organization that
will result in the international dissemination of the idea of a tribute to Columbus
and to prepare a plan to obtain the cooperation of the governments and peoples
of all the nations of the world.

At the Sixth International Conference of American States, held at
Habana, Cuba, early in 1928, Dr. Tulio M. Cestero, Delegate of the

SENOR DON HORACIO
ACOSTA Y LARA

Delegate for Latin America
and President of the [nter-
national Jury for the Colum-
bus Memorial Lighthouse
Competition.

Dominican Republic, reviewed the steps taken toward realization of
the project, and the three countries which had not been represented
at the Fifth Conference—Bolivia, Mexico, and Peru—expressed their
desire to adhere to the project.

Subsequent to the Sixth Conference practical steps were taken for
the selection of a design for the memorial. An architectural com-
petition in two stages open to architects of all nations of the world
was proclaimed, for which the Government of the Dominican Republic
generously agreed to pay all expenses, including prizes.

316 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

In large measure because of the strong appeal which the idea of the
lighthouse makes to the imagination, architects from practically
every civilized nation of the world desired to participate in the first
stage of the competion. Forty-eight nations were represented in the
first stage, with more than 1,800 competitors actually registering.

It was decided that it would be most fitting to have the judgment
of designs and exhibition of all drawings held in Spain, as a tribute
to the close connection between the Great Navigator and the land of
Ferdinand and Isabella. Accordingly, in the spring of 1929, the
International Jury of Award met at Madrid to select the designs which
would receive the first 10 awards in this stage. The jury, which had
been chosen by vote of the competitors, was composed of the fol-
lowing architects: Horacio Acosta y Lara, of Uruguay, chairman,
representing Latin America; Eliel Saarinen, of Finland, representing
Europe; and Raymond Hood, of the United States, representing
North America.

After careful consideration of the 455 designs exhibited in the
Spanish capital, the jury awarded 10 first prizes of equal weight, as
follows:

JOSBES WatiNGZLE Rees ee Ee eee Dortmund, Germany.
Wirt iiGE eAMON= == Sas ae eee saree Ne New York City.
HELMLE, CoRBETT and HARRISON__________

Rosert P. RoGers and ALFRED E. Poor____- {New York City.

Vivo 1S Qieppagalhanysimc ses Se

DOWEHASHD SHUN (Gm ON = =e eee eS Asheville, N. C.
PrpepomMinn ORT. 28 oe oe Se Se ee

WI CD INO IPAimno iss Be Rome, Italy.

ANTHOXO, WADI ROU OININa eae we ee ee ee

TOUS ABR HUN et ee ae

GEORGES DOVON Ssh ee eta jrais France.
CHEORGES ONES ER OR saelee eee rane

Dona.p NELSON and EpGar LyNcH__-_-_-_-_-- Paris, France, and Chicago, Ill.
JOAQuIN VAQUERO PaALAcIos_____________ |

IDaonis) Wong 5 BUGNWG\oy. Se Wo a Se (piece, Spain.

ALA Oss UnS CHER = sys Wo ee ales eee
EAI PACD RINE Wie oer ces Sea Tee oe eee
Ghosens IDmoonainii = ooo be
IMUMoiicin (GuNptisiinins == 22 3p eee ee
Aa) Digan Ga gray NN Ofek OI eRe ic gnss Se Reps Nottingham, England.

Paris, France.

Each of these competitors received $2,000 and was eligible to
recompete in the second stage of the competition. In addition, 10
second prizes of $500 each were awarded.

After the exhibition of all the designs at Madrid, and upon invita-
tion of the Italian Government, the entire collection was taken to
Italy and shown in the Exposition Palace at Rome.

At the close of this exhibition, the 10 designs awarded first prizes
were returned to their authors, who redrafted them under new regula-

THE LIGHTHOUSE ARCHITECTURAL COMPETITION Bil7

tions for submission in the second stage of the competition. The
second stage was brought to a close at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in
October, 1931. The same jury was in attendance, with the exception
of Mr. Hood, who was unable to attend. He was replaced by Mr.
Frank Lloyd Wright.

As is well known, Mr. J. L. Gleave, now of Manchester, England,
was awarded the first prize of $10,000, and will be the architect for
the Memorial Lighthouse when construction is commenced. The
other awards were as follows: Second prize of $7,500; third prize of
$5,000; fourth prize of $2,500;' and a prize of $1,000 to each of the
remaining six competitors.

DESIGN AWARDED SECOND PRIZE

This design, the work of Donald Nelson and Edgar Lynch (Bennett, Parsons and Frost, associated
architects, and Oskar J. W. Hansen, associated sculptor) architects of the United States, was awarded
the second prize of $7,500.

The project received world-wide attention in September, 1931, when
the League of Nations, in the twelfth session of the assembly, made
official mention of it and gave its approval to the idea through the
following resolution, which was presented by the delegations of
Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala,
Haiti, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela:

The Assembly:

Views with entire satisfaction the happy initiative of the Government of the
Dominican Republic, adopted officially and unanimously by the 21 sovereign
Republics of the New World represented at the Fifth and Sixth International
Conferences of American States held at Santiago, Chile, and Habana, to erect,

1See page 326.
1134383—32—Bull. 5———2

318 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

in the Dominican Republic, the center of the discovery and colonization of the
Western Hemisphere, a monumental lighthouse to perpetuate the admiration
and gratitude of humanity toward Christopher Columbus, the Discoverer of the
New World and one of the greatest benefactors of mankind;

Considering that the monumental lighthouse will be built on the aerial center
of the West Indies, and that it will be the guide to sea and air navigation for the
greater part of the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, a cireumstance which
places the proposed work within the aims of the League of Nations;

Considering also that this first universal homage to the man who completed the
globe will house in adjacent structures a library and museum of documents
relating to Columbus, and other sources of intellectual culture to be at the dis-

DESIGN AWARDED
THIRD PRIZE

This model for the Columbus
Lighthouse, submitted by
the Spanish architects Joa-
quin Vaquero Palacios and
Luis Moya Blanco, won the
third prize of $5,000.

posal of humanity, thus coming within the intellectual cooperation activities of
the League:

Expresses its deep sympathy for the noble initiative of the Dominican Republic,
an initiative which in addition to being an act of homage due a genius such as
Columbus and such a nation as Spain, creates and will sustain perpetually around
it elements propitious to the progress and development of international communi-
cations and, consequently, propitious to the development of good will among the
States of both continents and the perfection of human intercourse.

As an example of the widespread interest in the project, mention
should be made of the resolution adopted at the closing session of the
Third Pan American Postal Congress held at Madrid, Spain, in No-

THE LIGHTHOUSE ARCHITECTURAL COMPETITION 319

DESIGN AWARDED FOURTH PRIZE

Théo. Lescher, Paul Andrieu, O. Zavaroni, and Maurice Gauthier, architects of Paris, France, received
the fourth prize of $2,500 for this design.

vember, 1931. This resolution acknowledged Columbus as the
author of the definite development of international postal services,
one of the factors contributing to understanding and good will
among nations, and complimented the Government and people of
the Dominican Republic on promoting the erection of the lighthouse.

After the lighthouse is built, it is hoped to construct in connection
with it an airport, park, seaplane basin, and other adjuncts. The
geographical location of the Dominican Republic could hardly be
better for the construction of an international air center in the Western
Hemisphere. Located approximately equidistant from Central
America, the north coast of South America and the southern tip of
North America, it could also serve with equal facility as an important
center of traffic with Cuba, the West Indies, and the Bahamas. At
the present time the air line covering the longest scheduled route in
the world makes Santo Domingo a port of call. Since the city has
become a stopping-place for planes of this line, many hundreds of
passengers have viewed and lived in the charm of the most ancient
Old World settlement in the New.

Is it daring to prophesy that in the not too distant future, Santo
Domingo will furnish a new picture of activity in international trans-
portation and communication, with planes of the air and ships of the
sea guided to this haven at night by the beams of a gigantic recumbent
cross?

ee ? ; Denman serra
Ai oe ai ne aoe : a etemge.

ge
oe
e

‘esnoyjYsryT [Boule yy Snquinpop
9q} UO UOLUY) UvolIOULyY UR 9Y} JO prvog
SUIUIOAOY) OY} JO 99}IIUIULOLD) JUSUBUTIO
otf} 0} IOSIAPY [Roluyooy, ‘Aos[oy jloqry
TIA, pur ‘spoojytyory Jo oynqysuy UeIpIZe1g,
oy Jo Jueprseid ‘opediensly Op “GW 10ISON
yorg ‘Aint oy} JO stoqurour ‘[Ize1g 04 OoL
“xO. JO Iopessequiy ‘seAodYy Osuoj,y uop
iousg AoueTooxy ste AQ poruedur0d98
‘aTqe} SIU) 4B Surpisoid UMOYS SI ‘TIzvig 04
UOISSIP [Bloody UL oI[qndey uUBoluLuIOd
ay}? jo Aaeulpiovwiyxy AOAUG ‘0.10989,
‘IN ON, “Iq AoueTfooxa SIFT ‘oAROTY)
TT ‘¢ ‘Qooyrqore Ystsuygy ue Of QUEM ozTAId
4siy oy} ‘0}0A S,AInt oy) YIM ooueps0908
Ul ‘esBIS PUODES SI} UL PeJodUIOD GZ6T
Ul PLIpV| Ul UOTYYEdUIOD 4Say OY UL SUSIS
-9p BUIUUIM-9Z1Id oY JO SLOYINV OT IY,
‘UusISop SUTUUIM-dZ11d ey} UO UOISTOep
[BUY B OATS 04 ‘OMLOUBL OP OLY JO SyLy OUT YT
JO [OOYOS [VUOVN oyy JO suIpliIng yuedyTU
-SBUL OY} UL polo yes ‘Seye1g peyluy) 9YY JO
QuslIM PAO] Yue “APY pue ‘purvpury
jo ‘ueuLIeRS [OILY “Ap ‘Avnsniy jo ‘erey
A B4SOOV OLDBIOFY UOP OURS JO pesodur0d
‘Ain [BUOTJVUAOJUT 949 ‘TEBE 19q090Q UT

NOTLIGAdNOO WSNOM
“LHOIT SAGNOATOO GNOOUS FHL
HOW AYN! TYNOILVNYUALONIE FHL

iE COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIGHTHOUSE
COMPETITION

CEREMONY OF AWARD OF PRIZES
THE OPENING OF THE FINAL EXHIBITION

By Aupert Kesey, F. A. I. A.

Technical Adviser to the Permanent Committee of the Governing Board of the Pan
American Union on the Columbus Memorial Lighthouse

S IT is but 40 years since the fall of the Empire of Dom Pedro IT,
(ee still persist in Brazil many pleasant memories of ceremonies
of great solemnity and splendor, and as the ceremony of award of
prizes in the Columbus Memorial Lighthouse competition was to be
an international affair in which that country was to act as host in its
capital, the program was therefore planned and carried out with a
solemnity and dignity worthy of the traditions and ancient land-
marks of a city that is still strongly Portuguese. The mere fact that
a naval band of 60 pieces played while the President and other guests
arrived and were being received by the Special Envoy of the Domini-
ean Republic gives some idea of the scale and character of the occasion.

It would be hard, indeed, to overpraise the arrangements that were
made by the Brazilian Government; His Excellency, Hon. Edwin V.
Morgan, the Ambassador of the United States of America; the Central
Institute of Brazilian Architects; and Senhor José Roberto de Macedo
Soares, Chief of Protocol, for the exhibition of the drawings and
models and especially for the formal ceremony at which were to be
announced the names of the winners in the most significant, if not
the most important, architectural competition of modern times, that
for a design for the Columbus Memorial Lighthouse.

Of the 10 contestants in the second stage of the architectural com-
petition 3 were from the United States, 3 from France, and 1 each
from England, Germany, Italy, and Spain. Of these, in the first
contest eight submitted totally different schemes, while two of the
designs were more or less alike. Under the terms of the second
contest all participants were permitted to make a fresh start, but
most of them did not do so. Mr. J. L. Gleave, to whom the first
prize was awarded, departed radically from his first conception,
showing a remarkably fertile mind and a degree of imaginative power
which is quite unusual, and which caused the international jury to
place his design in a class by itself.

321

3
‘
;
2

HIS EXCELLENCY DR. GETULIO VARGAS, PROVISIONAL PRESIDENT OF
BRAZIL, AND HIS EXCELLENCY DR. TULIO M. CESTERO, ENVOY EX-

TRAORDINARY OF THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC ON SPECIAL MISSION
TO BRAZIL

AWARD OF PRIZES AND FINAL EXHIBITION 323

The ceremony took place in a hall 150 feet long adjoining the other
galleries in the Palace of Fine Arts—a hall strongly resembling the
famous Gallerie de la Guerre at Versailles. The decorations and
seating arrangements were unique. Instead of a single rostrum for
the speakers and guests of honor, the long hall was so divided in the
center as to provide for a dignified open surface separating those
present into four groups. The high officials sat on a long, low plat-
form on one side and the speakers, the members of the international
jury, and the local committee of architects back of a handsome table
on the other. Thus the spectators were massed into two separate
audiences facing each other and extending back row upon row to
the ends of the long and impressive gallery. Special distinction was
given the occasion by the fact that Dr. Getulio Vargas, Provisional
President of the Republic, presided, calling upon each speaker with
great dignity and deliberation, and closing the stately ceremony with
a few brief but very appropriate remarks. To the President’s right
was Monsignor Leme da Silveira Cintra, the Cardinal Archbishop
of Rio de Janeiro, in gorgeous vestments; and on either side sat the
members of the Cabinet, the Secretaries of the Army and Navy being
in full uniform. Directly opposite, in an elaborately carved h-igh
backed chair of jacaranda wood, was His Excellency Dr. Tulio M.
Cestero, the Special Envoy of the Dominican Republic, and near by
His Excellency Sefior Don Alfonso Reyes, the Ambassador of Mexico
and the orator of the day, Senor Don Horacio Acosta y Lara, chairman
of the competition’s international jury of award, and Sr. Nestor
Figueiredo, president of the Central Institute of Architects of Brazil.
At right angles to these two impressive groups and in the first rows
of chairs right and left sat on one side the chiefs of mission of virtually
every nation that maintains an embassy or legation in Rio de Janeiro
and on the other a number of brightly garbed bishops and lesser
clergy.

Since the addresses are published in full hereinafter, it is only
necessary to allude to the grace and ease of the President, the earnest-
ness of the Dominican Envoy, and the eloquence of the Ambassador
of Mexico, who in finished oratory and with Latin grace held his
hearers spellbound as he reviewed the progress of western civilization
since the days of Columbus, each gesture, every facial: expression,
adding to the interest, the clarity, and the enjoyment of his discourse.

The exposition filled the entire inner girdle of galleries on the most
important floor of the Palace of Fine Arts, except the entrance hall,
where a bust of Columbus, in front of a great sunburst of flags formed
with the colorful national standards of the 21 American Republics,
greeted the guests.

324 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

After the ceremony, the President formally opened the exhibition,
followed as he entered by the highest dignitaries of church and state,
the chiefs of mission, and the social and intellectual élite of the
brilliant capital of Brazil.

An hour was spent in inspecting the drawings and models, the throng
following the President and the Cardinal, those nearest to them lis-
tening to their comments and observations with keen interest.

It was an informal progress. Many questions were asked and
answered, while the Cardinal remarked with evident pleasure, as he
stood before the model of Mr. Gleave’s inspired design, ‘‘Last week
we dedicated the great Christ on Corcovado, that so to speak now
dominates Brazil. In a few years I hope we shall dedicate this great
recumbent cross at the historic halfway poimt between the two
American continents, to dominate, asit were, the Western Hemisphere.”

Following the announcement of the names of the prize winners and
the opening of the exhibition to the public, a few days later His
Excellency Doctor Cestero, the Special Envoy of the Dominican
Republic, gave a banquet at the Gloria Hotel in honor of Sr. Afranio
de Mello Franco, the Brazilian Minister of Foreign Affairs, which was
attended by most of the members of the diplomatic corps, officials of
the Government, the members of the International Jury, and many
men prominent in the intellectual and social life of Rio de Janeiro,
at which the Columbus Memorial Lighthouse project was extolled as
a necessary international symbol of friendship and progress.

ADDRESSES DELIVERED AT
THE CEREMONY OF AWARD OF PRIZES

Appress oF Horacio Acosta y Lara, PRESIDENT OF THE JURY OF
AWARD

N the mysterious onward march of time the great events of human

history are marked by a special rhythm.

Thus, when the time had fully come, the mind of Columbus was
kindled, and with the strength of an Atlas, through the sheer force of
his convictions and ideals, he pushed back the horizons of the world
and initiated the greatest advance of humanity.

Likewise in the fullness of time mankind has paused in its hurried
march of progress, and with great devotion and fervor purposes to raise
there, where Columbus first planted the Cross, a monumental light-
house whose beams shall serve to illumine the course of mariners
through sea and sky; a lighthouse which, by its form and holy meaning,
shall guide all of life’s travelers toward the fulfillment of their highest
destiny.

Since Columbus did honor to all mankind, men thus seek to honor
him, leaving to posterity in evidence of their gratitude and admiration
a monument that throughout the ages may stand a witness to his
extraordinary deed.

Almost a century ago the mind of Antonio del Monte y Tejada of
Santo Domingo conceived the idea that a lighthouse should be erected
in memory of Columbus. Today this idea reaches the beginning of
its fruition in this session, when the choice of a design for the monu-
ment is to be announced.

The patriotic efforts of Gen. Gregorio Luperén, hero of the
struggle of the Dominican Republic for independence in 1880; the
resolution of Dr. Tulio Cestero, approved by the Fifth International
Conference of American States in Chile in 1923, and that of the
Governing Board of the Pan American Union in November, 1927,
mark the steps taken prior to the competition whose final stage 1s
reached to-day. Once again a work of architecture will be an
imperishable witness of the sentiment, not of a single people or a
single epoch, but of the unanimous and undying homage of all the
peoples of the earth.

In the first stage of the competition over 450 plans were submitted ;
these were the work of almost a thousand architects representing
48 different countries. In the second, only the architects of the 10

325

326 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

designs selected as the best in the first stage participated, and
the awards to these, I have the honor to announce, will be made as
follows:

First prize —J. lL. Gleave, of Manchester, England.

Second prize—Donald Nelson and Edgar Lynch, of Paris and
Chicago. (Bennett, Parsons and Frost, associated architects, and
Oskar W. Hansen, associated sculptor.)

Third prize—Joaquin Vaquero Palacios and Luis Moya Blanco,
of Madrid, Spain.

Fourth prize —Théo. Lescher, Paul Andrieu, O. Zavaroni, and
Maurice Gauthier, of Paris, France.

To the other six designs, honorable mention.

With this announcement the jury finishes its mission, yet 1t could
not feel that it had fully completed its task without expressing its
profound gratitude to the representatives of the Brazilian Govern-
ment, dignitaries of the Church, the diplomatic corps, and prominent
citizens who have to-day honored this assembly by their presence.
The jury likewise wishes to take this opportunity of once again thank-
ing Government officials for the many courteous attentions of which
its members have been the object, and they will always remember
with great pleasure and cordiality the generous and friendly bospi-
tality of the Brazilian architects. Their wish is that as the nations
of the world unite to effect the construction of the lighthouse, they
shall be possessed of the same feeling of human kinship that inspired
the Great Navigator to accomplish the feat which may well be called
the greatest in all history.

ApprEss oF His ExceLuency Dr. Tuxio M. Crstrero, Envoy Ex-
TRAORDINARY AND MINISTER PLENIPOTENTIARY OF THE DOMINICAN
REPUBLIC ON SrEcrAL Mission Berore THE GOVERNMENT OF
BRAZIL

The resolution of the Fifth International Conference of American
States adopting the proposal of the Government of the Dominican
Republic to ‘‘honor the memory of Christopher Columbus by the
erection of a monumental lighthouse which shall bear his name, on the
coast at Santo Domingo, capital of the Dominican Republic, and
which shall be built with the cooperation of the Governments and the
peoples of America, and any others who may so desire,’ was bound to
produce a deep and lasting impression on the Dominican people, who
on various occasions during the previous 75 years had declared itself
in favor of such a collective tribute of gratitude, admiration, and
love to Columbus in the land in which he wished his ashes to
rest and where his sacred remains now repose at the Metropolitan
Cathedral of the Primate of the Indies. This lighthouse, as del

ADDRESSES AT CEREMONY OF AWARD OF PRIZES 327

Monte y Tejada, the first native of the island to write its history,
said in 1852, “‘may serve posterity as a beacon both of light and
enlightenment in the dark night of the Ages.”

The Discoverer showed a marked predilection for the island he
named La Espariola. He established himself there on his first voyage,
thus founding the first center of Christian civilization in the New
World. Rightly has it been described as “the heart of his discoveries”’
and the cradle of America. Of those who in our days have analyzed
the extraordinary personality of the Great Navigator and his fruitful
work some believe that on a former voyage he became acquainted
with the charms of this island; others venture the opinion that its
position was revealed to him by a shipwrecked mariner. ‘‘God gave
it to me in a miraculous manner,” says Columbus in his will. Which-
ever version is true, it is undoubtedly in La Espafiola that he achieved
the height of his glory, and it is there also that human injustice
enchained and imprisoned him. There he planted the Cross of Christ,
and the seed sown proved so fertile that through more than four
centuries, religion, language, ideals, traditions, and customs have
developed vigorously, defended and maintained by a people which
through the sacrifice of its blood has created a free and independent
nation, despite foreign invaders and notwithstanding the transfer of
sovereignty over the island by the mother country because of dynastic
interests.

In 1923 the delegations of the 18 countries represented at the
Fifth International Conference of American States adopted the
proposal of the Dominican Government; the warm adherence of
Bolivia, Mexico, and Peru, expressed by their delegates to the Sixth
Conference, makes its indorsement unanimous in the Western Hemi-
sphere. My fellow citizens are justly proud of this, all the more
since a motion recently adopted at the twelfth Assembly of the League
of Nations strengthens the project through international approval.

In 1927 the Dominican Government suggested to the Governing
Board of the Pan American Union the adoption of the measures
necessary for the erection of the Columbus Memorial Lighthouse,
voluntarily offering as its contribution the sum of $300,000 to be
paid in five annuities. As a result, the Governing Board designated
a Permanent Committee composed of three of the diplomatic repre-
sentatives of American Republics which make up the Board for the
purpose of holding competitions to select a design worthy of the man
and the event to be commemorated, the expense incidental to these
competitions to be defrayed from the contribution of the Dominican
Government. The Permanent Committee chose the capital of that
glorious country, mother of 18 of the American Republics, the
nation that completed the stupendous task personified by Columbus,
as the meeting place of the Jury of Award for the first stage of the

328 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

competition; and for the second, this enchanting and hospitable city,
heart of the noble people which enhances and carries onward in
America Portugal’s contribution to the expansion of Iberian culture.
Two events, gentlemen, added their contribution to carry out the
friendly purpose with which the Governing Board has gratified all
Ibero-Americans—the Seville Exposition, a magnificent spectacle
which showed the world the two phases of Iberian civilization, the
European and the American (a peaceful achievement more enduring
than that of any other race), coincided with the first stage of the
competition; and in this, the second, the idealistic will of the Bra-
zilian people has erected, on one of the highest peaks surrounding
this beautiful city, the image of Christ the Redeemer, with arms
outstretched to all men.

The hero’s native country could not fail to recognize the Columbus
Memorial Lighthouse project; in 1929 the 455 designs submitted in
the first stage of the competition at Madrid were exhibited in Rome,
at the request of the august mother of Latin culture.

With such support and patronage the Columbus Lighthouse, a
manifestation not only of American solidarity but, beyond that, of
human solidarity, makes a definite advance with this brilliant
ceremony. I have great pleasure in communicating to you that
according to an official dispatch from the Minister of Foreign Affairs
of the Dominican Republic, dated October 15, the Supreme Land
Tribunal of the nation ‘‘has finished clearing up the legal status of
the lands upon which the Columbus Lighthouse is to be located.”

The site selected for the Columbus Lighthouse, on the eastern
bank of the Ozama River, is the same on which the brother of the
Great Admiral, Bartholomew Columbus, founded in 1497 the first
city of Santo Domingo de Guzman, later destroyed by a hurricane.
There can be seen the ruins of the first stone chapel for Christian wor-
ship in the Western Hemisphere; the prows of Columbus’s caravels
glided over the waters of that river, on whose western bank stand the
walls of the aleazar built by the navigator’s eldest son, Diego Colum-
bus (through whose veins flowed Portuguese blood), and also the
remarkably well-preserved Tower of Homage, where, according to
legend, Columbus suffered humiliating imprisonment. Within the
old city walls is the second Santo Domingo, with its cathedral,
churches, fortress, and the remnants of its university, the first to be
founded in America and a precious shrine of profound Spanish-
American culture. The elements have never been able to batter
down these noble foundation stones, not even during the recent hurri-
cane which wrought havoc in the city, and they still rise skyward as
firmly as the culture of which they speak with mute eloquence remains
deeply rooted in the spirit of its inhabitants.

ADDRESSES AT CEREMONY OF AWARD OF PRIZES 329

Such will be the setting of the Columbus Lighthouse. Here Spain
evolved the economic plans and trained the men for the conquest and
exploration of a territory extending from 40° north latitude to 40°
south latitude; from the heart of the United States to the mighty
River Plate, thus establishing the interlacing ties which today unite
the Dominican Republic with the other American nations in brother-
hood. The plant nurtured in Hispaniola flourished in imperial
splendor in Mexico, whither Hernan Cortés, who received his spurs of
knighthood in Santo Domingo, transplanted the sugar industry; it
flowered in Lima, whereto the architect of the Metropolitan Cathedral
of the Primate of the Indies was attracted, and gave fruits of divine
grace in Santa Rosa, born shortly after the arrival of her parents
from Hispaniola.

The Columbus Memorial Lighthouse will be a joint undertaking of
us Americans. Indeed, not even the difficulties now besetting us could
retard the happy moment when all our flags will be unfurled to the
winds. No, the hero whom we are thus to honor, who united us all
in the same splendid civilization, stimulates us with the example of
his perseverance and faith which gave humanity a New World.
A demonstration of the civilization of America, those stones, steadfast
and aspiring, will proclaim a spirit of Pan American cooperation, worthy
and sincere because it is based on mutual respect, reciprocal confidence
and common belief in law. That the light which will be kindled on
its summit, a guide to voyagers of sea and sky, be a perpetual beacon
of justice for each and all of the nations of America is the sincerest
wish of the Dominican people, on whose behalf I express heartfelt
appreciation to our sister nations for the honor bestowed upon us.

atin

AppreEss or His ExceELLENcY SENoR pon ALFonso Reyss, AMBAS-
SADOR OF Mexico IN Bra2zin

The Brazilians have a charming manner all their own when granting
a request from some one who seeks a favor. As we can not define it,
it appears almost like a magic art. The Andalusians in their ex-
pressive phrase would say that the Brazilians tienen buena sombra, or
tienen dngel. Happy is he who enjoys the privilege of Brazilian hospi-
tality and acquaintance, for they smooth away all harshness and lend
to daily contacts a stimulating and indefinable poetic sweetness which
gives wings to the spirit. In the midst of this strenuous life, while all
rhythm grows faster and seems to become more and more abrupt, the
Brazilians are borne along a smiling stream of kindliness which sets
everything in its proper perspective and in its natural relations. The
Brazilian, even the illiterate and the unfortunate, dispels an aura of

330 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

sympathy and understanding which is almost the same as culture and
is, so to speak, civilization through fineness of perception. If now
we rise in the social scale and add to this precious material all the
beauties of refinement and study, we shall have a result as pleasing and
as marvelous and carefully wrought as those carved coconuts of
Alagoas, which one never fails to admire. Nothing remains to be
said concerning the enchantments of Guanabara Bay, Corcovado, and
the Sugar Loaf, the altars on which each vessel hangs in passing its
tribute of admiration, as on a shrine. Notwithstanding the fame of
this harbor, the greatest enchantment of Brazil certainly les in the
innermost thoughts of the Brazilian soul, thoughts intermingled in
that golden haze in which beauty and ideals are merged.

It is not surprising, then, that before plunging into my subject I
should hasten to fulfil a pleasant duty, that of expressing publicly in
the name of Mr. Albert Kelsey, his colleagues, and the Pan American
Union whose special commissioner Mr. Kelsey is, gratitude for the
attentions, solicitude, efficiency, and cordial good will manifested by
the Brazilian Government and all the institutions and persons who
have had to do with this climax of the Columbus Memorial Light-
house competition. Permit me also to add my personal thanks for
the opportunity to associate the name of Mexico with this important
occasion.

You have heard from well-informed persons the history of the
event which brings us together. Now I propose to recall to your
memory the ideas which are its atmosphere. I shall, indeed, be
happy if I faithfully interpret the thoughts and emotions which the
mere name of Columbus awakes in this distinguished audience.

From the time that the human race left written traces of its dreams,
America was divined as by presentiment. Man’s imagination fore-
told America 3,000 years B. C., when the mythological Anubis pre-
sided over the dead in some mysterious part of the west. The idea
that in the west there still remained something to discover—some-
thing that at times took alluring form, like the Isles of the Blest, and
at others seemed repulsive and terrible, like a dark, gloomy sea—
comes from the most ancient documents of the Egyptians. As the
Phoenicians coasted around the western Mediterranean or as later
the Atlantic islands were discovered by European navigators, the
mystery became more remote, like the shadow of a moving cloud, and
took refuge farther and farther to the west. Such is the meaning of
the Plus Ultra which replaced the Ne Plus Ultra of the Pillars of
Hercules. The vague idea which we discover in that most ancient
Mediterranean literature, the Egyptian, penetrated Greek literature,
where it is seen chiefly in the fateful Atlantis of Plato; it runs through

ADDRESSES AT CEREMONY OF AWARD OF PRIZES Boll

Latin literature, where Seneca in his Medea announces that the sea
will open and new worlds appear; and the legend, with its indecisive
and changing details, its Sargasso sea, its shallow and unnavigable
ocean, its Fortunate Isles, is enriched through the Middle Ages with
the stories of the Utopian islands: the Isle of St. Brandan, or of the
Birds (the first version of Penguin Island), that of the Seven Cities,
Antilia and Brazil, the two last being names which history was later to
vindicate; and the story is picked up in passing by the Renaissance
poets—for instance, Luigi Pulci, in J/ Morgante Maggiore—until fin-
ally its mixture of truth and fable was deposited in the hands of Chris-
topher Columbus when, in 1482, he opened the pages of the Imago
Mundi, the work of Cardinal Ailly. This was almost Columbus’s
breviary and might be called a compendium of all the yearnings up
to that time concerning the paradises awaiting would-be discoverers.
Apparently unrelated fragments of the truth struggled to integrate
themselves in the minds of men. The earth seemed to suggest to its
creatures the feeling of its complete image, the idea of Plato remembered
as ina dream. For ere America became that reality which at times
drives us to distraction and at times exalts us with enthusiasm, she
seems to have been a creation of the poets, a puzzle of the geographers,
an inexplicable aspiration of man. The presage of the new lands
filled all minds; it shone in the eyes of mariners and gave to even the
erasping enterprises of commerce the aura of mighty deeds. And this
presage was writ large in heaven and earth. Would you see it
in the sky? Remember that divination of new stars which had been
suggested from the time of Aristotle to that of Alfonso the Wise;
which preoccupied Lucan; which shone in the constellation of the
Four Cardinal Virtues—that image anticipatory of the Southern
Cross—from the depth of Dantean nights; and which, after the dis-
covery, were seen everywhere on the horizons of poetry and art,
sparkling in the Araucana of Ercilla as in the Grandeza Mexicana of
Valbuena, in the De Orbe Novo of Peter Martyr, in Os Lusiadas of
Camoens, in the Epistolas of La Boetie, or in the famous sonnet of
Les Trophées.'
II

But to reach Christopher Columbus one has to struggle through a
thicket of legends; for the legendary Columbus had already appeared
in the time of Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas, and it is he whom school-
children know. The real Columbus begins with Alexander von
Humboldt, and in our days comes to us through Henry Vignaud,
whether we accept or not the latter’s interpretations of the genesis
of the discovery. Let us leave on one side the exaggerations of one
party or the other; let us forget the idea that Columbus was born in

1 By José Maria Heredia.—EDIToR.

BB) THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Pontevedra, which is the entertainment of the idle; let us pav ro
attention to the illustrious parentage which was later ascribed to
him, nor believe that as a boy he served in war and at sea, under the
orders of the good King René or of the admirals named Columbus
who were not even Italians; let us admit that part of his erudition
was second hand, for after all this does not detract from his greatness;
let us likewise forget the famous scene of Queen Isabella’s jewels, which
existed only on the palette of painters. (It is, indeed, true that
this symbolic scene, notwithstanding its falseness, is not opposed to
our historical sense, but rather strengthens it, because the picture
suggests the true division of affairs in the Spanish Government of
that time: King Ferdinand immersed in palace intrigues, matching
his strength against others’ with all the wiles and subtleties which
Gratian ascribes to him; while Queen Isabella—our Isabella—dreams
of wings added to Spanish valor, of lances everywhere on land and
of sails covering the sea.) But let us cling to what has been proved
true. Let us keep the boy, the son of weavers, at the family loom,
and let us keep him in the family trade, according to the wise practice
of the common people, until he is 22 years old, more or less. He
recelved no scientific education, nor was he a sailor from childhood;
perhaps he came to be one by chance when, travelling possibly in the
cloth trade, he was shipwrecked on the coast of Portugal—a country
which, at that time, was the valiant mother of all geographical
exploration. Columbus never became the most profound cosmo-
erapher of his time, but neither was he the worst, although he was
incapable of measuring a degree on the earth’s surface—it is not
indispensable for generals to know how to aim a cannon with their
own hands. Let us admit, following Gratian, that beside Columbus
the ‘“‘hero”’ Amerigo Vespuccio (who is not responsible for the fact
that his name was given to our continent and never knew it) appears
a modest, silent man; he was much more completely and carefully
instructed in science and had a narrative style as interesting as his
voyages. Beside that cosmopolitan Italian, enterprising, imaginative,
and visionary in his ideas, with no more wealth than inspiration, the
Andalusian Martin Alonso Pinzén is the professional, the technical
expert, the man of experience and wealth. In Columbus, we find
something like the inevitability of natural forces. Not without
roughness, not without madness, his great figure stands out in the
midst of an epoch charged with possibilities in which everything
began to appear feasible to man. At his side, the Pinzén brothers,
to whom the great deed owes much more than is commonly thought,
are the Castor and Pollux of the discovery. Let us not regard Chris-
topher Columbus as an isolated man, providentially fallen from heaven
with a new world in his head. It is true that he talked of unknown
lands ‘‘as if he had them in a box,”’ according to a picturesque phrase

ADDRESSES AT CEREMONY OF AWARD OF PRIZES 333

of Martin Alonso; but he was not the first who spoke of them, and
in this and in many other things he did no more than wash the sands
of ancient tradition and keep the grains of gold. On looking at Col-
umbus, we see about him a whole throng of wise and happy adven-
turers who prepare him, assist him, and follow him. The Columbus
Memorial Lighthouse will illuminate in memory not the egoistic
figure of a demigod who crushed human beings underfoot, but that
of a man grasping by the hand other men who explain and share his

glory.
IV

Let us carefully analyze this great event. Let us take apart the
laurel wreath brought as a tribute to Columbus, and trace the
antecedents of the 12th of October.

1. The mysticism of the west.—We have already discussed the vague
idea embedded in Mediterranean thought, an idea productive of
myths which, with the aid of medieval imagination, brought forth a
host of fascinating islands. Among these islands there was an Atlan-
tis—a magnet still attracting the investigations of geographers and
at the time of the Renaissance drawing men toward America.

2. Geographical discoveries—From the twelfth to the fifteenth
century, especially in the latter, there was a series of discoveries,
and thus the face of the earth became better and better known. The
west coast of Africa was traced little by little. From the Orient there
arrived overwhelming tales; the journey to the lands of Prester John,
the picture of exotic countries, broke the classic molds of history.
The Christian missions of the thirteenth century gave reply to the
Mongolian invasions and caused much comment. Marco Polo blazed
the trail of modern Asiatic geography which Oderico de Poderdone
completed and adorned with magnificent tales. In the fifteenth
century the Italy of Columbus already had a distinguished tradition
of explorers and cartographers; travels were the great public and
private enterprise; geographical ideas were breathed in with the air,
and every pilot was a discoverer.

3. The unknown colonies.—Ilt is admitted that possibly America had
been discovered, although the world was not yet ready to make use
of the fact, long before the time of Christopher Columbus. Such
early discoveries probably came about through the course of sea cur-
rents, of water highways on which lost barks were borne. There are
two sides to this question: the Pacific and the Atlantic. The hypo-
thesis of contact between America and Asia across the Pacific (the
reeds which the storm tears from the coast of Japan are wafted by
the waves to California) does not go beyond anthropological and
linguistic conjectures which, nevertheless, are very seductive. As for

11343332 Bull. 5 —3

334 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

the theory of De Guignes, who in the eighteenth century sought to
identify Mexico with the Fu-Sang of the Chinese, this has been com-
pletely refuted. Let us now consider the hypothesis (indeed, it is
more than a hypothesis) of contact with Europe across the Atlantic,
a subject better known to us and of much more interest, because the
memory of this contact might have reached Columbus as a tradition.
In the Atlantic there are three currents, three routes which lead from
the Old to the New World—that of the Canaries, which, with favor-
able winds, leads to the Antilles, was the route of Columbus; that
which, crossing the countercurrent of Guinea, arrives by way of the
southern equatorial current at the coasts of Brazil, was the route of
Ojeda and Alvarez Cabral; and the third, which leaves the shores
of the British Isles or Iceland, and reaches the coast of Greenland,
Labrador, or Newfoundland. This last was the route which Corte
Real was to follow, but long since it might have been pursued
by Normans, Basques, and Rochelais. From the Saga of Erik the
Red, it may be deduced that the Scandinavian adventurers traversed
it, but to seek in America the traces of those fiery pirates, merely
from the confused hints of this northern epic, would be a vain en-
deavor. It would seem that, without ever colonizing, they limited
themselves to rapid incursions. An exception is the case of Green-
land which, settled in the course of three centuries, slowly detached
itself from Europe under the attacks of the Eskimos, so that by the
fourteenth century it had already become again a mysterious land.

4. The economic imperative—While half humanity delighted itself
with the surprises of the Renaissance, the other—the world of mer-
chants and adventurers—lived in a frenzy of action, always longing
for the aromatic isles of spice. Indeed, the route to the Indies, the
necessity of finding a maritime outlet for trade with India, a necessity
apparent in Europe after Constantinople fell into the power of the
Turks, was a general preoccupation. The consequences of this de-
sire—and observe here the connection of historical facts—were to be
the discovery of the New World and the route around the Cape of
Good Hope. From Italy, whose mercantile genius had attained the
eloquence of its poetry, there sallied forth from time to time geogra-
phers more or less well trained to offer to whatever monarch might
desire it a new project, a new solution of the enigma of the passage
to the east.

5. Militant humanism.—Since Italy was the spokesman of the
epoch, what happened there happened to the world. Events chal-
lenged intelligence. Besides the humanists who traveled only in
books, there were others to whom we may apply the name of militant
humanists, because they purposely followed the quest of science and
traveled, so to speak, under the egis of wise men. Like our polar
heroes, Ciriaco Pizzicolli d’Ancona—to name but one in a hundred—

ADDRESSES AT CEREMONY OF AWARD OF PRIZES 335

did not seek any profit from his voyages, but simply intellectual
interest, and even left his merchant’s house to start out on a savant’s
tour, collecting documents in Italy, Greece, the Aigean and Asia
Minor.

In this environment, which already contains the embryo of the
discovery, appears the opportune hand of the magician, who makes
a few passes in the air, fuses the vague scattered elements, and offers
a coin on his palm.

Columbus inherited the papers of his father-in-law Perestrello and
with the papers much news. He talked eagerly with old sailors and
every where—in books, as well as in streets—he encountered what we
may continue to call the presage of America. Oviedo and Garcilaso
the Inca tell of a shipwrecked sailor who died in Columbus’s house,
bequeathing him documents. Pedro Velasco,. the pilot, gave Colum-
bus at La Rabida the approximate bearings of the Island of Flores,
150 leagues from Fayal. The one-eyed man of Santa Maria and the
Galician in Murcia talked of some ships which had been wrecked on
unknown shores, shores which might well be those of Newfoundland.
And there was a sailor from Madeira, whose testimony seemed vision-
ary, for on every journey he swore that he discerned unexplored lands.
Vasquez de la Frontera, when he was sailing in the Portuguese service,
also made certain observations. Oh, what eagerness to discuss news,
to mingle with the sailors in the ports, to talk with the old sea dogs,
to mix even with the offscourings of humanity to be found in the
taverns telling of shipwrecks and the miracles of the sea! These
dregs of reality were spiced with a little mythology. There was talk
with bated breath of two rich and goodly lands, Antilia and Cipango.
Antilia—ante isla, ‘‘island placed before,’ from which were derived
first Antilla and then Haiti—was a fabulous land which came to pre-
figure America. Cipango, the country most easy of access, which
should be found on the way to Asia, represented the route to India.
The die was cast for the least dangerous, but the most audacious
turned up. Searching for Cipango, the Discoverer found Antilia!
Some say that in his inmost mind, Columbus, in the beginning at least,
also had his ideas about Antilia, even though when he found land
he was already sure that he was nearing the domains of the Great
Khan. This can not be demonstrated, but it is not impossible.

Tf you still wish to convince yourself more completely of the part
which imagination played in the discovery, look at the favorite books
of the Great Discoverer. The list, I assure you, is edifying. Marco
Polo overwhelms him with glittering descriptions; in his book you
will find cities of marble, gold, silver, and precious stones, and the
picture of Cathay which the Middle Ages filled with monsters and

336 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

dragons; the Historia Rerum of Pius II is no less exciting; and the
Imago Mundi of Cardinal Ailly will give you your fill of griffins,
dragons, basilisks, licorns and unicorns, many-headed serpents, and
other terrifying creatures. In the mind of Columbus visions and
realities mingled. Like the elect and the prophets, he heard voices
on his fourth voyage. Meantime he sought for Eden in the Antilles;
he hoped for the opulent lands which Marco Polo had offered him,
and he would not have been surprised to find the country of the Ama-
zons and of the Anthropophagi. His contemporaries believed that
the Caribbean islands were the home of the Polyphemi and Lestrigo-
nians. Santo Domingo was turned into Ophir and the source of King
Solomon’s wealth. At the mouth of the Orinoco, Columbus believed
himself near Paradise, which an illness prevented him from reaching.
But let us not hesitate to sayit! A slight exaggeration does not offend
the decorum of history; the discovery is the result of both scientific
errors and poetical divination. Such is the complexity of human
affairs; so reason must bow down as something greater shines through.

Aver:

For America to become possible, for the discovery to burst into
being, it was needful that the spark of dreams should set off the
powder of reality. Who made the discovery possible? Let us leave
aside symbolical explanations, kings and gentlemen who gave only
good words, and let us come down to matters of fact. The discovery,
like all great Iberian deeds, was the result of private initiative. Let us
look again at the Pinzén brothers. The disputes between Martin
Alonso Pinzén and Columbus are of no importance to history. There |
are even those who pretend that Martin Alonso led Columbus over
a route already known to the former. The important thing is to take
into account that Martin Alonso was a rich shipowner, well known for
his seamanship and honesty; that he belonged to a numerous and
respected family; that he was a studious man well connected with the
savants in Rome and when necessary a brave soldier, as is proved by
his actions against the Portuguese; that of the three caravels of the
discovery, two were his; that, furthermore, he invested a third part
of his worldly wealth in the expedition; that, thanks to his personal
influence, his brothers and Juan de la Cosa, illustrious navigators,
decided to embark with Columbus; and finally that only because of
his personal prestige was it possible to recruit men for the trip, since
it is well known that before he intervened not a single member of the
crew could be obtained, and this in spite of the royal decree which
offered amnesty to all accused men who desired to enlist under
Columbus.

ADDRESSES AT CEREMONY OF AWARD OF PRIZES 337

Throughout Hispanic history private initiative is always in the
forefront, and to say private initiative is to say the people, the
Unknown Soldier, Juan Hspanol. Private initiative brought about
the Reconquest; its hero, the Cid Campeador, had been outlawed by
the King; however, at each new victory over the Moors he sent
presents to the monarch, because Spanish individualism is not
anarchical nor rancorous. For a time, with Ferdinand and Isabella—
who were homely people of true Spanish birth—private initiative
ascended the throne, and then the monarchy began to achieve the
unity of the kingdom. But Ferdinand and Isabella were unfortunate
in their descendants, and the foreign dynasties, the professional
dynasties, who succeeded them, either twisted the axis of Spanish
life or were unsuccessful in making points of contact between Spain
and Europe. Centuries later, at the time of the war of independence
against Napoleon, once again private initiative came forward to expel
the foreign invader, in despite of the monarch himself, who had
already surrendered.

To return to our America. At the hour of the discovery, we may
say that private initiative was exemplified in the Pinzén brothers;
at the time of the conquest, in Hernan Cortés, who began by rebelling
against Gov. Diego Velasquez and commenced a journey to Mexico
on his own responsibility. What were the adelantados, the flower of
the conquistadores, but private adventurers, who fought on their own
account aod at their own risk and whom the Crown sanctioned if they
were successful, as Alfonso VI sanctioned the doubtful deeds of the
Cid when they had been accomplished? Thus we have a wave of
private initiative, later communicated to the American colonies,
with the result, for instance, that the first settlers of New Spain,
immediately after the conquest in the sixteenth century, felt them-
selves different from and rivals to the recently arrived Peninsular
officials. And from this phenomenon, which had its equivalent in
every colony, was derived the germ of the new patriotism and the
desire for liberty. The Spanish Empire was not maintained by the
administration nor by maritime power, which indeed Spain never
had. The Spanish Empire was a miracle with no physical basis
which lasted three centuries only because of respect for the monar-
chical idea and for Catholicism, concepts deeply graven in the mind of
the Spanish people. Deficient, indeed, was the work of colonization;
half Spain’s inhabitants journeyed to America, where they lived as
they saw fit. Hence new nations were born. Let us bless the
commercial and economic inefficiency which produced them, and
let us also bless our Iberian mother countries, Spain and Portugal, since
independence signifies a break with the past much more than a break
with the mother country.

338 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Wali

After America was discovered, what should be done with it? Over
all conquests of matter the mind is supreme. Portugal and Spain
were roused by the discoveries, which soon took on an evangelical
character. The medieval crusades were succeeded by the American
crusade, and Pope Alexander divided between the two monarchies
the lands already found and to be found. From this moment Amer-
ica—whatever the contingencies and errors of history—commenced to
take form before the eyes of humanity as a place where justice might
be more nearly equal, liberty better understood, happiness more
complete and shared by more of the people—in other words, a
dreamed-of Republic, a Utopia. The idea of America was impressive
to the outstanding Europeans of that time. How many dreams
unfolded! As soon as America, like a nereid, lifted her head, there
was an almost overwhelming production of tales of Utopia. The
humanists revived the style of the political discussion in the manner
of Plato and began, their thoughts fixed on America, to dream of a
more fortunate humanity. Dogmas were crushed by the sight of
new customs. The possibility of other modes of civilization more
faithful to the earth was conceived and the Naked Philosopher of
Peter Martyr prepared the way for the Good Savage of Rousseau,
as full of natural virtue as a fruit of juice. American exoticism,
which Chinard, Dermenghem, and others had carefully studied,
seasoned literature with a new flavor. Unlike oriental exoticism,
which always limited itself to the picturesque, this American exoticism
had a moral purpose; that is, European literature sought to prove by
means of America an @ priori conception—the age of gold of the
ancients, the state of natural innocence, without acknowledging the
heretical aspect of this notion. Who amongst the most noble figures
of European thought could escape the mirage of America? America
left its mark on Erasmus, on Thomas More, Rabelais, Tasso, Mon-
taigne, Bacon, and Tomaso Campanella. If Juan Ponce de Leén
dreamed of finding a fountain of eternal youth in Florida, the philos-
ophers asked of the New World a stimulus for the political perfecting
of men. Such is the true American tradition on which it is our duty
to insist.

The testimony of Montaigne is singularly expressive. In his soul
was played the drama of America accompanied by that solemn
music of thoughts which still move us. Montaigne recognized that
the mere contrast between the things of the Old and the New World
awakened in him that comprehension of all doctrines which Bacon
and Shakespeare were to learn of him, that spirit of pardon, that

ADDRESSES AT CEREMONY OF AWARD OF PRIZES 339

charity. During the youth of Montaigne America was becoming
larger day by day, and gravitation toward America seemed to raise
him above the moral level of his time. He read eagerly the stories
of the chroniclers and, furthermore, as an official of Bordeaux, he
saw and wondered at the articles and merchandise imported from
the generous new land. In addition, one of his servants had lived 10
years in Brazil and recounted to him the customs of the New World.
Always disposed to welcome a paradox, Montaigne wondered whether
after all civilization were not an immense aberrance, if the American
man, ‘‘the beautiful nude Inca and the Mexican clad in feathers,”’
as Géngora said, were not nearer to the Creator, if customs did not
have only a relative basis. And he concluded by describing the
refinement and the art of the Edenlike towns of the Tupi-Guarani.
Montaigne said to himself that those indigenes were cannibals, but
questioned whether eating one’s fellow beings were not preferable to
enslaving and exploiting them as the civilized Europeans exploited
nine-tenths of humanity. Although America tortured its prisoners
of war, Europe, Montaigne thought, inflicted more tortures in the
name of religion and of justice. And here you see, induced by con-
tact with America, the mind of a representative European originating
the preliminary outlines of the boldest and most advanced points of
view held in our own times. This disagreement with the errors of
European thought went on acquiring more strength. This atmosphere
permeated Protestantism and Puritanism and, much more, Quaker-
ism, which finally took refuge in America. What a radiant promise
was the New World to all the discontented! While the merchants
made their plans for gain, while the Christian apostles, of illustrious
tradition in America, prepared their crusades for conversion, a whole
people of dreamers was moving toward Utopia.

America, it may be said without exaggeration, was desired and dis-
covered (I almost said invented) precisely as a field for the overflow
of the great quixotic impulses which could not be contained within
the old narrow limits of the world. The creators and discoverers of
America were those whose bodies or souls were athirst, those who
needed golden houses to satisfy their desire for luxury, or virgin
souls in which to implant the idea of God. Later America continued
to be a refuge of the persecuted: it was already the land in which
an accusing eye could not hinder the regeneration of Cain; it was
already the hospitable home for the proscribed Hugenots and other
Protestants.

Now came European colonization. For three centuries the slow
processes of germination weighed upon America; the ideal lived, but
in a dormant condition. For although the seed appeared at the time

340 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

of the discovery, later, when spiritual energies could find an outlet
only through the administration of the viceroys, that seed lay sleep-
ing beneath the soil. But it was not dead: on the contrary. As the
Americans won their independence, this ideal became more and more
clear, definite, and universal. During the nineteenth century the
ereatest Utopians—whether spiritualists, socialists, or communists,
whether their beliefs were true or mistaken—took their way to America
as to a promised land, where the happiness to which they all aspired
under different names might be realized without an effort. Hven
to-day the whole continent is an incarnation of hope and offers to
Europe a home for its human overflow.

Either this is the meaning of history or history has no meaning.
If it is not the meaning, it ought to be, and we Americans know it.
Immediate necessities, surface misunderstandings, may lead us astray
for a day or for a year and even for a hundred years; the great orbit
will be unaffected. The declination of our America is as surely fixed
as that of a star. America began as an ideal and continues to be an
ideal. America is Utopia.

Remember with what emotion Wilhelm Meister entertained the
idea of remaking his happiness in America. In the hands of Philina,
the good seamstress, the scissors tremble at the mere thought of
cutting out garments for those in the new colony. Lydia feels herself
school-mistress for the new generation. The grave Montan thinks
only of mines and mining. Behind them are pleasures and suffer-
ings, the years of apprenticeship and the years of aimless travels. O,
Goethe, profound poet! A light breeze dries the jubilant tears on
the cheeks of Felix as he returns to life. Standing in the prow, Wil-
helm Meister crosses his arms and, full of confidence in America,
contemplates the horizon.

VIII

The lighthouse will rise in that lovely isle whose configuration,
according to Peter Martyr, is that of a chestnut leaf. It is the island
of Santo Domingo, the ancestral home of America, the primacy of
the Indies, the chosen of the Admiral, which, according to Menéndez y
Pelayo, received from heaven beauty with misfortune and many
times had to remake itself through the storms of its history, strug-
gling patiently and alone as if it knew itself reserved for great des-
tinies. Now there will hasten to its coasts a pilgrimage of all the
peoples of America, bearing stones for the tower of our alliance.
That flag of light which moves over the water will mark the course
for the sailor and throw high on the heavens the Utopian promise of
America.

ADDRESSES AT CEREMONY OF AWARD OF PRIZES 341

LN)

Appreiss oF Nestor E. DE FIGUEIREDO, PRESIDENT OF THE BRAZILIAN
INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS

In this historic moment which brings the announcement of the
name of the architect to whose lot has fallen the honor of interpreting
the collective sentiment of the people of both Americas, the Brazilian
commission collaborating with the members of the Jury of Award in
the international competition for the selection of plans for the erec-
tion of a monumental lighthouse to the genius of Columbus, expresses
to the Pan American Union and the Permanent Lighthouse Committee
of the Union’s Governing Board its gratitude for the compliment paid
it and offers its highest praise to the spiritual discernment shown by
those in charge of the competition. The Brazilian architects who
are finding inspiration for the development of self-expression through
the medium of art under the guidance of the Central Institute of
Architects will always treasure as one of the most significant events
in the history of their profession the honor conferred upon their coun-
try by the choice of Rio de Janeiro as the place for the meeting of
the jury which has just made public the announcement destined to
be one of the important events of the century.

It is noteworthy that once again architects have been called upon
to immortalize through their art the sublime achievement of one
of the world’s great figures; and the monument whose design has been
chosen for this purpose will serve not only as a tribute to the moral
erandeur of one man but will symbolize the ties which unite all the
peoples of America.

Architecture is an art of deep social significance which reaches the
soul through a philosophy allits own. Before the architect envisioned
a monument worthy to stand forever there in Santo Domingo, his
was the experience of having been transported to the highest realms
of human thought. Then and only then did he create the design of
a monument to the Great Navigator which would kindle in the souls of
those who gazed upon it the divine flame of brotherly love.

Thus the united America disclosed to the world by the deed of the
Great Discoverer, now four centuries later proclaims to posterity by
the erection of this monument the imperishable glory of his name
and the spirit of the present age.

All hail to the winner of the competition!

All hail to those who with heart and mind have devoted themselves
to the task of bringing this project to a successful termination!

, 80] BIOULEUIU0D
JI IOIBAOOSTC YBOIH OY} JO YALE] PUB OBVANOD 4SeIPBaIS BY Jo AYYIOM JOJOvIBYD UT PUNOIZ 94 JO OAN}Le] [eJUEUTEIe B{qou ¥v SeMIOdeq sseUT aduns ey} “WueuTm0L

[AUS WIOLJ 10 IB OY} WOIJ Ud9G “INJOoITYOIB SB YAOM oY Jo AYnveq B[AUIIS OY} YIM SedeJ1o,UI WISTTOUIAS o1oYM 4UIOd oY} 07 JOU Inq dI[OYUTAS SI USISOp SIT,
‘S038 01} JO SJUSTINUOM }voId OY} AYJIOM 9d10J pu ‘A{IO[CUIIS ‘SSoM}OeIIP @ UT OBNJo1 OV} SOP JBI] JO osn [NJopuOM ZuryvuL ‘UFZISep ou ‘yuesqe ole Aimjued
YONUEM IMO ZUIZIOJOVIVYO WOTJONA{SMUOD UI SedIMOSEL MOU JO SUOISSeAdxe YSNOYYTY,, :pejwys ‘oavopy “T “f 04 oztad 4smy oy} BuIpeMeE ur ‘Aunt [euoNeusI0E} UI ONT,

ASNOOHLHSIT SAYWNTOO YOK NOISAG GALVINAYd AO THCOW

THE COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIGHTHOUSE
DESIGN

Boye dulce Gris Anan Ar vast AY
Author of the Design

THE IDEAL

HIS is an attempt to build the greatest monument the world has
ea seen. Thisis amonument to the greatest ideal in the world—
‘““Progress to God.’’ This is a monument to Christopher Columbus,
the chosen personification of that greatest ideal. Progress—the
innate urge; the irresistible aim of man since man was. God—the
mysterious power behind the world; that made the world; that is
the world and that will end the world.

Progress to God—the blind urge to progress that spurs us on to the
unknown end; that makes each discovery a step forward into the dark
and each invention another length of pathway lighted, until every-
thing is explained, and we know who we are, what we are, and why
we are.

INTERPRETATION OF THE IDEAL

Having this ideal of Progress to God, the problem is to convert it
to some striking and tangible form which will emphasize it to the
people who already realize it, and overwhelmingly convince those
who do not. How can this be done? Surely only by taking some
man (in this case Christopher Columbus, who of all men in history
best expresses this ideal) and, using him as the central theme, building
up the monument round him as the Greeks built their Parthenon
around the central theme of Pallas Athene, who embodied the ideals
of their age. And so we begin. We show Columbus starting from
nothing, building up in the form of a cross, surging forward through
pain, struggles, disappointments to achievement and a triumphant
end, shooting up to God. We show him sharp, clear, and distinct.
The vivid germ of the monument, and round this germ, we show his
spirit, like a halo. We show it by space indefinable, intangible, limit-
less, building up round his material life still in the form of the Cross,
still symbolizing his ideals. And round his spirit, guided by it, shaped
by it, we get Modern Progress, the increasing, irresistible surge of the
world through the centuries sweeping towards the light—the point
at which, like Columbus, our aspirations shoot upwards to God.

Does the form need justifying? Is it not obvious? Could the great
mass be anything but Progress, the march forward, the strong sweep

343

344 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

forward and upward? And can the Cross be anything but God?
The Cross permeates the whole country with its atmosphere. The
Cross means everything that is good. Whatever good spiritual or
material qualities are in the world are symbolized by the Cross.
What a great start it gives a monument to take the form of a Cross!
One glance and the visitor is prepared. He is struck at once with a
proper mood which can be played on. The Cross can never be cheap.
One light remark which can easily be made by one of the thousands
of visitors about any other symbol and the monument is ruined. No
one dare sneer at the Cross. Las Casas wrote in his diary: ‘‘They
made it a practice in all those countries and islands when they went
on shore, to set up and leave there a cross.’’ Columbus himself wrote:
‘“You shall set up crosses on all roads and pathways, for as God be
praised, this land belongs to Christians, the remembrance of it must
be preserved to all time.’”’ That in itself is enough.

DESCRIPTION

Let us follow the progress of a visitor through the monument. He
stands between the embracing arms of the loggias, in the court of
Columbus, gathering courage to enter the great slit. Above him
towers the great mass; he can not mistake the meaning. Not only its
very shape but the hundreds of names carved all over the surface
mark it unmistakeably as Progress. He would be fascinated by the
hieroglyphic names, deeds; hundreds of them, showing the building
up, century by century, from Columbus’s time to our own. Einstein,
Lindbergh, Mozart, Pizarro, only one small panel for each. All the
nations of the world; all the languages of the world. How smail he
would feel! How unimportant! Venturing finally into the slit,
between the great rough, red walls, he would be attracted directly
to the brilliant tomb in the center of the chapel, in the heart of the
monument. Around it a great encircling sheet of hght through
which he would glimpse the indescribable richness of the tomb itsel{—
the gem in the center of the whole 2,500-acre layout. On each side
of him the entrances to the museum and libraries, everything pecu-
liarly connected with Columbus being at this low level. And passing
the tomb, he would come to the great canyon of Columbus. Along
the center runs the long, serpentlike black-green granite tail of
sculpture, on which he follows the material life of Columbus rising
out of the pebbly, sandy floor of the canyon. The walls are of a very
rough texture, deep earthy red in color. The uncanny gloom, the
deathly silence, the overawing peace, perfect peace that transfers him
down the ages to Columbus’s own time; that makes him a participant
in the very spirit of Columbus; that makes him feel the confinement,
the gloom, the superstition of that age, and as they did, gathering
hope and courage from the view of present progress, high above his

THE COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIGHTHOUSE DESIGN 345

head. And then, rising to the top of the monument, he would be
struck with the openness of modern progress, and gazing down from
the heights, see far below, the thin, threadlike, unquenchable spirit
of Columbus, from which the whole monument takes its form, gather-
ing inspiration thereupon according to his nature, and the walk along
to the great beacon, the altar of modern progress. Would he see the
symbolism in the 21 spokes of the encircling brazier? The whole
monument is full of symbolism. Everything means something. Not

J. lL. GLEAVE

English architect whose de-
sign for the Columbus
Memorial Lighthouse was
awarded first prize in the
final stage of the interna-
tional architectural com-
position.

the crude sentimental variety which labels everything. If a thing is
labeled, a man would forget it by the time he reached the ground.
If, out of all the monument, he discovers one thing for himself, he
will remember it all his life, and then tell his children. And when
he finally reached the ground and took a last look, what thoughts the
monument might conjure up in his mind. An Aztec Serpent! An
Egyptian Sphinx! A conventionalized human body lying prostrate,
brain in the head held proudly up looking for new worlds to conquer!

346 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The very shape reminiscent of airplanes, ships, motor cars—an abso-
lute symbol of modern movement. And add to all this the climatic
conditions, sometimes hazy and blurred; sometimes sharp and distinct;
sometimes a heavy leaden look like the somber march of civilization
viewed over the centuries. Sometimes moving quickly, vividly, as
the breath-taking speed of modern progress appears to-day. Perhaps
he would be there to see the great flash along the canyon as the sun
takes its axis. These thoughts seem endless.

BIRD’S-EYE VIEW

Imagine the first sight of land from a trans-Atlantic air fight. A
tremendous cross inlaid in the ground. A double cross, showing the
parallel theme. A cross of an elongated shape, giving the idea of
progress. The whole the symbol of Columbus. From one’s first
sight it reads exactly the same as at close quarters. Surely a most
important point. It might be amusing in an exhibition to have some-
thing that changes as one gets closer, such as a cross from a distance,
a ship close to, but it would not have the enduring qualities necessary
for a monument of this kind, where the ideal must be clear and simple
in itself, carried forward ruthlessly to its logical and overwhelming
conclusion. A case where monotony is not monotony, but unity,
and a supreme singleness of purpose, like the Pyramids. The roads,
airport, seaport, and all other buildings are toned in with the forest.
Only the cross is white and vivid, like a flashing sword inlaid in the
ground. Has not every Christian member of the Church which built
the Americas been signed as a token of faith with the sign of the Cross,
and is it not a wonderful idea that the Americas as a whole should be
signed with the sign of the Cross, so that a traveler at his first view of
land knows that their ideals are also bound up with God? In olden
times to commemorate anything they set up crosses, market crosses,
town crosses, memorial crosses, with slight variations to suit the indi-
vidual circumstances. As they did, so do we. This is the first of the
air crosses.

COLOR

Imagine the green background of the jungle, slashed across with the
light green cross, carrying the vivid creamy-white cross of the monu-
ment’s mass, picked out in the center with vivid gold, purples, and
reds, like a gem set in the heart of the cross. The great slits of the
canyons a deep, earthy red color, telling for miles against the outer
mass, creamy yellow at the base, toning to white toward the center,
with the hieroglyphic lettermg brought out in reds and blues and
greens, darker at the top, fading off to the bottom.

PORTRAIT OF COLUMBUS, BY ANTONIO DEL RINCON

If the authenticity of this portrait could be established, it would be the most important of the Admiral.
It is extremely old and has been reproduced innumerable times. From time immemorial it has been in
what was until recently the private library of the Kings of Spain, and according to tradition, was painted
by the artist Antonio del Rincén after Columbus’s return from his second voyage. ‘The first copies were
published before the year 1600.

348 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

LIGHTING EFFECTS

And again, what of the night? The two great cross sheets of
blood red flame, forming the Cross of Columbus, surrounded by the
blinding white but more indistinct Cross of Modern Progress around
it, so that the same parallel and the same theme are kept up even at
night. On cloudy nights, casting a reflected cross on the sky, hover-
ing over all Santo Domingo and when clouds are high, casting up a
more blurred, but tremendous cross, a blood-red brother of the
Southern Cross. Even the effect of the ordinary lighthouse light.
One does not notice the actual revolving ray, only the pulsing effect
it gives to the whole monument, making it look like a great beast
crouching on the ground, panting evenly, ever awake and ever
watchful.

AS A SYMBOL

The most important point about a monument is that it should un-
mistakably refer to the man to whom it is built. It should be impos-
sible to confuse it with any other subject, but I do not know of any
monument that does. How could it? In this case one might show
a galleon, with a cross on its sails, and it could mean any crusader; at
close range one could have the name, perhaps a portrait figure, though
this presupposes familiarity with the picture of the man and his
deeds through the medium of books. But this is far from perfect.
The whole monument, however, far or near, should unmistakably be
embodied with the man. The only way is to make the whole thing
take the form of his symbol. The only sign which would be unmis-
takably the United States of America would be the Stars and Stripes,
which everyone recognizes as meaning all the ideals of the United
States. The only monument which could unmistakably be Chris-
tianity is the Christian Cross, which everyone recognizes as meaning
all the ideals of Christianity, which means in one symbol all the
beliefs and all the teachings of the Bible. It is far finer to put the
Christian Cross as a symbol on, say, a book than write ‘‘Christianity.”’
It symbolizes the greatest act of Christ. It has a meaning. As yet,
Columbus has no symbol, so I have invented one. It also has a
meaning. It would be placed on history books, on biographies, on
flags and monuments. To make a symbol seems rather a drastic
thing to do, but obviously all symbols must be started some time, so
why not Columbus now? At present, if a small child sees the Cross,
he knows it means Christianity, as surely as if the name were written.
If in the future he sees this long, pointed, double cross shape, he will
know it is Columbus. I am convinced this is the only way.

Swe
SS
Y

[hy

HunaryA:

‘ . ONVOREHV-N¥d
SS VE COM GO NAY)
ees? 2 Y
ee, ;
< x 4
g 4h
Cai
ve i
\ iM ;
‘QoRIBq [CIyWOPIsEAg Rae, a i
6 {2% Aivnigey uonseg ‘8 ‘ureyuNO H HS" i
snqumnpop ‘2 ‘yoyo oriesoy jo NUMBER tin iy j
summy ‘9 ‘esnoymoysng ‘¢ ‘snqumnjoo i

os9Iq Jo ssnoy oy} JO suiny ‘F
‘[eIpeuyeg ‘E feze[q WologD ‘% {19MOT, é
eseMOH “fT ‘seoUeIejey ‘“euloIpIE 4 Py
UBdIIOUIY UB 94} 0} SUIpPva, seTOTO F
-WN SBI 9p Oaseg 94} UI sIenbs youlq
® Aq PezVoIpur ‘esnouYySryT [eloMe/\y ;
snqunjoy ey} JO UolRo0, BUTMOYS

SUOIIAUS PUB OSUIMIOG OURS JO dey

ALIS HSNORLHOIT FHL --

113433—32—Bull. 5

300 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

DETAILS AND SITE PLANNING

The site planning is very obvious from the drawings. As no speci-
fied instructions were given as to accommodation required, it was
decided that only a suggestion as to the final layout should be shown,
providing, of course, that approximately the correct size of the various
units was maintained. Santo Domingo is a place with an atmosphere
completely its own. To suit and maintain this the other units have
been shown with what can only be described as a kind of confined
spaciousness. The approaches, roads, are quite big enough, but are
not monumental in, say, the Washington or Parisian sense of the
word. Such a layout would be unreasonably expensive, would ruin
the delicate air of Santo Domingo, and would take away the effect of
the great Cross. They could be toned down and broken up in scale,
colored if necessary, decided only after prolonged study from the air
itself.

Granting the positions of the airport and seaport, and then fixing
the distance to be traveled between them, it is surely far better to
use the coast road as the main connecting road. Not only is it a
more pleasant road to journey along, but it keeps the monument
itself isolated—almost lost in the jungle. If the main traffic road
were close to the monument, the desired effect could never be ob-
tained. For this reason also the bridge is brought down close above
the harbor mouth, joining up to the Calle Separacién, and the plant-
ing is let run to seed, though actually carefully led im the way it
should go. The roads leading to the monument itself are rough
and pebbly, only the road from the water gate is topped, and there
are wide, rough grass margins on each side of the roads, with the
forest creeping up and back, so that the monument can easily be
seen from the roads. The great mass shoots forwards, westward.
Civilization always travels westward, as did Columbus. When it
reaches the tomb it turns also north and south to both the Americas,
and from it radiate, fan-shaped, 21 roads, one for each of the Pan
American Republics. What a fine effect an array of flags round the
cross at the end of these roads would have! Under the foot of the
cross comes the great arena. If an arena is built for a huge concourse,
and it is only half filled, the effect is ruinous, but it is worse still to
have a small arena overcrowded. This point has received a great
deal of consideration in the scheme. At asmall gathering, the preacher
would stand in the slit, backed up by the gleaming tomb set back
in the darkness. If a large crowd gathered, the preacher would still
stand on the steps, ranks of soldiers, bands and choirs on the court
behind him, and the people on the terrace in front. Ifa tremendous

THE COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIGHTHOUSE DESIGN 351

crowd gathered, the great cross over the ditch could be used also,
so that however small or big the crowd, the monument seems
suitable.

An organ has not been placed in the monument because of the cost,
but how fine it would be if one could be installed! Perhaps a
Columbus requiem could be played every night through the ages.
Imagine it composed of a sevenfold phrase, starting very softly as
the lights are turned on, swelling louder and louder, the lights climb-
ing higher and higher, into a great final Gloria in Excelsis as the
lights shoot up to heaven, lighting up the watching crowds below.

Accommodation for the lighting equipment would be provided in
the hollow arms and head, as much as required. There is also a
basement under the chapel entered from the roads at the bottom of
the ditch, so that not only goods and machinery enter there, but
perhaps the principal in some meeting, entering at this level, goes
up the spiral staircase which rises to the top of the monument
into the chapel, suddenly appearing before the waiting thousands from
along the slit.

The mound asked for in the conditions has not been shown in
the drawings or the model, as it was thought that a monument of
this description was not in mind when the condition was framed.
If it was thought necessary, it is obvious how the great cross could
be raised above the ground level to the required height, giving a
very fine, but unfortunately expensive effect. Definition from the
air is given by the simple method of digging trenches in the ground.

CONSTRUCTION

As required by the conditions, the structure is steel framed, and
to the steel framing are clamped great slabs of reinforced concrete
with rebated joints. Concrete can be very fine nowadays, and natu-
rally it was used. The most extensive tests, samples, and specifica-
tions would be tried. The steel work is all of a standard, flat section,
forming a huge bird-cage effect of light members close together,
cross braced, making a tremendously strong structure at little cost.
The slabs of concrete would be cast on the ground beneath the
position they finally take up. This construction has been gone into
very carefully, and various experts agree as to its suitability.

THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

F’CourtesyJof.Sumner. Welles

‘\

SANTO DOMINGO

Founded in 1497, this city was the first permanent settlement in the New World. The site on the Ozama
River was selected by Columbus after deciding that an earlier location surveyed during his first visit in
1492 was unsuitable. Upper: The entrance to the port and a section of the city as seen from the air.
Lower: Looking toward the mouth of the Ozama River, from the city. The Memorial Lighthouse is
to be erected a short distance inland from the river bank at the left. In the foreground is a part of the

ruins of the House of Columbus.

ANCIENT AND MODERN

Ny,

COLONIAL FORTIFICATIONS OF SANTO DOMINGO

At the mouth of the Ozama River, on the left bank, stands the old Fortress and Homage Tower upon
which construction was begun in 1503. It is still used as a garrison for military forces and as a municipal
prison. Lower: Bastion 27 de Febrero. Originally a fort in the city wall, it was converted into the main
gateway to the city from the land side to commemorate a victory over the English expedition in May,
1655. Since February 27, 1844, when Dominican independence was proclaimed, it has been known by
its present name,

THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

Courtesy of Sumner Welles

ene i

COLUMBUS PARK AND CATHEDRAL, SANTO DOMINGO

In the old section of the city is the main plaza, in which a luxuriant growth of trees and flowers forms a
tropical setting for the statue of the Great Admiral. The north entrance to the Cathedral, whose foun-
dation stones were laid in 1514, faces the park. The frescoes surrounding the doorway of the fagade have
mellowed to soft tones from exposure to the elements during passing centuries. Within the nave is a
memorial to Columbus.

{

Leeman

ANCIENT AND MODERN

Courtesy of the Dominican Lighthouse Committee

INDEPENDENCE PARK AND AVENUE, SANTO DOMINGO

The city’s charm is not confined to its colonial remains, as it possesses the comforts and conveniences of
modern civilization, including well paved and illuminated streets, beautiful parks, recreation resorts,
and fine residences. A network of modern highways extends from the capital in all directions, con-

necting it with other cities and regions and affording the visitor an opportunity of viewing the varied
and marvelous Dominican scenery.

THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

Courtesy of the Dominican Lighthouse Committee

THE HISTORIC CEIBA, SANTO DOMINGO

According to tradition, Columbus’s caravel was moored to this great ceiba tree when he disembarked
on the shore of the Ozama River at what is now the city of Santo Domingo.

ANCIENT AND MODERN

CASTLE OF DIEGO COLUMBUS,
OR “HOUSE OF THE ADMI.
RAL”

This imposing edifice was built between
1510 and 1514 by Don Diego Colon,
eldest son of the Great Discoverer,
Viceroy, Second Admiral of the Indies,
and Governor of the Island. The
ruins rise on the banks of the Ozama
River, near its mouth, on land given
Don Diego by a Royal Mandate dated
in Seville May 24, 1511. The Viceroy
Don Diego established himself here
with his wife, Dona Maria de Toledo
y Rojas, the grand niece of King
Ferdinand, and daughter of Don Fer-
nando de Toledo, court official and
brother of the Duke of Alba, with the
splendid and brilliant retinue that sur-
rounded the Vicereine, composed of a
large number of noble ladies and gen-
tlemen. Here also was quartered the
corps of halbardiers that formed the
Vicereine’s guard. In the vast apart-
ments were born their seven children,
and here died in 1514 the Adelantado
Don Bartolomé Col6n and in 1549
Dona Maria de Toledo y Rojas. At
present the castle is a huge and ruinous
mass, with vines growing over its
cracked gray stones and sheltering a
multitude of doves.

THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

THE FORT OF SAN GERONIMO AND THE CHURCH OF SAN NICOLAS

The fort of San Geronimo is another of the historic ruins of great importance in Santo Domingo. The
invasion of Sir Francis Drake, on January 11, 1586, made it necessary to prepare defenses on the parts of
the shore near the city. ‘This fort was constructed in 1628. The Church of San Nicolas de Bari was the
first stone church built in the New World. It was erected between 1503 and 1508 by the illustrious and
progressive Fray Nicolas de Ovando, Comendador de Lares in the Order of Alcantara, founder of 10
cities in ‘‘La Espafiola”’ (or Hispaniola), and Governor of the island from 1502 to 1509,

ANCIENT AND MODERN

nn ia i

GOVERNMENT BUILDING AND PUBLIC SCHOOL

‘The new Constitution of the Dominican Republic was proclaimed on June 20, 1929. ‘The executive branch
of the Government is represented by the President of the Republic, who is elected by direct vote every
four years, and a cabinet composed of seven Secretaries. The National Congress, composed of the Senate
and the Chamber of Deputies, meets in the city of Santo Domingo on February 27 and August 16 each
year, for a period of 90 days. The Judicial Power consists of the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal,
and other lesser tribunals. Public education is under the control of the National Council of Educa-
tion, of which the president ez officio is the Secretary of Justice and Public Education, and the secretary
is the Superintendent General of Education. Among the centers of higher education, the Central Uni-
versity of Santo Domingo is of special mention. Founded in 1558, it now has Schools of Law, Medi-
cine, Odontology, Pharmacy, and Engineering.

THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

Courtesy of Sumner Welles

SANTIAGO DE LOS CABALLEROS

This is the second city of importance of the Dominican Republic and one of the most ancient on the island.
The original city of Santiago’was founded in 1500,}but.an earthquake in 1564 completely destroyed it.
The present city, a commercial center, was built near the Rio Yaque. It is famous for having been the
scene of the battle of March 30, 1844. which decided the issue of national independence,

ANCIENT AND MODERN

MOLE AT SAN PEDRO DE MACORIS AND VIEW OF PUERTO PLATA

San Pedro de Macoris is a beautiful modern seaport situated in the southern part of the Republic. It may
be considered the sugar center of the country, for in its vicinity are situated the principal sugar mills and
plantations. Puerto Plata is situated on the north coast of the island, at the foot of the beautiful Mount
Isabel de Torres, and was founded by Christopher Columbus. In 1605 it was destroyed by order of the
King of Spain, but was rebuilt in 1750. To-day it is one of the finest, most picturesque, and important
towns of the Republic.

THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

Courtesy of Sumner Welles

NEW AUTOMOBILE HIGHWAYS

The considerable development of modern methods of communication has reduced distances in such a
manner and has made transportation so pleasant that the number of those who look for new a.d agree-
able impressions in foreign countries steadily grows greater. Numerous trips by automobile may be
taken in the Dominican Republic. A few years ago a great highway was opened connecting Santo
Domingo with Port-au-Prince, the capital of Haiti, and traversing some of the most superb scenery to
be found in the Western Hemisphere. The views on this trip, which requires only niae hours by auto-
mobile, indicate the diversity of climate and topography to be found within the limits of the Dominican
Republic. Another high road also connects La Vega, Moca, and Santiago, running through a fertile and
picturesque countryside.

ANCIENT AND MODERN

Courtesy of Sumner Welles

CULTIVATION OF TOBACCO AND LIVESTOCK RAISING

The eastern part of the Dominican Republic has many miles oflfields planted to sugarcane. In the Province
of Seybo, the easternmost of the Republic, there are excellent grazing lands, which, Honwitbstaneine ihe
mahogany and mango trees growing here and there, look like the cattle ranges of the western part of t ze
United States. Some of the best livestock in the country is raised in this region. Directly to the north
and beyond the Cordillera Central which forms the watershed of the Republic, is a fertile plain, calle d
the Vega Real, or Royal Plain, by Columbus. Here the principal products of the national wealth, cacao
and tobacco, are cultivated,

COLUMBUS
AS SEEN BY HIS CONTEMPORARIES *

By Dorotuy PLercHER HowsERTH

EADEERS interested in Columbus’s daring exploits of 1492 revel
R in the early allusions to his discoveries in books written over 400
years ago by the Genoese Admiral’s own friends and contemporaries.
Unique with their oddly printed pages, and brown with age, the ancient
volumes serve as a link between our age and the days when the Great
Navigator sailed the seas. How odd, in this era of submarimes and
dirigibles and swift ocean liners, to be handling and reading books
that have come down to us from a time when tiny sailing vessels were
considered the last word in navigation.

On the shelves of the Rare Book Room in the Library of Congress at
Washington are 10 books relating to the discovery of the New World
which were included among the 3,000 incunabula purchased by
Congress from Dr. Otto H. F. Vollbehr in 1930. Doctor Vollbehr’s
aim, it has been pointed out by a member of the Library staff, was to
get together a collection that would show what the people of the
fifteenth century were thinking about. His library is representative
to an amazing degree of every sort of publication that came from the
fifteenth century presses. Apparently nobody else thought that the
fifteenth century books best worth having were those that show the
mind of that century.

Particularly intriguing in this group of 10 rare Americana is a
picturesque little volume with an old binding of oak boards and
half-leather sides, besprinkled generously with worm holes. Broken
metal fasteners are attached so that the book may be snapped shut.
This is none other than the highly prized Verardus volume, published
in Basel on April 21, 1494, and celebrated because it includes the
famous ‘‘Columbus Letter,’ an account of the admiral’s first voyage
to America, together with six woodcut illustrations of the trip, the
very first news pictures to depict the discovery of the New World.

The ‘‘Columbus Letter” is preceded by a drama in dialogue on the
siege and capture of Granada from the Moors by King Ferdinand.
Written by Verardus and acted in Rome in 1492, it begins in this
wise: ‘“To the praise of the most illustrious Ferdinand, King of the
Spains, Bethica and Granada, the siege, victory and triumph. And
of the islands newly discovered in the Indian Sea.”’

1 First published in the magazine section of The Sunday Star, Washington, D. C., November 15, 1931,
and here reprinted by courtesy of the author, Dorothy Pletcher Howerth, and The Swnday_Star.

364

Pe I

ys #

7 Hispers

asi

is. Beene

STRANGE SIGHT SEEN BY COLUMBUS

Among the many strange things reported to have been seen by Columbus on his voyages across the A tlantic
was a “‘fish big enough for mass to be said on its back.’’ This picture, from an old print, also shows
the mythical Fortunate Isles and St. Brandan’s Isle.

The title-page clearly explains why these two works were published
together, for by them is commemorated the important year 1492,
when there occurred two events exceedingly vital to Spain—the dis-
covery of America and the destruction of the Moorish power.

Although eminent historians claim that followimg the discovery of
America, Columbus’s amount of fame was not what it should have
been, yet the letters he wrote when nearing the Azores on the return
from his first voyage, immediately whet the public interest and were
in great demand.

The story goes that on his first return trip from America, when in
the Canary Islands, February 15, 1493, Columbus penned in Spanish
his first official account of the discovery and addressed it to Luis
de Santangel, Secretary and Steward of the Royal Household, but
intended it, of course, for the eyes of King Ferdinand and Queen
Isabella of Spain. This letter was printed in a small quarto of four
leaves in Spain shortly after Columbus’s arrival in that country.

Columbus dispatched a similiar letter, also in Spanish, this time to
one Gabriel Sanchez, the Crown treasurer. Although the original of
this has never been found, it has come down to us through a transla-
tion in Latin, made by Leander de Cosco in Naples on April 29, 1493,
and not less than six editions of this Latin version were printed in
that same year. This version is the one included in the Verardus vol-
ume. Itis thought that two Genoese ambassadors, who left Barcelona

11384383—32—Bull. 5——5

366 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

shortly after Columbus’s return, may have taken to Italy with them
a Spanish edition of the letter.

“The letters to Sanchez and Sant4ngel,’’ says Henry Harrisse,
distinguished authority on Columbus, ‘‘together with the abstract
of Columbus’s Journal in the hand of Las Casas, preserved in the
archives of the Duke del Infantado, and published for the first time
by Navarrete, and the extract from Bernaldez, .. . compose the sum
total of all that we know concerning the first voyage of Columbus.”

At any rate, we have the Sanchez letter in our Verardus book—
incidentally, the first edition of Verardus with the discovery letter—
safely reposing on the shelves of our Rare Book Room. In fact, we
have two, because the Library of Congress already had a Verardus in
its famous Peter Force Collection.

‘Having now accomplished the undertaking upon which I set out,”’
says the Columbus Discovery Letter in the Verardus book, ‘I know
that it will be agreeable to you to be informed of all I have discovered
in my voyage. On the thirty-third day after I left Cadiz I reached
the Indian Ocean, where I found many islands peopled by innumer-
able inhabitants; of all which I took possession without resistance.
The islands abound in the finest variety of trees, so lofty that they
seem to reach the stars. These people are of a very timid disposition,
an uncommonly simple, honest people, liberal in bestowing what
they possess.”

The woodcuts in Verardus of the landing of Columbus, being the
very first illustrations to depict the discovery of the New World, are,
of course, of extraordinary interest. Indeed, it is frequently stated
that they were drawn by Columbus himself, but who can say?

The title-page displays a woodcut of a full-length portrait of King
Ferdinand of Spain, dressed in armor, holding the escutcheon of
Castile and Leon in his right hand and that of Granada in his left,
and the words ‘‘Fernandus Rex Hyspanie.”’

The next woodcut depicts Columbus and another marimer in a
boat landing on the shores of America and offering a goblet to the
half-frightened, unclothed natives, some of whom are advancing,
while others are running away. A caravel or small sailing vessel is
in the foreground. At the top of the picture are the words ‘‘Insula
Hyspana”’ (Santo Domingo).

Then there is a woodcut of a map of the islands discovered by
Columbus on his first voyage, depicting Hispaniola, Fernandina,
Ysabella, San Salvador, and Santa Marfa de la Concepcion.

A town and fort in the process of construction by the seaside,
with the words ‘‘Insula Hyspana”’ (Santo Domingo), form the theme
for another picture; the next is a single escutcheon of Castile and Leon,
and, finally, there is an exquisite full-page woodeut of Columbus’s

COLUMBUS AS SEEN BY HIS CONTEMPORARIES 367

flagship, in full sail, showing the Great Navigator’s cabin on the stern,
with these words above: ‘‘Oceanica Classis.”

Scarce, indeed, are contemporary references in a printed book to
new discoveries during the progress of Columbus’s second voyage, or
in the interval previous to the undertaking of the third voyage, in
the spring of 1498, but we find some in Sebastian Brandt’s Ship of
Fools, Zacharius Lilias’s De Origine et Laudibus Scientiarum, Antonius
Nebrissensis’s Cosmographiae Libri, and Fedia Inghirami’s funeral
oration on Prince John, son of Ferdinand and Isabella, in which he
mentioned the New World. All of these except the last mentioned
are among the Vollbehr Americana.

Strange as it seems, there was surprisingly little written about the
brave Genoese admiral’s exploits in his era, and many famous his-
torians in the early part of the sixteenth century utterly ignored
Columbus in their chronicles. The above-mentioned Sebastian
Brandt’s Ship of Fools, published at Augsburg in 1497—an amusing
satire on the follies of society—contains one of the earliest printed
references to the discovery of the New World.

This beautiful little edition of 147 leaves is illustrated with 116
of the quaintest woodcuts imaginable; on the title page is a woodcut
portraying four boats loaded with ‘‘fools.”” The picture accompany-
ing the reference to the New World is of two ‘‘fools”’ or jesters, one
of whom is holding a compass, while the other leans on a window
sill gazing out at him.

The Library of Congress also owns an English version of the Ship
of Fools, almost as unique as the older one in Latin, in which both
Latin and English text are included. At the top of the title-page is
the title in Latin, while at the bottom one reads: ‘‘The Ship of Fooles,
wherein is shewed the folly of all States, with divers other workes
adjoined unto the same, very profitable and fruitful for all men.”’

Its New World reference trips along in this manner:

For now of late hath large lande and grounde

Bene founde by maryners and crafty governours,
The which landes were never knowen nor founde

Before our time by our predecessours,

And hereafter shall by our successours
Perchaunce more be founde, wherein men dwell,
Of whom we never before this same heard tell.
Ferdinandus that late was King of Spayne,

Of lande and people hath founde plentie and store,
Of whom the biding to us was uncertayne,

No Christian mane of them heard tell before:

Thus it is folly to tende unto the lore,

And unsure science of vain geometry,
Since none can knowe all the world perfectly.

Zacharius Lilias also referred to the new discoveries during Co-

lumbus’s second voyage, in his work published in Florence in 1496,

368 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

the title of which seems to be ‘‘The origin and honor of the sciences.
There are no Antipodes. The misery of man and contempt for the
world. The origin of winds. The life of Charlemagne.” On page
40 Lilias makes one of the earliest printed allusions to the discovery
of America, as follows: ‘‘The case seems to demand that I explain
shortly in what time the ocean may be crossed, lest any one think
it extraordinary that, the King of Spain, as is reported, is sending
navies to explore new shores.”
The third in this trio who
early mention Columbus’s deeds,
Antonius Nebrissensis, does so
in his description of the world,
Cosmographiae Libri, published
in 1498. Vastly interesting to
Columbus scholars is the fact
that a copy of this work in the
Columbine Library at Seville
contains notes in the handwrit-
ing of Columbus. Says Nebris-
sensis of the New World: ‘Such
is the daring spirit of the men of
our times, that they will soon
bring us a fine description of
that land, both of the islands,
and of the continent, of a great
part of the sea-earth whereof the
sailors have given us an account;
that part chiefly which hes op-
posite to the newly discovered
i ot _ islands, Hispana, Isabella, and
A woodcut of a map of Hispaniola, Fernandina, Ysa-

bella, San Salvador, and Santa Maria de la Con- the others adjacent to them.”’
cepcion, discovered on the first voyage of Columbus.

Stan

Courtesy of the Sunday Star Magazine

ISLANDS DISCOVERED BY COLUMBUS

This illustration is from the Colwmbus Letter, pub- Baptista Mantuanus’s three
lished in Basel in 1494, in connection with a drama C . =
by Verardus on the capture of Granada. works included in the Vollbehr

Americana are tremendously
valuable. The three of them were published in 1499, but in different
places—one in Venice, another at Basel and the third in Florence.
Two of them even have the same title, The Three Golden Books of
Patience, but their subject matter is different.

The one hailing from Venice has this to say about Columbus’s dis-
coveries: ‘““* * * and especially because in our days through the
activity of the Kings of Spain * * * have been found islands
inhabited by man, and also much larger than ours, to the point of
having a circumference of 3,000 miles and more. Of these neither
Strabo, nor Ptolemy, Pomponius Mela, Pliny nor any of the ancient

COLUMBUS AS SEEN BY HIS CONTEMPORARIES 369

writers makes any mention, from which it is evident that they were
unknown till the present.”

And the Basel volume records the discovery story this way:
‘ce * * in our own days through the munificence of the King of
Spain, many islands have been discovered, in the Atlantic, Ethiopic
and Indian Oceans, even beyond the tropic of Capricorn and the
Torrid Zone, where the other inhabitable part of the earth is estab-
lished. * * * These islands are not mentioned by Strabo,
Ptolemaeus, Pomponius Mela, or Pliny; in fact, no writer of classical
antiquity refers to them.”’

Mantuanus’s third volume, Omnia Opera, of goodly size with its
396 leaves, chants of ‘‘the land of the free and the home of the
brave”’ in verse:

So, hitherto unknown to Northern lands,
There lay a continent beyond the seas,
Remote and cloistered by lapping shores.
But now Iberic courage cleaves the waves
Seizes the Pole and swings from east to west,
From west to east, as now, a sailor guiding,
The winds sweep in our Indian argosies.

Pope Pius IJ, or Aeneas Sylvius, as he was called, was a writer
whose books appealed to a wide audience. In fact, his History of
Persons, Places, and Things, published in Venice in 1477—this is
among the Vollbehr Americana—influenced Columbus considerably.
The Columbine Library at Seville has a copy, the margins of which
are crammed with scientific and geographical annotations in Colum-
bus’s handwriting; on one of the fly leaves is a transcription made by
him of the famous letter Toscanelli wrote to Canon Fernandez Mar-
tins. It is thought that the admiral took it with him on his fourth
voyage, because he quoted from it in his letter dated July 7, 1503.

Columbus also read the Herameron, written by St. Ambrosius, and
published in Augsburg in 1472. From this he quoted extensively in
describing his third voyage. This, too, is in the Vollbehr collection.

The tenth item on our list of Vollbehr Americana is nothing less
than a first edition of that widely celebrated work, Hartmann Schedel’s
Nuremberg Chronicle—a compilation of universal history—published
at Nuremberg in 1493, three or four months after Columbus had re-
turned and announced the discovery of the New World. This de-
lightful pictorial description of the world, compiled by a Nuremberg
physician, is illustrated with over 2,200 woodcuts made by Pleyden-
wurff and Wolgemut, who was the master of that great genius,
Albrecht Diirer.

“Tf Koberger had printed only this Chronicle,” says Dibdin, “he
would have done enough to place his name among the most dis-
tinguished of his typographical brethren.”’

370 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

THE FIRST MASS SAID IN AMERICA

An illustration from the volume ‘‘Nova Navigatio Novi Orbis,’’ by Honorius Philoponus, published in
Munich in 1621,

But our hero, Christopher Columbus, gets a set-back in this volume,
for here, on page 290b, the discovery of America is claimed for Martin
Behaim of Nuremberg and Diogo Cam, a Portuguese, explorers in the
service of John II, of Portugal. In 1483, it says, “‘these two, by the
erace of God, crossed the Equinoctial line and sailed to another world
where, facing the East at noon, their shadows fell on their right hands,
and where they discovered new lands.”

However, this passage is not in the German edition of the same
year; and it has been shown that it is a spurious interpolation, as it
is written in a different hand in the Latin text of the manuscript of the
Chronicle, still preserved in Nuremberg. And that seems to put Herr
Behaim out of the picture. In all fairness to this gentleman, however,
it is thought that he was not the one who made the claim, for a globe
which he himself made in 1492 shows no sign of the alleged voyage.

Naturally the Behaim claim, although proven false, has had some
advocates, who have written querulously inconsistent books trying to
rob Columbus of his just glory. But human nature being what it is,
we should have had such writers just the same, even had there been
no Nuremberg Chronicle.

In addition to its priceless Vollbehr Americana, the Library of Con-
eress possesses many other exceedingly rare works by writers of
Columbus’s time or a little later. There are volumes by Bartolomé
de las Casas, famous for his transcript of Columbus’s Journal of his
first voyage, editions of Peter Martyr, Oviedo, Gryaeus, Herrera,
Benzoni, Enciso, Philoponus, Giustiniani, Waldseemiiller, Jovius, De
Bry, Vespucius, and many more.

PPC ES BPD ICL BS Le ee eo Ta eae Aaa a i ii he lar

SPR SS Coe ee a oats i cataes

iv ate a

ae py >

COLUMBUS AS SEEN BY HIS CONTEMPORARIES 27k

One may visit the Rare Book Room, which is under the very efficient
supervision of Mr. V. Valta Parma, the curator, and there, if he is
looking for first-hand information on his history, browse through He-
rrera’s famous Decades, filled with entertaining 3-inch-square woodcuts
of early American explorations. And the critics say that Herrera
stands first among the earlier writers.

There are works by that colorful writer, Fernandez de Oviedo, a
native of Madrid, whose years of sojourn in America in numerous
high positions fitted him for describing events here so vividly. In
fact, he knew Christopher Columbus personally. His work is a
source from which most writers have drawn their accounts of the
early happenings in America. Indeed, he became famous as the author
of the greatest contemporary history of the New World, and well he
might have known the trend of affairs here, for he spent 34 of the 79
years of his life in America, crossing the Atlantic eight times. His
Historia de las Indias (1535-1557), the greatest Spanish history of the
Indies, containing woodcuts of American interest, is in the Library here.

And then there is Fernandez de Enciso’s Summa de Geographia
(1519), i which his description of America is chiefly from his own
observation. It was he who owned the vessel and big-heartedly
planned the expedition that made Balboa famous. <A great hydro-
erapher and explorer, his work is considered of high value for the
early geographical history of America.

Ah, but here is the volume that draws everybody’s gaze like a
magnet—Honorius Philoponus’s Nova Navigatio Novi Orbis (1621).
Strange that this most curious and interesting pictorial volume of
Americana which tells the story of Father Buell’s attempt to Chris-
tianize the new land, is not better known.

In order to bring Christianity to the Indians, the King of Spain sent
Father Buell and 12 monks over here with Columbus on his second
voyage in 1493. He had many disagreements with Columbus and
upon returning to Spain spoke most maliciously about him.

The book contains two portraits—one of Columbus, the other of
Father Buell—and 17 full-page plates picturing Columbus and the
monks holding the very first mass in the New World, Indians attack-
ing Columbus’s expedition which is attempting to land, Indian tortures
and battle scenes.

And who would pass by Vespucius’s Paes: Novamente Retrovati of
1507— the earliest known collection of voyages which has been printed?
It consists of six ‘‘books’’ which discuss Vespucius’s exploits; also
those of Columbus in Book 4, ‘‘How the King of Spain Fitted Out
Two Ships for Columbus,”’ and Book 5, ‘““The New World.” Even
today this book is considered an excellent source of information.

A tiny booklet containing the oration by the Spanish statesman,
Carvajal, always commands attention. This is of immense value
because in this document, on July 19, 1493, before Pope Alexander VI,

Bi THE PAN AMBRICAN UNION

Carvajal made what is considered the second printed report on the
discovery of America.

Martin Waldseemiiller’s Cosmographie Introductio (1507) has an
account of Americus Vespucius’s four voyages, to be sure, but it enters
the hall of Americana fame because it holds the first printed suggestion
that the New World be called ‘‘America.”’

For the first 10 years after the death of Columbus, contemporary
references to the Great Navigator were exceedingly scarce. But im
1516 we find the earliest biography of Columbus. And where?
Strange, indeed, but in a polyglot Psalter—written in Greek, Hebrew,
Arabic, and Chaldean, by one Giustiniani, Bishop of Nebbio, and
published at Genoa. In annotating the text, the editor, in a marginal
note to the fourth verse of the Nineteenth Psalm, inserted a sketch
of Columbus’s life, because the hero of 1492 had claimed that he was
selected to fulfill its prophecy. This narrative includes several in-
teresting points not found in any other writings.

The second biography of Columbus, together with the oldest like-
ness of the great explorer that is in existence, appeared in the Elogia
Virorum Illustrium of 1575, by Paulus Jovius. This attracts the
portrait seekers.

When Columbus’s son, Ferdinand, read Giustiniani’s Psalter
account, he became exceedingly angry because of the statement that
his father was born of low parentage, and unjustly accused the writer
of tellmg 13 les about his famous parent. But im spite of Ferdi-
nand’s frantic attempts to connect his father’s descent with the
Colombos of an ancient line, the world continues to say that Chris-
topher Columbus was the son of a wool weaver. Finally, Ferdinand
himself, tremendously upset by the Psalter account, wrote a biography
of his father over the authenticity of which the critics have been
fighting for a number of centuries.

Nevertheless the naive Psalter account continues to hold the public
interest, and here it is:

Then it was Christopher, named Columbus, a Genoese by birth, of low family,
who in our times, by his energy, explored in a few months a greater extent of
land and of sea than almost all the rest of mankind ever did in all past ages. And
it is a wonderful thing, now verified, and visited not by a few ships only, but by
whole fleets and armies going to and fro. He, who had scarcely received the
first elements of education in his childhood, applied himself to the study of navi-
gation after he grew up. His brother had been to Portugal, and while in Lisbon
followed the business of delineating representations of the sea, of ports, and of
shores, for the use of mariners.

From him he acquired his knowledge of gulfs and islands through such pictures.
It may be supposed that he [Columbus’s brother] obtained his information from
some of those who went yearly, by order of the king, to explore unknown parts
of Africa, and the distant shores of the ocean between the South and West.
Having conversed often with such men, and comparing the information received
from them with the ideas suggested by the pictures and what he had read in
works on cosmography, he came at last to the opinion that it was possible for

eee

COLUMBUS AS SEEN BY HIS CONTEMPORARIES 3/3

one who, starting from the African shore where it turns southward, should sail
in a southwesterly direction, to find, in a few months, either an island or the
extremity of the continent of India.

As soon as he understood these things sufficiently from his brother and con-
sidered them seriously within himself, he informed some of the noblemen of the
Spanish king that he thought, if he could obtain from the king the means of
executing his design, he should be able to discover new lands, find new nations,
and penetrate to regions hitherto unknown, and much more promptly than the
Portuguese.

The king soon heard of it, and partly to emulate the Portuguese monarchs,
partly for the sake of such discoveries and of the glory which might result from
them for himself and his posterity, after having long conversed on the subject with
Columbus, ordered two ships to be fitted out. Starting with these and sailing
towards the Fortunate Isles, Columbus set his course a little to the south of west,

CHRISTOPHER COLUM-
BUS

The oldest likeness of the ex-
plorer in existence, which
appeared in ‘‘Elogia Viro-
rum Illustrium’’ by Paulus
Jovius, a book of biographies
of famous men published in
1575.

first about southwest, then, when further out, almost due west. After they had
been many days out, and it was known by the reckoning that they had already
gone over a distance of 4,000 miles, his men, having lost all hope, urged him to
retrace his steps and set sail in a contrary direction.

But Columbus, persevering in his design, promised them, according to his own
conjectures, that after one more day of navigation they would find either a con-
tinent or some islands. They trusted him. And, indeed, the next day, having
discovered I do not know what lands, the sailors bestowed the most enthusiastic
praises on him, and reposed the utmost confidence in his opinion.

These were islands, as they ascertained afterward, almost innumerable, and
not far distant from a certain main land, as appearances indicated. It was
observed that some of these islands were inhabited by wild men called cannibals,
who are fond of eating human flesh, and disturb the neighboring nations with their
robberies; they build canoes out of large logs, for the purpose of crossing over to
the nearest islands, and hunt for men to devour, as wolves would do. And

374 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Columbus had the good fortune of capturing one of those canoes with its men.
That was not accomplished without a bloody contest. Those men were after-
ward brought safely to Spain.

The island first discovered was called “Hispana’’. They saw in it men innumer-
able, and conspicuous for their poverty and nakedness. These were invited in
a friendly manner by signs to approach, and attracted. with presents. When the
natives came nearer, it was clearly seen that they were struck with wonder and
admiration by the white faces of our men, so unlike their own, by their appearance,
their extraordinary arrival, and by everything about them, as if they had come
from Heaven. Their complexion is quite different from ours, although it is not
black, but very much like the color of gold. * * *

Having accomplished his purpose, Columbus resolved to return to Spain.
Fortifying the place of which he had first taken possession, he left only 40 men
to keep it and sailed homeward. He was favored with a good voyage, and as soon
as he reached the Fortunate Isles, sent messengers with letters to the king, who,
when apprised of all those things, rejoiced wonderfully, appointed Columbus
superintendent [Admiral] of all maritime affairs, and conferred upon him great
honors. All the nobility went to meet the discoverer of a new world, and he
was received with great rejoicing.

Other ships were instantly equipped, far exceeding the former in number and
size, and freighted with things of all kinds. * * * Then Columbus, sailing
with a fleet of 12 ships well provided with arms, men, and an abundance of all
things, after a voyage of not more than 20 days, reached the Island of
Hispana. as asa

Then, having sent explorers in all directions, and ascertained that the island
was remarkable for its extent, climate, the fertility of its soil, and density of its
population, and being informed that in some places the purest gold was found in
torrents, while there was in the fields a certain seed very similar to pepper in
shape and flavor, he determined to build a town. Materials having consequently
been collected from all sides and skilled workmen employed, a town was soon
built, to which he gave the name of “‘Tsabella.”’

He then started with two ships, and cireumnavigated the whole island. Then,
coasting along the shore of the continent, to which he had given the name of
“Juan,” he sailed for 71 days along that shore, keeping his prow constantly to the
West; and being a most skillful judge of the swiftness of vessels, knew, through
the reckoning of days and nights, that he had gone over a distance of about 6,000
miles. He called “Evangelista”? the promontory where he stopped, and then
determined to sail homeward, but with the intention of returning better prepared
and provided. During the voyage, a drawing was made of the gulfs, shores
and headlands. * * *

If the shore had not presented an obstacle to the navigators, the whole of one
hemisphere having been surveyed, the extreme East might have been soon reached
by those who were sailing westward. After accomplishing those wonderful voyages,
and returning to Spain, Columbus terminated his career.

The King himself, who had granted him many privileges during his life, also
permitted him that after his death his son should succeed him as Superintendent
[Admiral] of the Indies and Ocean. That son is still living, and is a man of great
importance and immensely rich. The highest nobility of Spain have not dis-
dained to give him in marriage a young girl, as much distinguished for her rank
as for her character. 2

When Columbus died he did not forget his dear country, and left to the hospital
of St. George, which the Genoese esteem the principal ornament and crown of
the whole Republic, the tenth part of his revenues, and of all things he possessed.
Such was the end of that most celebrated man, who, had he lived in the times
of the Greek heroes, would certainly have been placed among the gods.

COLUMBUS DISCOVERS HISPANIOLA

FROM THE JOURNAL OF COLUMBUS '

EDNESDAY, Dee. 5th. All last night they lay to off Cabo

Lindo in order to examine the land which extended to the east
and at sunrise discovered another cape in that direction, two leagues
and a half distant, which having passed, they found the coast began
to tend toward the south and southwest and presently discovered a
lofty and handsome cape in that direction, about seven leagues from
the last. The Admiral was inclined to steer that way, but his desire
to visit the island of Babeque, which according to the indians (sic)
was to the northeast, restrained him. The wind, however, blowing
from the Northeast, hindered him from steering that way; proceeding
onward, therefore, he descried land * in the southeast which appeared
to be quite a large island, and acording to the information of the
indians was very populous, and called Bohio. The inhabitants of
Cuba or Juana, and those of the other islands entertained a great
dread of these people, imagining them to be man-eaters. Other
surprising relations the indians communicated by signs to the Span-
iards, of which the Admiral does not avow his belief, but thinks the
indians of Bohio to be a more ingenious and artful race than the
others, as they were accustomed to make prisoners of them. The wind
being northeast and inclining toward the north he determined to leave
Cuba or Juana, which hitherto he had taken for a continent by its
size, having sailed along the coast a hundred and twenty leagues.
He therefore left the shore and steered southeast by east, as the land
last discovered appeared in that direction. He took this course
because the wind always came around from the north to the northeast,
and from thence to east and southeast. It blew hard and they
carried all sail, having a smooth sea, and a current favoring them,
so that from morning to one o’clock in the afternoon they sailed
eight miles an hour, for nearly six hours; the nights are stated to be
here nearly fifteen hours long. After this, they went ten miles an
hour, and by sunset had made a progress of eighty-eight miles, which
are twenty-two leagues, all to the southeast. As night was coming

1 Excerpt from the Personal Narrative of the First Voyage of Columbus to America. From a manuscript
recently discovered in Spain. Translated from the Spanish. [By Samuel Kettell.] Boston: Published
by Thomas B. Wait and Son, 1827.

The manuscript is in the handwriting of Fray Bartolomé de las Casas, and is evidently an abridgment
of Columbus’s original holographic Journal, which Las Casas had in his possession among many others of
Columbus’s papers. This abridged journal, consisting of seventy-six closely written folios, was published
by Martin Fernandez de Navarrete in 1825. These excerpts are from the first English translation, con-
sidered by later translators to contain some imperfections.— EDITOR.

2 This is the first sight of La Espanola, or Hispaniola, the island now divided into the Dominican Repub-
lic and Haiti, which was so important in the later history of the New World.—EpiTor. a

376 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

COLUMBUS’S FAREWELL TO FERDINAND AND ISABELLA

From an old print.

on the caravel Nina, being a swift sailor, was dispatched ahead to
look out for a harbor; she came to the mouth of one which resembled
the bay cf Cadiz, and it being dark, they sent the boat to sound it;
the boat carried a light, and before the Admiral could come up with
the Nina, who was beating up and down, waiting for the boat to
make her a signal to enter, the light disappeared. Upon this she
stood off to sea, making a light for the Admiral, and coming up they
related what had happened. Presently the light on board the boat
again appeared, when the Nina stood in for the land; the Admiral
was not able to follow, but remained beating about all night.
Thursday, Dec. 6th. At day break he found himself four leagues
from the harbour, which he named Puerto Maria,’ and saw a fine cape
which bore south by west; to this he gave the name of Cabo del Estrella,*
it was twenty eight miles distant, and appeared to be the southern
extremity of the island. There appeared land in the east like an island
of a moderate size, about forty miles distant. Another handsome and
finely shaped headland was seen bearing east by south, at a distance
of fifty-four miles, this he called Cabo del Elefante. Another bore

3 This is Mole Saint Nicholas —EDITOoR.
+ This is Cape Saint Nicholas. It has sometimes been called the Gibraltar of the New World, but though
many defences have heen built there, they have never withstood attack.— EDITOR.

COLUMBUS DISCOVERS HISPANIOLA BEL

east southeast, twenty-eight miles off, which he named Cabo de
Cinquin. <A large opening or bay which seemed to be a river was
observed about twenty miles distant in the direction of southeast by
east. There appeared to be between the two last mentioned capes a
very wide channel which the sailors said separated an island from the
main land; this island he named Tortuga.° The land here appeared
lofty, and not mountainous but even and level like the finest arable
tracts. The whole or great part of it seemed under cultivation, and
the plantations resembled the wheat fields in the plain of Cordova in
the month of May. Many fires were seen during the night, and by
day, a great number of smokes, which to appearance were signals
elving notice of some people with whom they were at war. The whole
coast runs to the east. In the evening the Admiral entered the above
mentioned harbor, which he named Puerto de San Nicolas, it being
the day of that saint: he was astonished on entering, to observe the
goodness and beauty of the harbour, and although he had highly
praised the ports of Cuba, he declares that this is not inferior to any
of them, but rather exceeds, and differs from them all. The entrance
has a width of a league and a half, where a vessel should steer SSH.
there being sufficient room to steer in any direction.

It extends in this manner to the SSE. two leagues: Here is a fine
beach with a river, and trees of a thousand sorts all loaded with fruit,
which the Admiral took for spices and nutmegs, but being unripe he
could not get any knowledge of them. The water in this harbour is
of a surprising depth, they not being able to reach bottom at a short
distance from the shore with a line of forty fathoms; in other parts
they found fifteen fathoms, and a clear bottom; not a shoal is to be
seen throughout the harbour, and the shore is so bold that an oar’s
length from it the water is five fathoms deep. Here is room sufficient
for a thousand carracks to sail about in. At the SSE. the harbour
offers a recess opening towards the NE., of about half a league in
depth, and preserving the same breadth throughout its whole extent.
This is shut in after such a manner, that within it the main entrance
of the harbour cannot be seen. The depth of the water is everywhere
eleven fathoms, with a fine clean sand at the bottom; the shore is
bold, having eight fathoms water within a few feet distance. Here is
a fine dry air, and the shore around free from wood. The land
appeared the most rocky of any they had seen; the trees small, and
many similar to those of Spain, as evergreen oaks, and strawberry
trees; the same they remarked of the herbs. Since they had been in
this part of the world, they had not experienced so cool a temperature
of the air as they found at this place. A beautiful plain lay opposite
the entrance of the harbour, through the midst of which flowed the

5 Columbus himself gave Tortugas its name, which is the Spanish word for turtles. It is over twenty
miles long by about five miles wide and is famous for having been the home of the buccaneers in the seven-
teent century.—EDITOoR.

378 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

river mentioned above. The neighbourhood, the Admiral thought to
be extremely populous, from the number and size of the canoes which
were seen; some of them were as large as a fusta of fifteen oars. The
indians all took to flight on perceiving the ships. Those whom.the
Spaniards had on board grew so earnest to return to their homes that
the Admiral says he had some intention of carrying them thither at
his departure from this place, and that they were mistrustful of him,
for not taking his route that way. For this reason he declares that
he put no trust in any of their representations, nor they in his. They
appeared to have the greatest fear imaginable of the people of this
island. The Admiral found that if he wished to obtain any communi-
cation with those on shore, it would be necessary to wait here some

TRAMONTANA. é Pay

EO, va
S10 yf Sree iS I E

MEZO} D I

THE FIRST MAP OF SANTO DOMINGO
The Island of Hispaniola, or ‘‘ La Espafiola,’’ as charted by Peter Martyr in 1534,

days, which he was unwilling to do, as he could not depend upon the
weather, and wished to make further discoveries. He hoped in our
Lord that he should be able through the medium of the indians on
board, to have some conversation with them upon his return; and
may it please the Almighty, says he that I may find some good
traffic in gold before that time.

Friday, Dec. 7th. At daybreak, they set sail and left the port of
San Nicolas with a southwesterly wind, and stood on. their course
two leagues to the NE. towards a cape which forms the carenero,
when a bay was seen to the SE. and Cabo de la Estrella to the SW.
twenty-four miles distant. From thence they proceeded to the east,
along the coast, about forty-eight miles to Cabo Cinquin, twenty

COLUMBUS DISCOVERS HISPANIOLA 379

miles of which course they had gone E. by N. They found the land
high and the water deep, close to the shore twenty and thirty fathoms,
and a lombarda shot distant, no bottom; all which was proved by
actual experiment of the Admiral through the day. He remarks
that if the space between the bay above mentioned and the harbour
of San Nicolas were cut through, it would form an island of three
or four miles in circuit. The land, as before, very high and a (sic)
trees not large but like evergreen oaks and strawberry trees, the
country closely resembling Castile. Two leagues before arriving at
Cabo Cinquin, they discovered an opening like a gap in the mountain
within which was seen a very large valley, covered apparently with
barley, a sign that this valley abounded with settlements; at the back
of it were lofty and extensive mountains. Arrived at Cabo de Cinquin
they found Cabo de Tortuga to bear NE., thirty-two miles distant.
About a lombarda-shot from the Cabo de Cinquin, there is a rock
rising above the water, very easily noticed. At this place Cabo del
Elefante bore E. by S., seventy miles distant, the land all very lofty.
Six leagues further onward was a bay, within which they discovered
extensive valleys, and fields, with very high mountains, the whole
country appearing like Castile. At eight miles distance they found
a river, which was narrow although deep, and might easily admit a
earrack, the mouth without banks or shallows. Sixteen miles further
along they came to a harbour, both broad, and of such a depth that
no bottom was obtained at the entrance, and the water was fifteen
fathoms deep a few feet from the shore; it extended about a mile
into the land. As the sky was very cloudy and threatened rain, an
unfavourable state upon a coast, especially a strange one, the Admiral
determined to put in here, although it was no later in the day than
one o'clock, and a strong wind blew astern. This harbour he named
Puerto de la Concepcion, and entering, landed near a small stream
which flowed through fields and plains of wonderful beauty. They
carried nets with them for fishing, and while rowing to the land, a
skate similar to those of Spain, leaped into the boat; this was the first
instance of their meeting with a fish which resembled those of their
own country. Many of these were taken by the sailors, as well as
soles, and other fish like the Spanish. Going some distance round
the country they observed the soil all under cultivation, and heard
the songs of the nightingale and many other Spanish birds. They
met five indians who immediately fled. A myrtle-tree was seen,
and other trees and plants like those of Castile, which, in fact, the
whole country resembles.

Saturday, Dec. 8th. It rained very hard, with a strong north
wind. The harbour was found secure from all winds except the
north, which causes a great surf, driving the vessels from their moor-
ings. At midnight the wind shifted to the NE., and afterward to

380 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

the E., from which quarters the harbour is well sheltered by the
island of Tortuga, which lies off against it, thirty-six miles distant.®

Sunday, Dec. 9th. This day it continued to rain and the weather
seemed wintry like October in Castile. No settlement except a
single house was seen at the Port of San Nicolas; this was a handsome
one, and better constructed than those they had observed in other
parts. This is a very large island, says the Admiral, and will un-
doubtedly measure two hundred leagues in circuit; the jand is all
cultivated to a high degree, and the towns are probably at a distance
back in the country, the inhabitants fleeing at the approach of the
strangers, carrying their property with them, and making signals
by smoke about the country, as in a state of war. The harbour
here is about a thousand paces or quarter of a league wide at the mouth
without either bank or shoal, but exceedingly deep at the edge of the
shore; it extends within about three thousands paces, with a fine
clear bottom; any ship may enter it and anchor without the least
hazard. Here are two small streams, and opposite the mouth of the
harbour, several plains the most beautiful in the world, and resembling
those of Castile, except that they surpass them. On this account
the Admiral named the island, Espanola.’

6 So in the text, but the true distance is only 11 miles —EDIToR. 7 Sic —EDITOR

THE FLEET OF COLUMBUS AT LISBON, PORTUGAL

On his return from his first voyage.

UTE “ye aan NOE RIDIN

Ov ~ 60 A
ee Se of :
toga oF BULLETIN BS

OF THE a

>
V/

PAN AMERICAN
UNION

THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

SCACICLEA TENCE IOC DOCH OLS

Sriy 2.

wu
s¥UUuuuUUUeS

GOVERNING-:B OARD-OF-THE
PAN-AMERICAN
UNION.

Mr. Henry L. Stimson, Chairman

Argentina Seftor Don Fruirs A. Esprit,
1806 Corcoran Street, Washington, D. C.
Bolivia Senor Don Luis O. ABELLI,
2830 Forty-fourth Street, Washington, D. C.
Snhr. Dr. R. pz Lima £ Sinva,
2437 Fifteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
Sefior Don Oscar Bianco VIEL,
2154 Florida Avenue, Washington, D.C. -
_ Colombia Sefor Dr. Fasio Lozano,
Hill Building, Washington, D. C.
Costa Rica Sefior Don Manure. GonzALeEz,
3451 Newark Street, Washington, D. C.
Sefior Dr. José T. Barén,
2630 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D, C.
Dominican Republic. Sefor C. M. Lamarcue,
Woodward Building, Washington, D. C.
Ecuador Sefior Don GonzaLo ZALDUMBIDE,
2633 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
El Salvador Sefior Don Rozgrerto D. MELENDEZz,
National Press Building, Washington, D. C.
Guatemala Sefior Dr. Apridn RECINOS,
1614 Kighteenth Street, Washington, D. C. :
M. Dantis BELLEGARDE,
1703 Q Street, Washington, D. C.
Honduras Sefior Dr. Cétzro DAvina,
1100 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
Sefior Dr. José ManveE. Puie
CASAURANC,
2829 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
Nicaragua Sefior Dr. Luis M. DEBAYLE,
1711 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C.
Panama Sefior Dr. Horacio F. Auraro,
1535 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C.
Paraguay Sefior Don Panto Max. YNSFRAN,
1726 Irving Street, Washington, D. C.
Sefior Don M.pr Frere y SANTANDER,
1300 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
United States . Mr. Henry L. Stimson,
Department of State, Washington, D. C.
Uruguay Sefior Don Jos& Ricuuine,
17 Battery Place, New York City.

Venezuela Sefior Dr. Pepro Manurt Arcara,
1628 Twenty-first Street, Washington, D. C.

BAABAAAALMSALARADASRAAA NOAA RAR AMS DL

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
Building of the Pan American Union, Washington, D. C____ (Cover design)

Juan Esteban Montero Rodriguez, President of Chile _-_ == == 381
Introduction top Montalvo: 2222.2 = a 383
By His Excellency Senor Don Gonzalo Zaldumbide, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister

Plenipotentiary of Ecuador in the United States, Corresponding Member of the
Academia Espanola de la Lengua.
Postponement of the Seventh International Conference of American States. 388
Ae NatUnalist ima OnCUnas sess een eS Ne cee On ea 390
By James A. G. Rehn, Secretary of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
An Eighteenth Century Scientist in Colombia: José Celestino Mutis______ 401
Mireenreasune of MontecAl ban sss Sis er se 405
By Beatrice Newhall, Assistant Editor of the Bulletin of the PAN AMERICAN UNION.
The International Conference on Calendar Reform_____________________ 419
By Meredith N. Stiles. -
The Mexican Ballet-Symphony ‘‘H. P.’’__-.-_--__-__-___ ee 421
By Harry L. Hewes.
heruMiorer ed CrosspimeR erie ce se se a es 425

By Dr. Antonio Ayllon Pastor, Founder and Director of the Peruvian Junior Red Cross;
Head of the Public Health Department, Boys’ Vocational School, Lima.

The United States and Panama Mixed Claims Commission___(Photograph) 431
Ceremony at Statue of General San Martin, in Washington __ (Photograph) 432
RangeAmenricanaUnionuNoOtese: 22 eine Slee oe ie ee 433

Pan American Progress:

Treaties and International Relations._____________________________- 440
IRE aS a G1 Mises ques ere ere teen OM ee eee chs! Nae tr oe ews ON a 44]
Activities of the Uruguayan Government During 1931____--___________ 442
Monetary and Banking Reforms in Mexico_______.__________________ 450
Subject Matter of Consular Reports______________________.___________ 454

(The contents of previous issues of the BULLETIN OF THE PAN AMERICAN UNION
can be found in the READERS’ GUIDE in your library.)
III

HIS EXCELLENCY JUAN ESTEBAN MONTERO RODRIGUEZ,
PRESIDENT OF CHILE

December 4, 1931-December 4, 1937.

aw sie Se
So res me tO Z27200

Vou. LXVI JUNE, 1932 No. 6

JUAN ESTEBAN MONTERO RODRIGUEZ,
ERE oOENY OF CHILE

HE President of Chile, elected October 4, 1931, by a large

majority of the popular vote, and inducted into office on Dec-
ember 4, 1931, isa man 52 years of age, whose reputation for probity,
political modesty, and scholarliness was greatly increased by his
brilliant record in the last ministry of Ex-President Ibanez. Holding
as his first public office the portfolio of Minister of the Interior, he
became a popular hero and was acclaimed as the man best fitted to
assume the presidency.

Don Juan Esteban Montero Rodriguez belongs to the modern in-
tellectual middle class of Chile. It is probable that he never dreamed
of reaching the highest office in his country’s gift, although his
ancestor Manuel Rodriguez, a famous fighter in the War of Inde-
pendence, doubtless transmitted to him some of the qualities which
shaped his destiny to this end. The son of a farmer, Senor Montero
was educated first in the secondary school of his Province, located in
the city of Curico, and then in the Jesuit Schoolin Santiago. Later
he studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1901. The ability
which he displayed during his school and university days forecast
the sound judgment, depth of legal learning, and invulnerable up-
rightness which now characterize him.

From 1906 to 1912 Senor Montero was legal adviser to the Council
of National Defense, and from 1912 to 1925 professor of trial law on
the faculty of the University in Santiago. In the latter year he felt
obliged to refuse appointment to the chair of civil law because of the

381

382 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

changes introduced into the organization of the University; he thus
made common cause with the students.

Although Senor Montero was first advanced by professional men as
their candidate, no one doubts that as President he will be the servant
of the entire nation: The fact that he resigned from the vice presi-
dency of the Republic prior to the election in order that his opponents
might feel that he was exerting no influence upon results through his
official position is one reason for the belief that as chief magistrate
of Chile Senor Montero will be impartial and unselfishly patriotic,
jealously guarding the honor of the high office entrusted to him.

INTRODUCTION TO MONTALVO'

By His Excellency Sefior Don GonzaLto ZALDUMBIDE

Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Ecwador in the United States;
Corresponding Member of the Academia Espajiola de la Lengua

HE writer who, after the admirable prologue called El Buscapieé,

in which Montalvo explains the idea of his ‘‘Chapters which
Cervantes forgot,” still believes it should be expounded here more in
detail, might be set down “‘as a bold man or a simpleton.”

Everything essential has been said at length by Montalvo himself,
with that proud modesty with which he so magnificently admits his
shortcomings, apologizes, shows his enthusiasm and finally gives
his reasons for deciding to undertake the preparation of his work.

Neither the book nor its purpose needed any defense. But that
most singular Buscapié is the most amazing and superabundant
assortment of reasons and keen witticisms ever brought together to
justify a book fully justified in itself.

Montalvo could not have been unaware of his high calling to this
undertaking. To anyone at all acquainted with the nature of his
genius, it was the natural consequence of spiritual affinities that
Montalvo should have attempted—not only as an exhibition of his
learning and cleverness, but also as an expression of his idealism,
sensibility, and honor, of his instinctive justice, and of his moral
code—an imitation of the model dearest to his predilections as author
and as man.

Everything attracted him to it. ‘An essay or study of the Cas-
tilian language,” he himself says. It is not, of course, a systematic
reconstruction of the speech of Cervantes nor even a careful and
erudite use of words and expressions peculiar to that time. Where
another would have written a retrospective work as a grammarian
or an archaic purist, Montalvo moves with the assurance and the
freedom of one who finds himself in his element, speaking his mother
tongue. The prose of Montalvo, in itself Cervantic, demanded, to
complete the illusion of his Golden Age, a contemporary subject,
suitable material. Therefore he seems to be breathing his native
air in the midst of objects, ideas, and sentiments familiar to his con-
dition, in the thick of mighty deeds, trophies, and combats suitable

1 Under the title of Dos Palabras this introduction is published in ‘‘ Capitulos que se le olvidaron a Cer -
vantes. Ensayo de imitacién de un libro inimitable.’’ Obra postuma de Juan Montalvo. Paris, Casa
Editorial Garnier Hermanos, 1921.

The centenary of Montalvo’s birth was celebrated on April 13 of this year. Readers who are interested
in a further discussion of his life and work are referred to the brilliant essay, ‘‘ Montalvo en el Centenario
de su Nacimiento,’”’ by Sefior Zaldumbide, published in the BOLETIN DE LA UNION PANAMERICANA, Junio
de 1932.

See the tribute of the Governing Board to the memory of Montalvo, pp. 434 to 436.—EDITOR.

383

384 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

to the prestige of his rank. How well this language fits seignorial
pomp, the noble manner, the courtly gesture and knightly surrender,
and how appropriate it is to all the science of chivalry, the codes, tra-
ditions, heraldry, and ceremony of the knights errant! With what
evident delight and skillful mastery he showers forth the treasure
of his smiling and antiquated erudition! But this language in which
‘*. the most noble models are reflected and mingled is not that of Cer-
fvantes alone. It is the language, the style of Montalvo, well adapted

JUAN MONTALVO

Eminent Ecuadorean author, the
centenary of whose birth was
celebrated April 13, 1932.

to Cervantic subjects. It is the style and the language of the Siete
Tratados and El Espectador. Therefore if Montalvo used this manner
of speech in other works before and after this, 1t was not as a mere
experiment that he began his imitation of the imimitable book.

“Tt is the firm belief of the author that he has written a course in
ethics,” Montalvo himself said. Expounding moral questions in
eloquent language and describing examples of conduct, especially of
the chivalrous behavior which mirrored his own code, he clearly dis-
plays here not only literary elegance but also his most cherished cri-
terion. ‘The writer whose purpose is not the improvement of his

a
a

INTRODUCTION TO MONTALVO 385

fellow men would do them a favor by throwing his pen into the fire:
universal moral benefit should be his aim—not that preached by the
pseudo-wise.”’ From the mouth of Don Quixote fall in lofty and
resounding phrases those reflections which give value to the book and
satisfy Montalvo’s character. Elevated by the chivalric ideal, the
noble commonplaces of a traditional code of morals acquire a new
flavor and a new meaning on the lips and in the deeds of Don Quixote,
who gives them reality and grandeur through his heroic candor, his
sublime sincerity and his inspired vision.

“Tf it were the author’s purpose to write a course in ethics, as he
himself suggests, how does it happen that he chose the most difficult
manner?’’ Montalvo queries. Rising above the artist and lover of
noble form, he sometimes enjoyed considering himself as a kind of
magistrate or Roman senator wrapped in the toga of solemnity and
rhetoric, a kind of priest or seer enveloped in the majesty of sacred
oratory, and was often tempted to write an eloquent treatise in which
the soul’s gravity and greatness should have untrammeled scope.
But he possessed in equal or even greater degree than that solemn gift
the gift of burlesque invention, of enormous laughter, of mock-serious
emphasis, of epic buffoonery and superlative irony. In the creation
of his Don Quixote, with innate and surpassing skill he makes admir-
able use of this dual power of his genius. No one has better perceived
or more accurately caught both the humorous charm and the great-
ness of Quixote. No one could with greater art revive the Knight
of the Rueful Countenance to embark on new adventures from which
he emerges as usual vanquished but invincible.

If it is true that while perusing Don Quixote every reader shares
Cervantes’ experience while writing it; if from the mockery and
laughter inspired at first by a too-mad Don Quixote and a too-sane
Sancho, one passes insensibly to commiseration, sympathy, and the
warmest and most human friendship, this affection was decisive in the
case of Montalvo. For him, even more than for the author of the
Life of Don Quixote and Sancho, the Knight really existed, as an actual
living person. In the solitude of Ipiales, set on a desolate plain like
La Mancha, Montalvo kept Don Quixote at his side as companion,
confidant, solace, and example. He saw his friend among real men,
taking part in local affairs, and in his hallucination disclosing, behind
the fallacious truth of our reality, his higher and more veracious truth.

Montalvo is indignant because Avellaneda reviles Don Quixote;
he grieves because Cervantes himself ridicules him in one passage.
Montalvo shields him from every predicament which might be
derogatory; and although he exposes him to the mockery, troubles,
and hazards of fortune connected with knight errantry, he is never
false to the sensitive and intimate admiration which he professes
for his hero. The irony of the tale therefore brings to the most
doughty deeds and the most serious discourses not ‘‘the laughter of

386 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

the buffoon,’’ but a smile from the heart, full of comprehension and
sympathy, in wisely implicit understanding with the reader. The
insane hero diverts him with his madness, and captivates him with
his nobility and wisdom.

Montalvo made the Quixote his constant school. From his early
youth he knew it almost by heart. He did not have to reread it to
feed himself upon it in his bookless solitude. He carried it into exile
not with him, but in him. What better counselor in his adversity
than Cervantes? But Montalvo was a devotee of Don Quixote
rather than of Cervantes.

Sympathy and similarity of genius revealed to him the living
secret, the human charm of the greatness and misery of Don Quixote:
thus he could resuscitate him in body and soul without profanation.
Rather than an imitation or a mechanical reproduction of the master-
piece, Montalvo’s work is, as it were, the natural development and
continuation of the life infused into the original and here imprisoned
with the glowing love of one who felt himself possessed by that
immortal spirit.

Montalvo extends his understanding to the good squire Sancho;
the latter appears not as a voracious glutton but as the affectionate
servant, who in his heart is fascinated by the great soul of his mad
master, an overgrown child in need of his care. The detestable
Sancho is the cautious and self-assured man, who will not abandon
his home to follow any knight-errant, but rather leaves him alone,
slanders and discourages him. The good Sancho fulfills an ideal mis-
sion by faithfully serving the master whose madness he shares, not-
withstanding all his proverbs. Yet there is a certain quixotism in
Sancho, who prefers to a peaceful meal with Teresa and Sanchica
what seems to him an absurd and vaguely glorious hfe following
Don Quixote. The philosophy of the book is found in the contrast
not so much between the two figures as between the sanity of their
words and the madness of their acts; this is true not only of Don
Quixote but of Sancho as well.

The philosophic interpretation of Quixotism, set forth in Hl Bus-
capié and interrelated with the story, does not hinder the freedom
and animation with which the fabled and real knight continues his
adventures. Although Montalvo’s purpose was to write a didactic
work, these chapters are an extravaganza, full of reality and realities;
an admirable novel, perhaps the first in merit in Hispanic American
literature, as well as one of the first in time.

To pass the enforced leisure of exile, Montalvo might have amused
himself with another Don Juan de Flor as romantic as that brief
composition written elsewhere. He always felt the allure of the
Byronic fascination for seduction, the poetry of the ill-omened
beauty of evil and passion: iridescent reflections of that imaginative

INTRODUCTION TO MONTALVO 387

eroticism are to be found in some very curious pages. But despite
the longing with which he recalled the Manfreds and Childe Harolds,
the chaste and beloved figure of the Knight always had a profound
attraction for Montalvo. Of the two prototypes (not so contradic-
tory in their virile temper as might be thought), which were the
alternate objects of Montalvo’s romantic dreams, the ‘“‘righter of
wrones”’ was more akin to his belligerent and generous nature. He
had in him more of Don Quixote than of Don Juan. As he himself
said, ‘‘The man who is not something of a Don Quixote does not
deserve the respect or the affection of his fellow-beings.”’

While in all Montalvo’s writings the author and the man go hand

in hand, here we have his complete image in its most finished form,
in both the moral and the literary sense. This bold attempt shows
him in the fullness of his gifts. Not even here, not even in this
book of pure enjoyment, of the most expansive intellectual recreation,
could Montalvo renounce any of his characteristic traits. He him-
self confesses to taking from real life, for satirization under a thin
veil of fiction, persons or events offering to his sense of justice or desire
for revenge a butt for epic laughter. Therefore his delight in contro-
versy persists here in the constant caricaturist, who lurks behind the
circumspect philosopher and the magnanimous idealist—Who these
personages may have been matters little to the meaning and the
interest of the novel; to ascertain their identity would have merely a
local, gossipy, and transitory importance. Furthermore, so general
in type and vague in outline are their characters that they make no
especial mark on the book. The essential feature is the admirable
interpretation or prolongation of Don Quixote and Sancho, who are
of universal interest. This was, in fact, the point of view of the
author who, as is known by his confidences to a friend, removed
from the Capitulos, years after they were first written, a considerable
number of allusions and personalities, altering names, omitting, cor-
recting, forgiving. When he remarks: “I have written a Quixote
for Spanish America, and by no means for Spain,” it should be under-
stood that he is moved by modesty, or by the misgivings which
would have been banished if he could have foreseen the welcome
which such Spanish authors as Valera, Nunez de Arce and others had
in store for his book. It is true that neither the characters, the
environment, nor the atmosphere is peculiarly American. At most,
just as Flaubert saw in the Quixote those Spanish roads which are
never described, there may be felt here, in one scene or another, a
passing breeze from Ecuadorean peaks. It is perhaps to be regretted
that Montalvo never seriously thought of giving us the Don Quixote
of America, or at least the Tartarin of the Andes. However, this is
no less than Don Quixote de la Mancha redivivus. How can we
complain?

POSTPONEMENT On tinal
SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
OF AMERICAN STATES

Y resolution of the Governing Board of the Pan American Union

at its session held on May 4, 1932, the Seventh International
Conference of American States, scheduled to meet at Montevideo,
Uruguay, was postponed from December, 1932, to December, 1933.
The Government of Uruguay was requested to indicate the precise
date for the opening of the Conference.

The action of the Governing Board followed a suggestion made at
the meeting held in April that the Conference be postponed for a
year and the receipt of the following communication from the Govy-
ernment of Uruguay concurring in the suggestion:

The Government of the Republic of Uruguay has taken note of the communica-
tion of the Governing Board of the Pan American Union transmitted through the
intermediary of the Chargé d’Affaires of Uruguay at Washington, and has
decided on its part to approve the suggestion that the Seventh International
Conference of American States be held in December, 1933. The Government of
Uruguay resolved not to take the initiative with respect to a change in date of
the Seventh Conference, either to advance or to postpone it, because the City of
Montevideo having been honored as the seat of the next Conference, it devolved
upon this Government to be ready to receive the delegates of the Sister Nations
of the Continent, on the date that might be most convenient, in view of the inter-
national situation and in accordance with the regulations; the tranquil atmosphere

of Montevideo and the cordial sentiments of the Government of Uruguay toward

all the nations of America being favorable to this procedure.

In approving the resolution on the postponement of the Confer-
ence, the Governing Board adopted an explanatory statement reading
as follows:

The program of the Seventh International Conference of American States
contains many questions, especially under the heading of juridical and economic
problems, which will require prolonged preparatory study prior to the assembling
of the Conference. The Pan American Union has requested the preparation of
technical studies and draft projects by the American Institute of International
Law, the Permanent Committee on Public International Law at Rio de Janeiro,
the Permanent Committee on Private International Law of Montevideo, and the
Permanent Committee on Uniformity of Legislation and Comparative Legisla-
tion at Habana.

It has become apparent to the Governing Board that even with the exercise of
the greatest industry it will not be possible to complete these preparatory studies
and projects in time to submit them to the Governments sufficiently far in
advance of the meeting of the Conference.

Under the headings of Economic Problems, and Transportation, there are also
a number of questions which call for the submission of well-considered projects
long in advance of the coming together of the delegations at Montevideo.

388

SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 389

Since the final formulation and adoption of the program by the Governing
Board, considerable work has been done on these questions, but the projects in
which will be embodied the results of these studies have not yet been formulated.

The Governing Board has given much weight to these considerations, and after
consultation with the Government of Uruguay, it has been determined that the
postponement of the Conference until December, 1933, is essential in order to
complete the studies and permit the formulation of projects to be considered at
the Conference.

The postponement of the Conference will afford opportunity to the respective
Governments to carefully consider the results of the preparatory work and
determine their attitude on the important questions to be discussed. Through
such postponement the significance and importance of the Montevideo Confer-
ence will be greatly strengthened.

Following action on the date of the Conference the Board adopted
a resolution urging the American Institute of International Law and
the Permanent Committees on International Law to continue the
work of preparation for the Conference with a view to having the
projects on the various topics of the program available not later than
November, 1932. These projects will then be forwarded to the
respective governments in order that they may be made the object
of detailed study and instructions to the respective delegations.

The regulations for the Seventh Pan American Conference were
approved by the Governing Board at the above-mentioned session.

SZs5

A NATURALIST IN HONDURAS

By Jamus A. G. REHN
Secretary of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia

F all Central American countries, Honduras has remained for

over a century the least known biologically. Until the last few
years nearly all the limited scientific field work which had been done
was carried on in the north coast rain-forest, while the mist-draped
mountain summits of the interior, with their areas of cloud-forest,
were virtually unstudied. Of the animal life of the extensive stretches
of pineland which cover the greater part of the country, our knowledge
was almost as meager.

During the last three decades of the past century and the first of
the present, through the financial support and unstinted personal
labors of F. DuCane Godman and Osbert Salvin, continued field
exploration and correlated laboratory studies of many specialists gave
to the world the Biologia Centrali-Americana, a series of volumes on
the classification and distribution of the animals and plants of Mexico
and Central America. This monumental work stands without an
equal, and, even though our knowledge in many fields has so expanded
that certain portions of it are antiquated to-day, this classic series of
volumes will always remain an indispensable requisite for the natural-
ist working with mid-American life. For certain reasons, but chiefly
due to the disturbed character of the country during the period when
Biologia field work was actively pressed, Honduras was of necessity
virtually disregarded in these field investigations, and for this con-
sideration alone, if for no other, it stands to-day the most desirable
country in Central America for critical investigation of its interesting
and varied life. The problems concerned with the origin and distri-
bution of the biota of the subtropical cloud-forests naturally require
for their correct solution such evidence as may be found in the
numerous detached areas of this intensely absorbing and strange
environment. Similarly the east coast rain-forest must be more fully
studied for a correct appraisal of it and its animal and plant life, when
compared with the more northern outposts of the rain-forest in south-
eastern Mexico and that of British Honduras and the Motagua River
and Lake Izabal regions,'! on the one hand, and the vaster tracts of
eastern Nicaragua, on the other. The pinelands as well suggest many

1 Part of the territory under dispute between Guatemala and Honduras. The boundary question is now
being arbitrated. See BULLETIN OF THE PAN AMERICAN UNION, March, 1930, pp. 217-220; id., September,
1930, pp. 910-916; id., February, 1932, pp. 92-95.

390

A NATURALIST IN HONDURAS 391

queries, being, as they are, a portion of the most southern extension
of this type of habitat, which is so greatly developed in Mexico and
parts of the western United States, and which does not occur south of
central Nicaragua.

Off the north coast of Honduras, some 30 miles or so from the shore,
lies a chain of small islands known as the Bay Islands, which are
considered by historical geologists to be the summits of a drowned
mountain chain, probably a continuation of the Espiritu Santo range,
constituting a portion of the ancient shelf which, until comparatively
recent geological times, connected Jamaica and other of the Greater
Antilles with this portion of Central America. Roughly parallel with

TEGUCIGALPA, HONDURAS

A general view of the capital of Honduras, situated on an inland mountain-bordered plateau, at an ele-
vation of about 3,200 feet.

these islands on the mainland is a chain of good-sized mountains,
known as the Sierra Pija, which reaches from east of the mouth of the
Ulua River to near the old town of Truxillo. Inland this range is
accompanied by a number of similar but shorter ranges of varied trend.

Between the broad valleys of the Ulua and Chamelecon Rivers in
Honduras and that of the Motagua River is an extensive and sharply
elevated mountain system, the Espiritu Santo group, while to the
eastward of its more southern extremity the whole interior of Hon-
duras is filled with a criss-cross of numerous mountain groups of vary-
ing height and extent. A number rise to elevations well over 6,500
feet above the sea, and in length are as great as 24 to 36 miles. While
the broad and relatively low valleys of the Ulua and Chamelecon

392 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Rivers carry extensive areas of open land with little timber, the higher
intermontane stretches, which are often many miles across, bear
magnificent open stands of tall pine, as already mentioned, in character
and ground condition much like similar forests in Mexico and Arizona.
As the western coast and the Gulf of Fonseca are neared the descent
from pineland elevations takes us into a distinctly arid region, which
borders the immediate coast, back of the tidal mangrove swamps,
and also reaches for many miles into the interior along the larger
watercourses. Thus we can find the paradoxical situation of arid
interior valleys virtually under the shadow of cloud-forest-draped
peaks.

During the spring of 1930 it was possible for the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia to carry out a long-desired natural
history reconnoissance of the interior country of Honduras. The
writer was placed in charge of this work, and had as his companions
Mr. John T. Emlen, jr., and Mr. C. Brooke Worth, both young
ornithologists of promise and ability. The Government of the
Republic of Honduras, through Their Excellencies President Vicente
Mejia Colindres and Sefior Don Jestis Ulloa, Minister of Foreign
Relations, extended every possible courtesy and assistance to our
expedition, and thus facilitated our work very greatly.

It had been planned to devote the major portion of our available
time to the investigation of the subtropical cloud-forest, and accord-
ingly we selected a base as near as possible to that condition. This
was at the American-owned Rosario silver mine of the New York &
Honduras Rosario Mining Co., some 20 miles northeast of Teguci-
galpa, on the north slope of the Sierra San Juancito.

We reached Puerto Barrios July 1, 1930, and traveled over the
International Railways of Central America, via Zacapa, Guatemala,
and San Salvador, reaching La Union, El Salvador, July 4. Crossing
the beautiful Gulf of Fonseca, by way of the island entry port of
Amapala, to San Lorenzo, we started for the capital city of Teguci-
galpa by automobile over the recently built road which stretches for
almost a hundred miles between Pacific tidewater and the seat of the
national government, in that distance climbing from sea level to as
high as 4,900 feet. The completion of this most important highway,
accompanied as it has been by the development of other main arteries
for vehicular travel, is an evidence of the progressive and enlightened
administration which Honduras has enjoyed for some years past,
and which friends of Honduras elsewhere fully appreciate for its con-
structive vision and broad grasp of national needs and problems.

Leaving an arid acacia-covered country dotted with cacti at San
Lorenzo, we soon climbed into a moister land with a very different
plant cover, and still ascending reached the pine-clad slopes of the
Sierra Lepaterique. When we topped this ridge—in reality the

A NATURALIST IN HONDURAS 393

southern border of the basin in which hes Tegucigalpa—as evening
fell, the lights of this least visited of Central American capitals
twinkled below us, and soon we were in the narrow streets and among
the heavily walled houses of the older part of the city.

Relatively few Americans know Tegucigalpa, which in some respects
resembles San Jose de Costa Rica, but seems to show in many of its
buildings a different type of Spanish-American architecture, probably
due to a preponderance of influence from the Mexican seat of Spanish
administration to the north. It is necessary to go back but a limited

Photograph by James A. G. Rehn
A CLOUD FOREST OF HONDURAS

A view over the slopes of Sierra San Juancito.

number of years to reach the time when the journey from Tegucigalpa
to the Caribbean coast was a mule-back trip of days, and when the
much shorter one to the Pacific was all but impossible under unfavor-
able weather conditions.

From Tegucigalpa to Rosario the ox-cart road passes through a
variety of upland country and finally leaves behind open pinelands
and enters the cloud-forest which, except where cleared for mine and
other timber, clothes all the higher levels of the Sierra San Juancito.
The road pass is at an altitude of about 6,890 feet and far down the
north slope is the mining camp of Rosario, while 1,350 feet below the
camp nestles the village of San Juancito.

119731—32—Bull. 6

394 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The cloud-forest was our greatest attraction about Rosario. Its
present lower edge is nearly 650 feet above the camp, but in its undis-
turbed condition the cloud-forest reaches down in many places to as
low as the elevation of Rosario, or about 4,900 feet. The lower edge
of average cloud height represents the usual lower margin of this
strange, moisture-soaked life zone. During the rainy season, when
our visit was made, most mornings find the entire upper reaches of
A WATERFALL IN THE

CLOUD FOREST
Numerous waterfalls of

varying size are found
throughout the dense

growth of the moisture-
soaked forests.

Photograph by James A. G. Rehn

these interior mountains fog bathed, swathed in blankets of white
cloud masses, which often burn away if the sun can make itself
sufficiently felt, yet frequently mantle the mountain heights and
drench them with light rain or soaking ‘Scotch mist”’ the entire day,
or even for days at a stretch. Again the fog may burn: away one
hour only to return with added obscurity the next. The most fre-
quent weather features of the cloud-forest are fog, rain, or heavy drizzle
and damp chill; the most usual sound the drip of water; the general
condition moisture saturation to the nth degree.

A NATURALIST IN HONDURAS 395

The tree components of the cloud-
forest vary considerably in height and
in bulk, as well as in the great variety
of the species representing a number of
families. The more usual types found
in lowland rain-forests are unrepre-
sented or in the minority, and most of
the taller trees are festooned and gar-
landed with unbelievably dense and
matted vines and creepers which, like
blankets, often obscure the whole form
of the tree crowns, drape the projecting
branches with pendant streamers of
epiphytes and creepers of various types,
and mantle the trunks and boles with
heavy plate-like encrustings of mosses,
ferns, and other epiphytes of infinite
variety. Tree ferns and ground ferns
of many species add their beautiful
foliage to the heavy ground cover, which
on the usually steep slopes makes cloud-
- forest penetration not easy. Every-
thing oozes moisture from the clouds
and the frequent rains, the ground is
never dry, trickling rills are every-
where, and waterfalls, often of conside-
rable size, demonstrate the extent to
which these forests serve as water dis-
tributors for much of the lower country.

The birds of the cloud-forest are of
the greatest interest and probably less
is known about them than about those
of any other part of Central America.
In our work in the cloud-forest of the
San Juancito range our expedition col-
lected three types previously unknown
to science. The great quetzal, or re-
splendent trogon, the Guatemalan
national bird, is here at home, as well as
green toucans, strange parrots and
quail, while woodhewers and _ ant-
thrushes of many species, flycatchers,
black thrushes, gray solitaires and hum-
ming-birds of varied type are confined
to these gloomy and mysterious woods.

THE QUETZAL

The quetzal, or resplendent trogon, whose
habitat is the timbered districts of Cen-
tral America, is a beautifully plumaged
bird about the size of a small pigeon.

396 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Insect life is of the greatest diversity, but during the day does not
thrust itself upon the attention, as is often the case in the lowland
rain forest. One must search industriously for most of the insect
denizens except on those occasional nights when, for reasons still
unexplained, the moth world suddenly comes to life, and the few
lights near the cloud-forest are deluged with a myriad of moths of
many species—some, like the giant Thysania agrippina, as large as
10 inches across the wings. In the single one of these evenings at
Rosario we secured more than 40 species of moths.

Cloud-forests like that here described are distributed on many
mountain ranges, under conditions of similar elevation and climatic
control (7.e., saturation and relative coolness), from southern
Mexico to southern South America. Their relationship to other life
elements remains essentially the same everywhere, their general
characteristics basically identical. Personally I have studied them
in Colombia and Costa Rica as well as in Honduras, and to me they
are by all odds the most alluring, mysterious, and, withal, the most
distinctive of forests.

One of the debated questions among naturalists interested in faunis-
tic problems is whence came the life of the subtropical cloud-forest.
Was it derived originally from the lowland rain-forest or does it
represent an even older life element, formerly much more broadly
distributed in relatively recent geological times when the world
was damper and probably cooler, and is it not to-day a remnant of
that from which the lowland rain-forest has been derived? Only by
intensive study can a solution of this question which will answer ali
queries, geological as well as biological, be reached.

From Rosario the view to the north and northeast is over the deep
and broad valley of the upper Rio Choluteca, the river itself nearly
2,900 feet below, the Chile Mountains which flank the valley on the
opposite side being 19 miles or more distant. Descending the north
slope of the San Juancito Mountains from Rosario we soon enter the
pine-forest belt, where the great clean shafts of a pine much like the
bull pine of the western United States dominate a landscape of rolling
slopes. The stands are quite open, and mingled with the pine is
often found a broad-leaved palm, while most of the ground cover
suggests the piney woods of the southern United States. The resem-
blance to the bull-pine region of the western United States and of
Mexico is a real one and holds true for many elements of the animal
life. Here we find a gray fox, called locally gato del monte (cat of the
forest), road-running cuckoos, ant-eating and hairy woodpeckers,
flickers, band-tailed pigeons, Steller’s jays, chipping sparrows, and
bluebirds, all suggestive of Arizona, while, on the other hand, we
have trogons, squirrel cuckoos, ladder-backed pileated woodpeckers,

A NATURALIST IN HONDURAS 397

and numerous other birds, all of a truly tropical origin. The insect
life supplements the bird life, and the relationship of this life area to
great stretches of similar country to the northward is clearly evident.
The infiltration of tropical types is probably due to propinquity, but
nevertheless basic elements of this fauna are the same from Honduras
and Nicaragua north to Arizona, California, and even Oregon.
Descending toward the lower part of the Choluteca Valley we leave
the pine belt at about 2,900 feet elevation, and enter a hotter, drier,
more arid type of country, with trees largely thorny, acacia-like,
dry savanna grasslands, tall wild cane areas and the patches of forest
small, localized, dense and tangled with vines and creepers, while
spiny-leaved agaves are much in evidence. Cultivated land is here

Photograph by James A. G. Rehn
ONE OF THE WORLD’S LARGEST MOTHS

The Thysania agrippina, one of the many species of moths found in the vicinity of Rosario. This specimen
measured 10!% inches across the spread wings.

largely in sugarcane, and cattle raising is, as In many other parts
of Honduras, the chief industry. This semiarid river valley is an
inland extension of the arid Pacific coast tropical strip, which reaches
along that littoral from Mexico to Panama with few interruptions.
The little community of Cantarranas was our base of operations in the
Choluteca Valley, and we soon made the acquaintance of an animal
world quite different from that of the cloud-forest or of the pine belt.
The great long-tailed jay, noisy derby and striped flycatchers, motmots,
Inca doves, blue and gold tanagers, and laughing falcons gave a very
different background to the bird life of the district, while along the
river we met cormorants, anhingas, and tiger bitterns.

The Rio Choluteca at Cantarranas proved to be the home of the
strange so-called ‘“‘four-eyed fish”? (Anableps tetrophthalmus), which
has the eyes divided in two, the upper section for vision above the

398 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

surface film, the lower for underwater sight. Usually swimming on
the surface with merely the two rounded protuberances of the eyes
evident, the fish is easily frightened, whereupon it disappears and
travels for some distance before the ‘‘periscopes”’ emerge again.
This species, peculiar to the west coast of Central America, and
another from the Orinoco region are the sole members of this group
of unusual fishes.

Returning to Tegucigalpa, we traveled by automobile stage across
the interior country, through the communities of Comayagua and
Siguatepeque, across the strikingly beautiful Lake Yojoa by ferry to

Photograph by James A. G. Rehn

LAKE YOJOA

One of the beauty spots of Honduras and the principal lake in the country. It is 25 miles in length
and 6 miles in width.

Potrerillos, where the present terminus of the National Railway was
reached. The road over which, in 14 hours, we traveled the nearly
185 miles to Potrerillos is in large part of recent construction, and
presents a splendid illustration of the far-sighted public works policy
of the Government of Honduras. Although between Tegucigalpa
and Lake Yojoa it crosses several considerable mountain ranges, the
highway work has been carefully executed and the trip is one never
to be forgotten for its splendid panoramas of the mountain-bordered
interior valleys and of Lake Yojoa.

The National Railway carried us down the broad Sula Valley to
Campana, where we ferried across the Chamelecon and Ulua Rivers

A NATURALIST IN HONDURAS 399

to the Tela Railroad at Melcher, and then on through endless banana
lands to Tela, near which, at Lancetilla, our final work was planned.

Lancetilla, the site of the famous Tela ‘‘snake farm’ and the
Agricultural Experiment Station of the United Fruit Co., is situated
in a narrow valley on the north face of the coastal Sierra Pija. The
spur ridges encircling the little Lancetilla Valley are clothed with
dense lowland rain-forest, the tropics par excellence. This forest is a
portion of that great belt which reaches, in suitable environments and
under favorable climatic conditions, from southern Mexico to Ama-
zonia and beyond. Rain-forest trees are, on the average, tall, many
are enormous in girth, and some of the greatest value economically.

THE PIER AT TELA, HONDURAS

A northern coast port of the Republic, through which great quantities of bananas are exported annually.

This is the land of the true mahogany, and here forest giants of many
species, mingled with corozo palms bearing leaves nearly 33 feet long,
tangled with hanes and other creepers, and decked with bizarre aroids
and other epiphytes, make up the forest. Like many tropical forests
elsewhere, this is double decked; with a lower story distinct and
separate from the leafy dome which, over all else, shuts out the sky.

Howling monkeys, marmosets, sloths, jaguar, agoutis, tree porcu-
pines, tapir and many other neotropical types of mammals make this
forest their home, and the bird world is as distinctive and even more
varied than that of the cloud-forest of the high mountains. Our
knowledge of it, however, is proportionately greater, as considerable
ornithological work has been done on Honduran rain-forest birds, but
in spite of this the available information is by no means even approx-

400 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

imately complete, and every sizeable collection, such as our own,
adds new information on occurrence, distribution, and habits, if
not species, new to science.

The insect life of the rain-forest is in bewildering variety, but while
many of the species are readily seen, the far greater bulk of this
astounding world of life is found only by long-continued search, on
foliage, on and under bark, under dead leaves and stones upon the
forest floor, tucked in hanging dead leaves, in the water pockets of
tree-dwelling bromeliads, in blossoms, and many other places. Some
insects haunt the ‘‘sunlight holes,’’ where an opening in the green roof
of the forest is responsible for a sunny patch of under vegetation,
while others frequent only the darkest and most obscure recesses.
An occasional brilliant metallic blue Morpho butterfly flits past in
strong but apparently effortless flight, a large beetle drones by,
amazingly formed, and colored true bugs top the clusters of weedy
plants and throw off the most poignantly hideous stench if disturbed,
while clear-winged butterflies flit in aimless fashion from one cluster of
blossoms to another. The endless life of the rain-forest is on every
side, although often hardly evident, as when the curtain of rain brings
to the forest an indescribable pall-like gloom, but still it is there in
amazing diversity, and the naturalist’s task is to find the components
of this life, their character, their relations and interdependence, their
possible origin and history.

Our time having drawn to a close, we left Lancetilla for home, laden
with material and information. The scientific results of our work will
be issued in the technical publications of the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia. As is always the case, these contributions
are just beginning to be made known to the world, for laboratory
studies require far more time and effort than the layman realizes.
The reports on the collections now in press, each in its respective
field, contain more information than was known from all previous
investigations in Honduras. The succeeding studies will in greater
part be equally important and ground breaking.

In addition to the cordial assistance and cooperation of the Honduran
Government already mentioned, the Academy’s expedition was the
recipient of every possible courtesy from the Governments of the
Republic of Guatemala and that of El Salvador in connection with
the entry and transit through their respective territories of the per-
sonnel and equipment of the expedition.

eee e Nt CENTURY SCIENTIST
IN COLOMBIA: JOSE CELESTINO MUTIS’

MONG the notable figures in science contemporary with Lin-
naeus, Humboldt, and Bonpland was José Celestino Mutis, a
Spaniard by birth, who found in the Colombia of the last half of the
eighteenth century an almost virgin field for his investigations in
botany and other branches of natural history. This erudite and
versatile man was for 25 years the head of a great botanical expedition;
founder of the first astronomical observatory in the Western Hemis-
phere, established in Bogota in 1802; the discoverer of the nocturnal
variation of the barometer; co-author of a grammar of Colombian
Indian languages, prepared to satisfy a request which Catherine the
Great of Russia made of the King of Spain; metallurgist who worked
eight years improving methods of mining; priest; and beloved teacher
of natural science.

Mutis, who was born in Cadiz in 1732, showed an especial aptitude
for mathematics in his early studies, pursued in Seville, but later
he specialized in medicine and taught anatomy in the University of
Madrid, also studying botany in that city. In 1760 he was invited by
Don Pedro Mesia de la Cerda, Viceroy of New Granada (known to
us as the Republic of Colombia), to accompany him thither as his
physician. Mutis accepted, and embarked for that distant colony
where he was to remain until his death, in 1808. The lure of a new
flora, already celebrated for the American drugs, quinine, balsam of
Tolu, and cocaine, ‘‘the divine plant of the Incas,” greatly influenced
him in his decision, and he was consequently much irked by the
demands upon his professional attention which for several years pre-
vented him from leaving the capital. In the meantime, however, he
gave public lectures on mathematics and Newtonian philosophy, and
became the first professor of natural history in the Colegio del Rosario,
that school of noble tradition, inspiring his students with a deep
interest in his subject and defending publicly for the first time in
America the planetary system of Copernicus. It is difficult now to
realize that this was an intrepid act.

His predilections for natural science continued to increase with his
residence in the New World, and in 1763 he sent a memorial to the
King of Spain through the Viceroy petitioning the compilation of a
natural history of America. No reply was received to this letter;
and it was 20 years later that Charles III of Spain, a progressive and
enlightened monarch, gave a favorable reception to Mutis’s long-

1 See the tribute of the Governing Board to the memory of Mutis, pp. 485 to 437.—EDIToR.

401

402 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

JOSE CELESTINO MUTIS
1732-1808.

cherished idea. ‘The King made him head botanist and astronomer
of the Royal Botanical Expedition of northern South America, had
the necessary books and instruments purchased, and assigned him a
number of assistants, some of whom were to make paintings of the
new plants found. Thereupon Mutis settled in Mariquita, near the
Magdalena River, where the abundance of tropical flora offered him
an excellent opportunity for his studies. These he pursued with the
ereatest diligence, analyzing new plants especially with a view to
their medicinal properties.

Mutis’s initiative was followed in other colonies, and by 1796 there
were similar expeditions in Chile, Peru, Mexico, and Central America.
Their joint purpose was to study the flora of America and assemble

_*,

JOSE CELESTINO MUTIS 403

specimens for a museum in Madrid which should be the marvel of
all Europe.

At the end of eight years Mutis returned to Bogota for the sake of
his health, taking with him a large number of drawings and much
material. Here the personnel of the botanical expedition settled
down in spacious quarters equipped with a large library and numerous
pieces of scientific apparatus. Thirteen painters were now at work,
and an enthusiastic group of young men, headed by Francisco José
de Caldas, who is noted not only as a scientist but as a martyr of
Colombian independence, came to study with the master.

“The fame of Mutis reached its zenith in 1801,’ writes Dr. Carlos
E. Chard6én, of the University of Puerto Rico, ‘‘when he received a
visit from the traveler and naturalist Alexander von Humboldt. The
latter had landed at Cumana, Venezuela, in 1799, accompanied by
the French botanist Aimé Bonpland. In 1800 they explored the sources
of the Orinoco, Casiquiare, and Negro Rivers, and since they had to
go to Peru, they decided to ascend the Magdalena and spend several
weeks in Bogota in order to become acquainted with Mutis. The
arrival of these illustrious travelers in Bogota was a great occasion,
giving rise to many social events. Humboldt was lodged near Mutis,
with whom he exchanged vows of sincere and lasting friendship. The
German scientist was amazed at Mutis’s monumental work on the
flora of New Granada, which already was composed of more than
6,000 colored drawings and 13 manuscript volumes. On their return
to Europe, Humboldt and Bonpland inserted in the section on Plantes
Equinoxiales of the celebrated account of their journeys a portrait of
Mutis, with the following inscription: ‘‘To Don José Celestino Mutis,
director of the Royal Botanical Expedition of the New Kingdom of
Granada, astronomer of Santa Fe de Bogota, as a slight testimony of
admiration and friendship. A. Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland.”’

Spain and her viceroyalty of New Granada were not alone in bene-
fiting by the researches of Mutis, for the European museums and the
books on natural history published in his time were indebted to this
faithful and obliging correspondent. The elder Linnaeus is said to
have owed him a great part of his knowledge of American flora, and
the Stockholm Academy elected him a member in recognition of his
services to that institution, while other scientists joined in calling
him ‘‘the patriarch of botanists of the New World.”

The commercial use of plants as well as the medicinal was of interest
to Mutis. In Mariquita he tried to acclimatize various trees and plants
from distant regions, especially several cinnamon trees which he and
the Archbishop-Viceroy Caballero y Géngora hoped to make the
basis of a thriving industry. One of his most important botanical
discoveries was that of the existence of quinine trees in the neigh-
borhood of Bogota, theretofore known to flourish only in Ecuador.

404 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

His quinology was not published until 1828, 20 years after his death,
but it was considered that his researches on this subject brought large
sums of money to Spanish trade.

In 1793 the Royal Government had inquired as to the progress of
the Botanical Expedition, sending a special agent to inform himself
as to its work. He reported that it would be most useful to the public
and a great honor to the nation, and recommended that the draw-
ings already made should be printed in Spain. To the great loss of
science, this recommendation was not followed. In 1816, during the
course of the War of Independence, Morillo, ‘“‘the Pacifier,” ordered
the specimens, drawings, and notes of Mutis shipped to the
Spanish capital. The King and Queen themselves examined the
treasure, packed in 105 boxes, which the labors of Mutis had presented
to the nation, and recognized that he had more than fulfilled the duty
which had been confided to him. Sad to say, the collections of Mutis
in zoology, mineralogy, and botany were dispersed among various
museums without notations as to their origin; the herbarium of more
than 20,000 specimens was not unpacked for many years, until it
had fallen prey to the ravages of dampness and insects; the classifi-
cation of barks, woods, and seeds was lost. The drawings, however,
made with exquisite care under the eye of Mutis and colored with
pigments native to Colombia, are still cherished in the Botanical
Garden of Madrid, although they were titled by another.

“Nomen immortale, quod nulla aetas numquam delebit,’ said Linnaeus
of Mutis. It may seem that the mischances of fortune were bent on
effacing the name of Mutis when his great collection was dispersed,
but it lives effectively in the National Observatory of Colombia which
he founded, and in those contributions to botany which his fellow
scientists from generation to generation hold in admiration and
esteem.

THE TREASURE OF MONTE ALBAN

By Bratrick NEwHALL

Assistant Editor of the BULLETIN of the Pan American Union

VER since January 16, 1932, when the news was first published
that Sefior Alfonso Caso, a rising young Mexican archeologist,
had found rare treasure in a tomb on Monte Alban in the State of
Oaxaca, the subject has been headline news all over the world. The
enthusiasm aroused everywhere by the discovery was unusually keen
throughout all Mexico, and the desire of the public to see for itself
the objects, popularly known as “‘the jewels,’’ was so intense and
widespread that early in March they were exhibited in Mexico City,
partly to satisfy public curiosity, partly to secure, by means of a
“Voluntary contribution” required of all visitors, funds for further
research.

The exhibition was held in two rooms set apart for the purpose
in the National Museum. The first one contained pottery and similar
articles uncovered at Monte Alban; the average visitor gave little
more than a passing glance to the large exhibit, so well arranged and
carefully labeled, but continued at once to the second room, where
a more spectacular portion of the discoveries was on display. The
more observing person, however, examined with great interest the
three elaborate funerary urns of reddish clay from the now famous
Tomb No.7. They are square, about 20 or 22 inches high, including
the feet; the lids rest on hollow bases about 10 inches on a side,
protruding masks at the corners making the outer length about 15
inches. The lids represent a human head, chest, and arms; in each
case, the figure wears an elaborate headdress retaining traces of red
paint. One is somewhat larger than the other two, and is further
differentiated from them by the fact that the face is bearded. In
all three the figures wear elaborate necklaces or pectorals and ear
ornaments.

The inner room contained the objects of greater intrinsic value
and popular appeal. To the nonscientific visitor the fact that the
gold had been cleaned and the luster restored to much of the jewelry
added to the interest of the exhibit, for he was spared the difficult task
of deciphering details of unfamiliar forms.

Four blackened silver rings had been left untouched, showing how
time and the elements can disguise delicate workmanship. ‘They are
of solid metal, the ring being about half an inch wide with an additional
piece, somewhat like a shield, about three-quarters of an inch wide and

405

406 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

usually the same height, although occasionally a little higher, added in
front. The band has a geometric design applied in filigree; to the
shield, an eagle with filigree wings and tail spread in downward flight
is attached. The eagle’s head is modeled in high relief; at each side is
a small bell pendant from the wings, and from the beak is suspended
what might be a conventional representation of the sun, a circle on a
wider base, from which hang five more bells.

The exhibit contained five burnished gold rings of the same basic
design, although different in some important details. One, very
similar to the silver rings, is a little larger; it was the only gold ring

ENTRANCE TO TOMB
NO. 7, MONTE ALBAN

At the right stands Senor

Alfonso Caso, the archeol-
| ogist whose investigations
' at Oaxaca led to the dis-
| covery of the famous treas-
{. ure deposited in this tomb.

Courtesy of Jack Starr-Hunt

in which the eagle’s filigree wings and tail were separate from the ring
itself. The other rings have the eagle’s head, in full relief, issuing
from the top of the shield at right angles, above a barely indicated body;
the wings are outlined in applied filigree to the background, but the
claws are, like the head, in high relief. From the beak and from each
claw hangs a small pendant with bells.

A style of adornment rather alien to us of the present day was the
use of plugs for the ears, nose, or lower lip. Of the lip-plugs there was
an example perfect in design and execution—an eagle’s head exquisitely
carved in jade or jadeite, mounted in a bilobed gold stud. In excel-
lence of carving, sophistication of treatment, and mastery of styliza-

THE TREASURE OF MONTE ALBAN 407

tion, this piece ranks high, and would be an honor to any craftsman
of any era.

The gold ornaments for nose or ears are of the same delicate work-
manship that characterizes the rings, but some have in addition a
humorous touch which is altogether delightful. Two of them have,
on an openwork circular background, a repoussé human head with the
beak of an eagle instead of a nose, from which hangs a pendant and
bells; one in particular is interesting because to the pendant, a con-
ventionalized design of the sun, depends, between two bells, an ascend-
ing eagle with four more bells suspended from his tail. Another
human head is apparently sticking out his tongue, and from it hang
the usual two bells with the eagle between; in this case, however, the
bird is little more than an eaglet, for his round smooth body and tiny
filigree wings and tail (with three small bells attached), really resemble
a chicken rather than a full grown monarch of the air. A striking
ornament of this type consists of a somewhat larger openwork beaded
circle from which protrudes a large crested eagle’s head, his filigree
wings, tail, and claws within the circle; he is depicted in descending
flight, and in his beak he holds an elaborate pendant with four bells.

Rock crystal and jade or jadeite ear plugs were more interesting for
the material from which they were fashioned and for their symmetry
than for any artistic merit. They were thick rings, some two, some
three inches in diameter, with a small hollow center and a deep groove
in the outer edge, around which apparently the pierced ear lobe was
fitted.

Beads in great numbers, of all sizes, shapes, and materials, strung
and unstrung, figured largely in the exhibition. Some, especially
the round gold ones, have a startlingly modern look—there was one
string of beads approximately half an inch in diameter, another, of
smaller ones interspersed with bells, still another, of beads with apphed
fine gold filigree. There were rough and smooth, single and double,
round and rectangular beads; the materials included gold, onyx,
erystal, turquoise, jade or jadeite, and coral, not to mention the lus-
trous and widely heralded pearls. There were beads with and without
bells attached; of the former perhaps the design that aroused the most
interest was that of an incised turtleback, with four bells hanging from
filigree loops. There were 16 of these beads in all, in 2 strings of 9
and 7 respectively.

In a place of honor was an elaborate pectoral necklace of 23 strands.
It had been strung in a purely arbitrary manner, as the card in the
case attested: ‘‘This necklace or pectoral is a reconstruction with
materials found in Tomb 7. The reconstruction is based on drawings
in codices and on sculpture.’ The first 14 strands are of turquoise,
then come 3 of coral, 3 of pearl, and 3 of gold, the bottom one of which
has 34 gold bells interspersed. The strands are bound together by
double gold beads, of which there are 9 rows 11 deep.

Courtesy of Jack Starr-Hunt

GROPVED WHORE MK
FROM THE “‘OA-
XACA TREAS-
URE”

Upper: Round and tur-
tle-back beads, two
ear or nose Ornaments,
the gold scepter (2),
and an elaborate pec-
toral with symbolic
filigree designs. Low-
er: Mask and pecto-
rals of thin beaten
gold; the center object
is noteworthy for deli-
cacy and wealth of
detail.

THE TREASURE OF MONTE ALBAN 409

The gold pectorals or breastplates were also of great interest. The
most striking one is about 4 inches wide and 6} inches high, repre-
senting a human head wearing an elaborate headdress and emerging
from a hieroglyphic-covered breastplate. The repoussé face is
admirably executed, revealing such force of character that there can
be little doubt that it was a portrait. A singular feature, however, is
that the jawbone is skeletal, while the rest of the face is covered with
flesh. The headdress is wrought with unusual detail, and in the ears
are ornaments with filigree eagle heads in full relief. Around the
neck is displayed a three-strand necklace with a descending eagle
pendant from the outer strand. The breastplate, a little wider than
the headdress, is edged with a rolled band and split up the center to
the neck. The hieroglyphics, which are decorative in the extreme,
contain numbers, perhaps dates.

There were five other pectorals very much alike, all similar in
shape and design to the one just described, but little more than half as
large. The reduced size made it impossible to give as much detail in
the headdress, or to keep to such fine proportions. The faces are
disproportionately large and rather grotesque; they are modeled in
high relief, while the arms are only outlined in filigree on the slightly
indicated trunk. The arms are akimbo, the hands, below filigree
bracelets, are palm down on the body, side by side, the thumbs
touching. The lower part of the pectoral is a rectangle of plain
beaten gold, the same width as the upper part, but only little more
than half as high.

A unique object recovered from the tomb was a mask about 4
inches high of thin beaten gold, obviously a portrait. The eyes are
closed, the mouth open, and from the nose dangles a separate pendant.
The ears are at right angles to the head, and from them hang great
gold rings or disk plugs. Around the brow is a band, which might
represent a crown, surmounted by filigree work, with filigree tassels
falling from the inside over each ear.

Among the articles which excited the eager interest of the visitor
was a hollow gold cylindrical object, about 6 inches long, ending in a
snake’s head. The shank is composed of alternating bands, of
varying width, of plain gold and filigree designs, open and applied;
the features of the head are indicated by applied wire. For just
what purpose this piece served is not known exactly—it resembles
closely our idea of the conventional scepter.

A human skull, somewhat battered, was another feature of the
exhibition. Originally it had been entirely inlaid with turquoise
mosaic; when it was found, only a part of the inlay was intact, the

1132s, GS

410 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

rest covering the earth around the skull, and a knife was thrust
through the nose.

Two goblets, one of alabaster, the other of clear rock crystal, also
evoked much admiration.

A part of the treasure which will doubtless be of importance in
determining the date and history of the objects is a number of pieces
of carved bone. A few are small bones with rather crude incised
pictures, but the majority, the most interesting from both the
archeological and the artistic point of view, are thin strips, cut
with two parallel sides, one shorter than the other, and with curved
ends, giving them somewhat the appearance of a double-headed paper
knife. The elaborate carving is of an admirable low relief. Some
have a series of similar figures—men or animals—repeated in panels
separated by vertical or diagonal bands, others are continuous in
design. Certain of these pieces were found near the chief skeleton of
Tomb No. 7, and if, as is the general expectation, the carving thereon

ORNAMENTS FROM
TOMB NO. 7

To the left is a gold ring deco-
rated with an eagle. The
head is in full relief on the
upper portion of the shield,
the body indicated only
slightly; bells hang from
beak and claws. Between
the two single rings at the
right is a lip plug, a jadeite
eagle’s head of consummate
craftmanship inserted in a
bilobed gold stud.

prove, upon study, to include decipherable dates, they should yield
invaluable information to students of archeology, in addition to the
great pleasure already given to lovers of beauty.

The discovery of the treasure was one of those pleasant surprises
which archeology keeps up her sleeve as a reward for her faithful
servants. arly in his career, Sefior Caso had become aware of the
great importance to pre-Columbian history of the civilizations
centered in and about what is now the State of Oaxaca. In 1928 he
published a monograph on Zapotec stelae, in the preface to which
he wrote these significant words:

One of the most important of the various branches composing Mexican
archeology is that which refers to the antiquities of the State of Oaxaca.

Fortified cities, such exceptional temples as those of Mitla, gold and silver
work, sculpture, painting, all prove that in that corner of the Republic there
flourished in ancient times great civilizations, comparable with those of the Pla-
teau and of Central America, and certainly related to both.

But although there are abundant descriptions by enthusiastic travelers, ar-
cheologists, or amateurs, very few studies have been undertaken for the purpose

of enabling us to penetrate into the mysteries of these civilizations, and to ascer-
tain their points of contact with the Maya and Nahua cultures.

THE TREASURE OF MONTE ALBAN All

And although the literature dealing with the archeology of Oaxaca is not
scanty, we realize after a perusal of it that the authors have generally repeated
what others had said before them, without adding, in a majority of the cases,
the results of any personal investigation or new facts which would inerease our
knowledge.

Thus, while our knowledge of Nahua or Maya archeology is constantly ad-
vancing and their problems occupy the attention of many investigators, the
archeology of Oaxaca remains stationary and we have few studies adequate to
serve as a basis for later investigations.

Senor Caso’s interest in the archeology of Oaxaca grew as his
studies progressed; through his contagious enthusiam he was able to
interest others in his vision, and finally money was obtained which
enabled him last October to begin excavation and reconstruction on a
fitting scale. In the exhibition rooms in the National Museum,
cards bearing this legend were prominently hung:

These explorations on Monte Alban, Oaxaca, were carried out by the Bureau
of Monuments of the Department of Public Education, with the collaboration of
the Government of the State of Oaxaca, the Pan American Institute of Geography
and History, the National University, and Mr. D. W. Morrow, Senator Eleazar
del Valle, Gen. Rafael Melgar, and Dr. J. Vel4zquez Uriarte.

Monte Alban, where the objects were discovered, rises almost
1,000 feet above the city of Oaxaca. It has long been recognized as
a very important site in the study of the Zapotec Civilization, one of
the pre-Columbian cultures to attain a high degree of civilization,
yet one about which comparatively little is known. The other two
especially noteworthy cultures were the Maya, in the region to the
south and east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, including territory
now part of the Central American Republics, and the Aztec, or, more
broadly speaking, the Nahua, centering in the Valley of Mexico.
The remains of the former, first called to the attention of the outside
world by John L. Stephens in 1841 by the publication of his Incidents
of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan, have their chief
Mexican monuments at Palenque, in the State of Chiapas, and
throughout the peninsula of Yucatan. The ruins of Chichen Itza,
where the most extensive restoration program of monuments is at
present being carried out, are probably the ones most visited by trav-
elers and best known to the general public. And the excavations
carried on in recent years by the Mexican Government at San Juan
Teotihuacan, a little less than 30 miles from the national capital,
give to a greater number of travelers and tourists a comprehension,
ever clearer as the work progresses and additional buildings are un-
covered and restored, of some external aspects of Aztec civilization.

The Zapotec culture, whose chief monuments are to be found in the
State of Oaxaca, has for some time, as Sefior Caso has pointed out,
been acknowledged as especially important in any study of the interre-
lationship between the other two great civilizations. But in spite of

*deul JO 1OUIOD 4YUSII IOMO] 9Y} OF SUIPVET OUT] OY AG PoZVOIPUT SI YOIyM “BoVXVGO 0} PvOI 9Y4 BUOTe odoTS
ULVJUNOUL OY} UMOP ddULASIP JAOYS V PO4BIOT SI 2 “ON GUO} poyVAvoxE ATJUODEI OY, “BZETd OY} JO Y4AOU OY} 4B 9dV110} IO UIOJ}L[d 7v0I13 944 SoyeoIpUT YY SII
OU} 1B VOIG IV[NIOMI OsIV] CY, “OOIxeTAT ‘UOTeonpH dI[qnd Jo yueu4Iedeq ‘Asojoevyory Jo nveing 9y4 JO MOL,OeIIp oY} Jepun UMBIp URI B MOI] poonpoidoery

VOVXVO ‘NVY@1TV ALNOW ‘VZV1Id NIVIN AHL 10 NVId OIHdVUDOdOL

O8ED Osudj[y Aq ‘,,SB00}0dez SBlOIST] SVT, UL ‘OIIOSG OpeALT, OUBIIEIAY Aq FUIMEAp wOI

ie i’) ; (fa
— ore) a) i (WSJ)
i} ——~

THE TREASURE OF MONTE ALBAN 413

its importance as a connecting link, and although the ruins of Mitla
were explored during the early years of the 19th century by Dr. Luis
Martin and Colonel de Laguna and visited by Humboldt, Dupaix,
and, a little later, by Muhlenpfordt, the monuments of the Zapotec
culture and that of their neighbors, the Mixtecs, have received scant
attention from scientists and travelers.

The two main sites for the study of the Zapotec civilization have
long been recognized as Mitla and Monte Alban. Both lie in the
Valley of Oaxaca. The former is about 25 miles southeast of the
capital; its buildings are particularly famous for their cyclopean con-
struction and the geometric mosaics made of stones carved before
being put into place, often so neatly fitted together that no mortar
was required; the designs, in horizontal panels, decorate the greater
part of both inner and outer wall spaces. Monte Alban is about 7
miles southwest of Oaxaca. Its summit was artificially leveled in
days already long past when the Spaniards first entered Mexico; and
on the plain thus made, as well as on the adjoining slopes, were
erected pyramids and pyramidal platforms grouped about a series of
plazas. Yet, in spite of the obvious invitation for exploration and
reconstruction offered by the hundreds of mounds there, Monte Alban
has been neglected in favor of the more spectacular remains at Chichen
Itza and the more accessible ones at Teotihuacan.

Oaxaca has long been out of the main current of Mexican life;
mountains, wide dusty plains, and steaming jungles kept the region
isolated until nearly the end of the nineteenth century, when railroad
connection with Mexico City, via Puebla, broke down the barriers
that nature had contrived. Even so, the prospect of the tedious 12-
hour trip from Puebla to Oaxaca has daunted many travelers desirous
of visiting less frequented centers, for the rare beauty of the moun-
tains and the evidences of that high engineering skill which made it
possible for the railway to penetrate such rugged fastnesses hardly
beguiled the hours spent crossing the hot and often intolerably dusty
plain. Now, however, there is a highway between the two capitals
which enables one to travel at his leisure, independent of the railway
and its inconvenient schedule. Yet for the traveler who can forget
past inconveniences in the pleasure of present experiences, and
above all, for one gifted with the kind of imagination capable of evok-
ing a living past from the mutilated remains that have subsisted into
the present, the experience is richly rewarding.

In the first place, Oaxaca itself is one of the most delightful places
imaginable. Once there, one feels free from the bustle and bother of
the world, yet not unpleasantly isolated. The friendliness of the
people, the quiet beauty of the city, the treasures of historic and ar-
tistic value, all combine to weave a spell which one would not resist

if he could.

414 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Photograph by Beatrice Newhall

MONTE ALBAN

A view of the main plaza from the south, showing the four pyramids occupying the center, in front of the
great platform or terrace.

The smiling trefoil valley of Oaxaca, some 5,000 feet above sea
level, has always had a special appeal to those fortunate enough to
know it. In pre-Columbian days, it was an important religious site,
the center of a high culture whose place in the mosaic of indigenous
Mexican cultures is still under discussion. From the early days of
the Conquest—partly, no doubt, because of the rich deposits of gold,
silver, and other minerals in the surrounding mountains, partly
because of its great agricultural possibilities—it ranked high in the
estimation of the Spaniards. The title which Charles V bestowed
upon Cortés in recognition of his prowess was Marquis of the Valley
of Oaxaca. On April 25, 1532, the rights and privileges of a city
were granted to the town established at the foot of Monte Alban, an
event commemorated with fitting ceremonies on its 400th anniversary
this spring.

The city is almost under the shadow of the historic ‘‘ White Moun-
tain,’ with which it is connected by a fine modern road. One of the
questions that continue to puzzle thoughtful investigators is how a
city of the size and extent indicated by the remains on Monte Alban
could have been built and have existed for any appreciable length of
time without water, for none has been found on the summit. The new
road is modern Mexico’s method of providing it—over the smooth
surface go the great trucks laden with the water necessary for carry-

THE TREASURE OF MONTE ALBAN 415

ing on the routine work of reconstruction and restoration under the
direction of Sefior Caso and his able assistant, Sefior Martin Bazan.

The modern traveler who visits Monte Alban can motor to the
summit in less than half an hour from the time he leaves his hotel.
He will find that, in spite of restoration work on the chief pyramid,
the description written in 1897 by Dr. William H. Holmes, now
Director of the National Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, is still accurate: !

From the main level I ascended the central pyramid, which is the crowning
feature of this part of the crest, and obtained a magnificent panorama of the
mountain and the surrounding valleys andranges. . . . Thecrest of Alban,
one-fourth of a mile wide and extending nearly a mile to the north, lay spread
out at my feet. The surface was not covered with scattered and obscure piles
of ruins as I had expected, but the whole mountain had been remodeled by the
hand of man until not a trace of natural contour remained. There was a vast
system of level courts inclosed by successive terraces and bordered by pyramids
upon pyramids. Even the sides of the mountain descended in a succession of
terraces. :
In the foreground is the great terrace . . . crowned by its
two pyramids, one placed at the southeast corner and the other, the main mound,
situated a little to the left of the center.

Behind this group is the central feature of the ancient city, a vast court or
plaza, a level, sunken field 600 feet wide and 1,000 feet long, inclosed by terraces
and pyramids and having a line of four pyramids ranged along its center. The
great lines of mounds at the right and left border the abrupt margins of the
mountain, and beyond is the most astonishing feature of all—a broad terrace
600 or more feet square, within which is a sunken court surrounded by numerous
pyramids that rise in a culminating group at the distant right. Beyond this at
the left are other groups of mounds, and still other groups occupy the spurs and
subordinate crests into which the north end of the mountain is broken. At the
left and farther away are two independent, rounded, mountain crests crowned
by groups of mounds. At the right is the extreme west end of the Lesser
Aiban.

The highway ends at the northeast corner of the great plaza
occupying the central portion of the main summit and diagonally
across from the point from which Doctor Holmes made the fore-
going description. To one’s right rises the “broad terrace,” a
pyramidal platform irregular in shape, on whose top, about 40 feet
above the plaza, may be seen other pyramids of no mean dimensions.

The first large-scale reconstruction project was undertaken on
this northern platform, and already the monumental stairway from
the plaza has been largely cleared, and work is now being carried
forward on the smaller plaza situated at the top. The stairway, which
extends across only part of that face, is nearly 130 feet wide, a fact
that gives some idea of the scale on which the ancient city was
constructed.

1 Archeological Studies Among the Ancient Cities of Mexico: Part Il, Monuments of Chiapas, Oaxaca,
and the Valley of Mexico, by William H. Holmes, Curator, Department of Anthropology, Field Colum-
bian Museum, Publication 16. Chicago, 1897.

416 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Although this is the first serious research carried on with the
idea of reconstruction, some exploration had been done by earlier
visitors, and chambers in some of the pyramids and mounds entered
without, however, finding anything of compelling importance.
There are a number of crudely carved slabs at a corner of one of the
pyramids flanking the western side of the great plaza. They line the
entrance to one of the subterranean chambers, and have been known
for over a hundred years. ‘‘The Aztec Passage”’ this has been called,
the word Aztec here being used to designate anything not purely
local; the figures have also been called “‘The Dancers.”’ In style,
subject, and execution they are quite unlike other remains in the dis-

Courtesy of Jack Starr-Hunt
MONUMENTAL STAIRWAY, MONTE ALBAN

Showing work of reconstruction on the stairway, nearly 130 feet wide, leading from the main plaza to the
terrace on which a minor plaza was constructed.

trict. A very interesting and much more esthetically appealing
monument is the carved slab in the southeast corner of the plaza,
banked against the lower flank of the southern platform. The figure
and hieroglyphs so delicately carved on its face and top suggest
affinities with other cultures. Other interesting stele discovered by
earlier explorers have been removed and are now in the National
Museum in Mexico City.

Sefior Caso began his work of investigation with the chambers
in mounds and pyramids that had already been opened and searched
by earlier explorers. Then he turned his attention to a slope just
below the great pyramid, near the end of the highway, where his
attention had earlier been caught by masonry outlines in the turf

THE TREASURE OF MONTE ALBAN 417

on both sides of the road. These proved to be, as the visible con-
struction indicated, tombs; and in one of them, known as Tomb
No. 7, the treasure was found. At the inner entrance of the tomb
were found three broken urns which had evidently been destroyed
intentionally; these were mended, and formed, as has been said,
the most striking exhibit in one of the rooms in the National Museum.
Inside the tomb were found human remains and objects of great
intrinsic and archeological value. It required over a week for Sefior
Caso and his associates, working night and day, to mark, collect,
classify, catalogue, and make the necessary notations of location

Photographs by Beatrice Newhall
CARVED STELAE AT MONTE ALBAN

The stone to the left represents one of the figures known as ‘‘The Dancers,”’ a series of carvings lining the
passageway to a subterranean chamber in one of the pyramids. The visible portions of the elaborately
carved stele at the right are covered with hieroglyphs.

and condition of all the objects. The contents of the tomb were
then transferred for safe-keeping to a bank in Oaxaca and the news
of the discovery was published.

As to the date and origin to be assigned to the individual objects,
there has been some discussion; but no generally accepted conclusion
on the matter can be reached until after Sefior Caso has published
his monograph on the subject and thus offered to the world the
complete data.

On March 4, however, Sefior Caso delivered a lecture in Mexico
City before the Antonio Alzate National Academy of Science, in
which he is reported in the press as having said that, although the

A18 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

tomb is undeniably of Zapotec construction and the broken urns as
well as inscriptions on the stones at the inner entrance are also clearly
Zapotec, he believed the treasure to be of Mixtec workmanship. He
was especially inclined to this view, he added, because of the simi-
larity of the craftsmanship and design to examples of Aztec culture,
while between Zapotec and Aztec art there was no such resemblance.
On Monte Alban, Sefior Caso found evidence of at least three cultures.
To the first belong “‘The Dancers’; that civilization was followed
by the Zapotec, which in turn gave way to the Mixtee. This does
not necessarily imply, according to Sefior Caso, that the Mixtecans
were the last inhabitants of Monte Alban.

An interesting hypothesis was offered before the same academy on
March 21 by Mrs. Zelia Nuttall, who occupies an enviable position
among archeologists. In a paper presented to the Twenty-fourth
Congress of Americanists which met in Hamburg in 1930, she
had called attention to the fact that the Spaniards, with royal
approval, early embarked upon a systematic sacking of all tombs
throughout New Spain, not only to obtain the vast amount of precious
metals and other valuables which had been interred with kings,
priests, and others of high degree, but also to weaken the influence of
native religious cults. In the paper read in Mexico, Mrs. Nuttall
pointed out that the last Aztec chieftain, Cuautemoc, son-in-law of
Moctezuma, accompanied Cortés as hostage in the march which the
Conquistador undertook in 1524 from Mexico to Honduras. In his
official account of the trip, in the form of a letter to Charles V,
Cortés relates how, in the spring of 1525, using as a pretext the dis-
covery of a plot on the part of some hostages, he hanged the alleged
ringleader, Cuautemoc, with a companion, in the Province of Acalan,
now identified as part of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.

The symbol of Cuautemoc was, naturally enough, the eagle, for
the Aztec word for eagle is cuauhtli. It would be only human for the
followers or subjects of the dead chieftain to wish him buried with the
honors due his rank, and to what safer place could his bones be
removed than to a tomb already ransacked by the zealous Spaniards?
The descending eagle might then be taken to signify the fallen for-
tunes of the unfortunate Aztec, while the occasional representation
of an ascending eagle could be considered a sign of rebellion. This
explanation would also account for the Aztec character already noted
in the workmanship of some of the treasure, as well as for the fact
that practically nothing of intrinsic value was discovered by those
who have explored other graves on Monte Alban.

THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
ON CALENDAR REFORM

By Merepitu N. Strives!

HE question of simplifying the calendar, which was the subject

of a resolution at the Pan American Conference in Habana in
1928,? was taken up last October at an international conference of
government delegates at Geneva by invitation of the League of
Nations. Forty-three governments accepted, including the Govern-
ments of Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Mexico, Peru, and
Uruguay. Brazil had previously filed a report on the question.

After a week of discussion the Conference made a recommendation
to the churches in favor of fixing Easter on the first Sunday after the
second Saturday in April, but as regards the general reform of the
calendar, postponed action chiefly because of the disturbed world
conditions. The delegates felt that the time was not opportune for
immediate application of calendar reform.

The Conference, however, drew up a survey of the question,
including a discussion of the proposed plans of simplification, and
sent it to all governments for consideration. This action leaves the
question open until 1935, the date for the next quadrennial meeting
of the General Conference on Communications and Transit, which
is the League organization that has the question in charge. Mean-
while, the League will follow up the movement and keep the govern-
ments regularly informed of its further progress.

Although the failure of the Conference to take conclusive action
at this time was disappointing to some, the fact that calendar reform
was for the first time officially placed before the governments for
eventual decision may be taken as a substantial step forward when
the progress of the movement is taken in perspective.

“Wor the first time,’ as the Conference pointed out in its survey,
“ ublic opinion as a whole has begun to be in a position to discuss
seriously the advantages and drawbacks of the simplification of the
Gregorian calendar. It is also the first time that governments in

1 Mr. Stiles participated in the Conference as one of the representatives of the National Committee on
Calendar Simplification for the United States.

2 The resolution of the Sixth International Conference of American States on the Simplification of the
Calendar adopted February 20, 1928, was as follows:

‘“«That it be recommended to the countries members of the Pan American Union that they appoint a
National Committee with a view to studying the proposal relative to the simplification of the calendar,
and that they make the necessary preparation in order to participate in an International Conference to
determine which is the best method of reform.”’

419

420 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

general have been brought to regard the simplification of the calendar
as a definite question capable of discussion between them in the
course of official deliberations. The preparatory work and the dis-
cussions in the Conference, to which the governments will doubtless
devote attention, will provide the competent government depart-
ments with the material necessary for a considered decision.”’

As regards recommending a particular plan of calendar reform
from among those submitted by the Preparatory Committee, which
had met in June, the delegates deferred making a definite choice.
Various of the delegates had been instructed not to commit their
governments at this time, and were, therefore, obliged to maintain
an officially neutral attitude. The discussion as to the best plan to
adopt was quite free, however, and developed a decided sentiment
that if the calendar were to be reformed at all, it should be a thorough-
going reform and correct all of the calendar’s defects. The consensus
was decidedly in favor of adopting a perpetual calendar—that is, a
calendar fixing the week days to unchanging dates—but the feeling
was that, owing to certain religious opposition to such a calendar, it
would be difficult if not impossible to introduce it in some countries
without a greater demand for it than existed at present. The re-
ligious opposition referred to was that of leaders of Jewish religious
bodies, also a Christian sect known as Seventh Day Adventists,
whose representatives appeared at the Conference and made pleas
for a rejection of a perpetual calendar. They said their people were
unable to accept the annual one day’s interruption of the seventh
day sequence of their Saturday Sabbath, such as a perpetual calen-
dar would involve, and that as a consequence the adoption of such
a calendar would be injurious to their religions. No opposition was
manifested by any other religious body.

From the economic and social point of view, discussion of the
merits of the two plans for a perpetual calendar, the one limited to
the equalization of the quarters of the year, the other dividing the
year into 13 equal months of 28 days each, developed a larger weight
of opinion in favor of the 13-month division as preferable to the
limited reform, which fails to remedy the defect of fractional weeks.

In this connection, much consideration was given to the present
use of the 13-period auxiliary calendar among business concerns.
This was emphasized in the survey which the Conference submitted
to Governments. Attention was called to the possibility that the
13-period business calendar might be officially recognized by Govern-
ments as an auxiliary calendar, and that eventually its increasing
use among commercial and industrial organizations and its employ-
ment by public authorities would lead the public to a wider recog-
nition of the advantages of simplifying the calendar.

THE MEXICAN BALLET-SYMPHONY
“HP.”

By Harry L. Hewns

HE most ironic and whimsical commentary on the contrast

and conflicts of life on the North American Continent ever
produced on the lyric stage was seen in the Metropolitan Opera
House in Philadelphia on March 31, 1932, when the widely publicized
Mexican symphony H. P. was presented in its world premiére by
the corps de ballet of the Philadelphia Grand Opera Company. The
audience which packed the great edifice to the doors was one of the
most distinguished to gather in Philadelphia in recent years.

The general idea of the work was conceived by Carlos Chavez in
1926, and worked out with Diego Rivera in its present form. The
work was finished in 1927 and reorchestrated for a large symphony
orchestra in 1931.

The music, often humorous, occasionally brutal, and for fleeting
moments directly in the romanticist vein, was written by Senior
Chavez. Designs for décor and costumes were by Sefior Rivera,
Mexican painter, who has been described as the ‘‘world’s foremost
graphic artist.”” The whole impact of Sefior Rivera’s ironic wit was
revealed in both settings and costumes.

Leopold Stokowski was at the conductor’s desk; before him in the
pit was the entire orchestral personnel of 114 men. A desk telephone
linked him with the electricians who operated the many-octaved
light batteries back stage.

It is of interest to note here that Mr. Stokowski returned in Febru-
ary from his second visit to Mexico to observe the ritualistic and
symbolic dances of the Indians, the roots of which are lost in dim
and unrecorded centuries; he brought back light and sound records
for further study. With Sefior Chavez he had lived in an isolated
Indian village on the far southwestern coast.

Both Sefior Chavez and Sefior Rivera went to Philadelphia early
in March and assisted in staging rehearsals. The choreography was
directed by Catherine Littlefield, premiére danseuse of the opera
company.

An immensely significant plastic imagination is revealed in the
ballet, reaching brilliantly into the world of satirical fantasy. Its
action is thus described in the program:

Jala 12%

The Ballet H. P. symbolizes the relations of the Northern Regions with those
of the Tropics, and shows their interrelationship. The Tropics produce things

421

422 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Courtesy of Harry Hewes

osu nee

Diego Rivera’s sketch of the leading character in ““H. P.,’’ the Mexican symphony-ballet, by Carlos
Chavez and Diego Rivera, which had its world premiére in Philadelphia, March 31, 1932.

in their primitive state—there are Pineapples, Cocoanuts, Bananas, and Fish.
The North produces the machinery with which to manufacture from the products
of the Tropics, the necessary material things of life. The Ballet depicts the
fact that the North needs the Tropics, just as the Tropics need the machinery
of the North, and attempts to harmonize the result.

1. Dance of the Man, H. P.

The Man is in the plenitude of his intellect, sentiments, and physical power.
He expresses in the dance, the energy contained in himself and discovers at his
every step, the unknown forces surrounding him, which he seeks to subdue.

2. A Cargo Ship at Sea Symbolizing the Commerce between the North and the
South.

Here are interpreted the relations between diverse men and places of different
resources. A gymnastic dance of Sailors denotes vigor, activity, and physical
force. Mermaids of the tropical seas, followed by their train of fish, come over
the side of the ship, expressing nonchalance, sensuality, and seduction. All are
swept by the frantic pleasure of the rhythm, syncopation, and dance.

3. A Ship in the Tropics.

Warmth and light. Plentiness to the earth and Fruits in abundance. Peace,
quietness, and exotie coloring. A slight breeze causes the fruit trees to sway.
The Fruits gradually grow more animated as the natives pass by, selling their
wares. The Sailors from the ship arrive to take their cargo of fruit. The scene
becomes more and more alive, as the final dance depicts the loading of the Fruits
upon the vessel.

istevien (2 423

THE MEXICAN BALLET-SYMPHONY

4. The City of Industry.

The North, with its skyscrapers, machinery, and mechanical activity. Man
collects the raw materials of the earth; gold, silver, cotton, tobacco, and the
machinery which enables him to dominate his surroundings, and satisfy his desire
and needs. The world at work, dominated by the stock ticker, denoting increas-
ing wealth. Mankind’s struggle for its welfare revolts against mere material
values, reverting to an insatiable desire for the natura] products of the earth.
Men and raw materials dance and blend into the rhythm of H. P., as the Ballet
ends.

The score is as full of contrasts as life on the North American
Continent. Sefior Chavez has utilized as themes the Anglo-Saxon
chanteys of the sea and the
Indian-Spanish huapango, danza,
corrido, and zandunga. The final
dance is a sparkling composition
holding together the suggestion of
the various themes by a clear,
strong, and decisive harmonic
treatment. ‘‘Once again a mu-
sician has issued a formidable
challenge to a dance composer,”’
remarked The New York Times;
“Mr. Chavez has filled his music
to the brim with substance.”” And
of the ballet the New York Herald
Tribune said: “His [Sefior
Rivera’s| fishes, mermaids, cocoa-
nuts, sugarcane, bananas, cigars,
and gasoline pumps provide some-
thing quite new and actually dis-
tinctive in ballet investiture and
retain the qualities of sunlight
and intense simplicity which One of the dancers in ““H. P.’’ as pictured by
always have been the secret of Diego Rivera.
his success.”’

Seftor Rivera, who endeared himself to the people of Philadelphia
because of his essentially humble devotion to his significant art and
his personal courtesy and kindliness, saw in the performance of /7. P.
by the Philadelphia Opera Company the opening of another door to a
more sympathetic cultural understanding between the United States
and the Republics to the South. ‘‘There is undoubtedly a common
destiny for all the men of America,’ he remarked. ‘The time will
come when they will be held by a common bond in the achievements
of art, beauty, and the mind.” Sefior Rivera also said: ‘‘H. P. 1s not
an exposition of ideas of propaganda for or against this or that point
of view, but the unfolding of plastic and musical incidents whose theme

Courtesy of Harry Hewes

“THE BANANA”

424 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

is in accord with the rhythm of our aspirations, interests, and the
necessities of our social existence. In this manner, the production
has been created and developed around its central theme with entire
abandon. The need for unity makes it necessary that the dance,
painting, and form of the scenery definitely express the music of
H. P. in plastic form. The music of H. P., however, can exist suc-
cessfully without dance or scenery. It can be played in the midst
of any multitude and that is as it should be, as it is made up of
the music of our people.”

“ HH. P.isasymphony of music
that is in the very air and at-
mosphere of our continent,” said
Sefior Chavez in his program note,
‘‘music that is heard on all sides,
a sort of review of the epoch in
which we live. It contains ex-
pressions that are natural to our
daily life, without attempting
to select the ‘artistic.’ Latin
American and Anglo-American
culture are giving this continent
its own personality and savor.
Groups of people of diverse char-
acters and regions, North and
South, mingle constantly in the
grand ferment of this, our Amer-
ican Continent. That which the
present moment has of strife and
ereativeness, that which in reality

Courtesy of Harry Hewes lives in the very air which we

Se one Ge breathe, is what is contained in

Design by Diego Ever ioe 2 dancer’s costume Jah. Indian tunes and dances

will be found in my music not as

a constructive base, but because all the conditions of their compo-

sition, form, sonority, etc., by nature coincide with those in my own
mind, inasmuch as both are products of the same origin.”

Mrs. William C. Hammer, the only woman to-day to fill the post
of general director of a major opera company, had general super-
vision over the ballet production. Having searched Europe for three
years for new operas and worthy ballets, she is turning her attention
to Latin America this year, and entertains plans for visiting the great
opera houses of the South American cities during the coming summer,
when the winter season of the Southern Hemisphere is at its height.

eo a tas See

int (ONIOR RED CROSS IN PERG

By Dr. Antonio AYLLON Pastor

Founder and Director of the Peruvian Jumor Red Cross; Head of the Public Health
Department, Boys’ Vocational School, Lima

HEN the Sixth Pan American Scientific Congress met in Lima,

the capital of Peru, the organization of a Junior Red Cross in
that country was suggested as a means of educating children in health,
civic duties, and world peace. Although the idea was first broached
by the delegation of the United States, chief credit for securing favor-
able action by the Peruvian Government belongs to Dr. Pedro Lautaro
Ferrer, the delegate and enthusiastic Director General of the Chilean
Junior Red Cross.

Every year we teachers of the Vocational School for Boys in Lima
are accustomed to assemble at the call of the principal during the last
days of vacation for an interchange of ideas with regard to the inno-
vations which should be made during the next school year. In 1931
we agreed to change our methods of teaching to those of the so-called
“new’’ schools, and the daily programs were therefore arranged with
special interest. As teacher of hygiene, I could not fail to be particu-
larly interested in this transformation, and it was then that the idea
of making the Junior Red Cross an effective factor in our school came
to the fore. Although for the six years during which I had held my
present position I had tried to make my teaching as practical as pos-
sible, I had never obtained the surprising results which I have
achieved in the course of a few months, not only with regard to health,
but also with regard to the rest of the Junior Red Cross plan. Further-
more, I am sure that our work will eventually strengthen the adult
Red Cross.

It took two months of work to start the first unit mm proper form.
It was not only necessary to make certain preparations before we
could embark on our task, but also to train our staff. It was therefore
the first of June, 1931, when the work was begun, with sections for
first aid, hygiene, correspondence, and the medical attention which
the author himself gives. At that time we did not imagine that our
work was going to grow at an almost phenomenal rate. It was the
interest of the pupils which caused our activities to be extended and
new sections to be created; therefore we feel that notwithstanding such
difficulties as are encountered at the outset of any enterprise, much
has really been accomplished. At present there are eight sections:
(1) First aid, (2) medical, (3) hygiene and public health, (4) school

119731—32— Bull. 6—4 425

THE JUNIOR RED CROSS OF PERU

Group of members of the first unit of the Peruvian Junior Red Cross, with Dr. Antonio Ayllon, its director,
and Sefior Cecilio Garrido, principal of the Boys’ Vocational School, Lima.

HYGIENE SECTION OF THE JUNIOR RED CROSS

Pupils of the Boys’ Vocational School*must pass inspection each morning for cleanliness.

THE JUNIOR RED CROSS IN PERU 427

supplies, (5) library, (6) barber shop, (7) correspondence, and (8)
publicity.

The first-aid section gives assistance to those meeting with acci-
dents. Boys belonging to it are trained so that they can pass a test
and become cadets of the Junior Red Cross. The section is equipped
for service not only in individual cases but also in accidents involving
several persons.

The medical division gives a thorough physical examination to all
students registered in the school. Physical measurements, other data,
and the illnesses which a student has during his school life are noted
on his record, and appropriate suggestions are made to parents. Later
it is hoped to supplement the physical examination with mental
tests and an outline for suitable corrective exercises and sports. Med-
ical attention is also given to students needing it, the medicines pre-
scribed being obtained from pharmacies which give a 10 to 20 per
cent discount. Teachers are also advised as to ways in which they
can cooperate. The Junior Red Cross cadets assist wherever possible,
thus acquiring valuable training and lightening the work. They know
how to take all the data not needing technical knowledge, such as
weight, height, and chest measurement. They have also been taught
to make home visits for the purpose of securing information as to
housing conditions, standards of living, and family environment.

The morning inspection of all pupils as to their personal hygiene is
in charge of the members of the hygiene and health section. This does
not end their work, for they are expected to secure observation of the
rules of hygiene from any boys who have been remiss. For this pur-
pose necessary supplies, such as soap, toothbrushes, and wash cloths,
are kept in the Bureau of Supplies. This bureau likewise sells such
articles to students at a lower price than that charged by the
stores, letting them purchase on the installment plan. The bureau
is largely patronized and is run by a cadet who acts as manager and
is assisted by various other students.

The students themselves have full responsibility in this section and
have obtained excellent results, so that now practically every boy
arrives at school spick and span. We have therefore achieved a prac-
tical teaching of hygiene which surely will not be forgotten by our
pupils for the rest of their lives.

This same section has established the hygiene merit stripe, which is
very much coveted. It is awarded weekly to the students of the class
which has best observed the rules of hygiene. Charts giving hygiene
statistics have been an excellent stimulus.

A health week was recently observed. During this period teachers
of all the courses throughout the school cooperated by giving talks
on the aspects of their work which had to do with health. Now we are
organizing a series of lectures for teachers, students, and especially

428 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

for parents, so that the work in which we are engaged may be appre-
ciated in the homes and produce still more beneficial results.

Supplies which the students need are purchased by a special section
and sold at a reduction below the usual retail price. The students
are very much interested in their store, since it is of practical benefit
to them. It is operated by a group of cadets from the commercial
section, one of whom is the manager and bookkeeper. This is an
activity which we think is peculiarly our own, for we have not heard
of it in other Junior Red Cross units. The profit made here is used
for free services.

FIRST-AID INSTRUCTION

Members of the first-aid section of the Peruvian Junior Red Cross are trained to give assistance in case of
accidents.

In the library section are kept the books and reviews on Junior Red
Cross work, health, and other subjects, all of which offer means for
a wider acquaintanceship on the part of the students with the organi-
zation and purpose of the society to which they belong.

A professional barber is at the service of all the boys, his charges
being the same as those of an ordinary barber shop. The best
sanitary conditions are maintained under the supervision of one of
the students.

The correspondence section is one of the most important divisions
of the Junior Red Cross, for it provides a means for the interchange
of correspondence with other parts of our own country and with
foreign nations, thus helping to strengthen the bonds of friendship
and solidarity between students and leading to an accurate knowledge

THE JUNIOR RED CROSS IN PERU 429

of geography, national customs, and many details which might never
be thought of or found in books. We have succeeded in establishing
communication with all the countries which have a Junior Red Cross,
informing them of our activities, and we have received numerous
replies which have given much pleasure to our boys. The latter
are now eager to become better acquainted with the countries of
their fellow members, many of whom live in the most distant corners
of the earth and speak languages which we sometimes have difficulty
in translating. However, by searching out compatriots of our

THE PERUVIAN JUNIOR RED CROSS

A girls’ unit organized in the Centro Escolar Republica del Paraguay, with Senorita Ardoz as director.

foreign correspondents, we have learned what is said in the attractive
magazines which they send us.

We have sent an album of photographs of the school and the Junior
Red Cross and a message to the Chilean Junior Red Cross, improving
the opportunity offered by the visit to Chile of students of the Com-
mercial Institute of Peru. The Junior Red Cross in our neighboring
Republic responded to our gift by sending pleasing insignia of which
our members are very proud.

The publicity section is also a very important division. Thanks
to the work of the boys belonging to it, we have been able to exhibit
in the show cases of the principal shops posters which have been good
advertisements for our organization. Furthermore, at the exhibition

430 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

of school work held on July 28, our national holiday, we showed
collections of pictures explaining how to fight certain diseases.

The work which proved so beneficial to the students and so effective
an aid to the teachers in the school which started it could not remain
unknown. Therefore we have been summoned by the school authori-
ties to cooperate In organizing new units of the Junior Red Cross
in all Government schools; this is the task in which we are now
engaged. Twelve more school units have been started and are as
flourishing as the one just described. Although much remains to be
done, our progress so far has greatly encouraged us, and we look
forward with faith and hope to the future of the Jumior Red Cross
in Peru.

Our ardent wish is that the world of youth may scon count upon one
more instrument for the promotion of friendship, mutual assistance,
and universal peace.

;
i

‘BUIBUR IO} AIv}o1OEg JUV “IBA “q{ UBNLE MOG J0Ueg
PuUv -vUIvUB JO LOUO[SSTUITMOD) PUL Se}eIS Pe}TU OY] Ul vUTBUY JO TOISIULPY ‘OAVJ[Y OLoRIO FT ‘ACT AoueTeoxy SIA SIOUOISSMMUI0() ZUIPISelg [RIYNON pue sayeig
peu) ou} UT mY Jo topessvquiy “[eudooT, vsBYyoNID [ens “Aq Aduel[ooxy SI ‘MOUOISSTUUIOD soyVIS pou ‘royR_ “wy ydosor ‘UO ‘S0}RIS pojyluy oy} ro;

AIBIOINOS “YSISUY “TW WIpouog “APY :Se}VIG peyuy ey) Jo ywuesy “un 7] Weg ‘Ap ‘soyeIG peyuy oy Jo yuesy queisissy ‘24n’y T[essny “a “IP avodde ‘yy R11 03
Jol Wor “Ydetsojoyd oy} UL “ZE6I “I [dy “WorU;) ULoJEUTY UeG 9} 4e Pley SBA UOISsTMUIO,) SMTLTD peXxTPY vuIvURg-soqvIg Pe}TU{) ey} JO WOISses [eansneUt sy,

NOISSININOO SIWIVTO GAXIWN VNVNYd-SHULVLS GALINA FHL

pean

x
Bd

ous

CEREMONY AT STATUE OF GENERAL SAN MARTIN, IN WASHINGTON

Under the auspices of the Sons of the American Revolution, an interesting ceremony took place, May 17,
1932, at the statue of General José de San Martin, the Argentine national hero and one of the great figures
in Latin American history. Brief addresses were made by His Excellency Dr. Felipe A. Espil, the
Ambassador of Argentina, Justice Josiah A. Van Orsdel, President General of the National Society of
Sons of the American Revolution, then in annual session in Washington, and Dr. L. S. Rowe, Director
General of the Pan American Union. Upper: The monument, in Judiciary Park, was the gift of the
Argentine Republic to the people of the United States. Lower: Group of participants in the ceremony,
with wreaths presented by the Ambassador of Argentina; the National Society of Sons of the American
Revolution; District of Columbia Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution; Department of the
Potomac, Grand Army of the Republic; District of Columbia Commandery, Military Order of the Loyal

Legion; Military Order of the World War; the Pan American Society of the United States; and the Pan
American Union.

PAN AMERICAN UNION NOTES

THE GOVERNING BOARD

At the meeting of the Governing Board on April 6, 1932, the Min-
ister of Guatemala submitted to the consideration of the Board the
following draft resolution:

Whereas this year will mark the hundredth anniversary of the publication of
The Principles of the Law of Nations, by Don Andrés Bello, publicist, jurist, and
man of letters; and

Whereas the work of Bello, published in 1832, was the first book on international
law published in Spanish in America, and exerted a profound influence on the
development of juridical science and on the relations between the nations of
America; and

Whereas, in addition to the services rendered to the cause of the emancipation
of the Spanish colonies, the labors of Bello as a legislator, humanist, educator,
thinker, and jurist contributed to the development of American culture: Therefore
the Governing Board of the Pan American Union

Resolves, 1. To associate itself with the commemoration of the centenary of the
publication of The Principles of the Law of Nations.

2. To publish in the Bulletin of the Pan American Union studies on the work
of Bello and on his influence on the intellectual life of America.

3. To suggest to the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace that it
include The Principles of the Law of Nations in the Series of Classics on Interna-
tional Law edited by that institution.

4. To suggest that the Seventh International Conference of American States
pay tribute to the memory of Don Andrés Bello.

The Ambassador of Chile then said:

It is with deep emotion that I join in the tribute which the resolution presented
by the Minister of Guatemala would pay to the memory of that illustrious name,
Andrés Bello. A star of the first magnitude, Andrés Bello gave a light that was
his own. Writer, philosopher, and educator, loved and honored as a man and as
a citizen of Pan America; humanist, with an intellectual endowment surpassed
by no contemporary; writer and poet, he left poetry that to-day is found on the
lips of Venezuelans, of Chileans, and of all the youth of South America; jurist,
he wrote the Civil Code of Chile; student of foreign literatures, he wrote on the
Romancero del Cid, and gave to it an interpretation that has claimed the atten-
tion of critics. Bello has left an indelible impression on the intellectual life of

433

A434 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Hispanic America, and for this reason his name is blessed, is glorified, not only
in Chile, which was his home for more than 40 years, but also in Venezuela, where
he was born in the year 1729, and in almost all the countries of America where
his works are read and esteemed. The publication of his book on international
law a century ago greatly advanced the study of law. Wheaton, a contemporary
writer on international law, refers constantly with great respect and admiration
to Bello in his work. No international debate of any importance occurs where
the treatise by Bello is not referred to with the greatest consideration and esteem.
The tribute proposed by the Minister of Guatemala is most appropriate and just,
and I join in it with the utmost enthusiasm.

The Minister of Venezuela said:

The resolution formulated by the Minister of Guatemala finds its inspiration
in justice and in truth, for in reality, in the dignity and simplicity of his life, in
his talents and profound knowledge, as well as in the great services which he gave
to the cause of the progress of civilization in America through his fundamental
labors on civil law, international law, and philology, the figure of Bello is one of
the most brilliant recorded by American history. For these reasons, I shall,
with the greatest pleasure, vote in favor of the resolution.

The resolution proposed by the Minister of Guatemala was unani-
mously adopted by the board.
The Minister of Panama said:

I have the honor to submit to your consideration a resolution in honor of one
of the beacon figures of our America. I refer to the great Ecuadorean writer,
Juan Montalvo, the centenary of whose birth is near. It is not necessary for
me to eulogize in this meeting the work done by Montalvo; his work is an integral
part of the intellectual life of America, not only of persons of high culture, such
as the members of this board, but also of those who do not enjoy this privilege.
Montalvo distinguished himself, and has passed into history, as the stylist of the
purist form, as the most adept master of our language. The writings of Montalvo
are notable for their classicism and for their high qualities of thought. Juan
Montalvo has passed into history—and I believe I do not overstate—as the
highest exponent of Spanish American authorship, and Ecuador must find a high
pride in the celebration of the anniversary of his birth. I submit, therefore, the
following draft resolution to your consideration:

Whereas April 13, 1932, marks the hundredth anniversary of the birth of the
illustrious Ecuadorean thinker and writer, Juan Montalvo; and

Whereas, by the scope of his thought, the vigor and depth, the beauty and
variety of his ideas, and the perfection of his style, Montalvo exercised a pro-
found influence on the literary and political life of Spanish America ; and

Whereas the life of Montalvo, the citizen, was as noble as the work of Mon-
talvo, the writer, and both contributed greatly to the formation of the culture
and the republican consciousness of America; the Governing Board of the Pan
American Union

Resolves to spread upon the minutes, on the occasion of this anniversary, the
tribute of the Governing Board to the memory of the great Ecuadorean thinker
and writer.

The Minister of Ecuador spoke as follows:

Deeply moved, I wish to express my appreciation for the words spoken by
Doctor Alfaro, Minister of Panama, words inspired by his enthusiasm for the
tribute offered in honor of the memory of Juan Montalvo. Iam also grateful to

PAN AMERICAN UNION NOTES 435

the Pan American Union for awakening the sound of the name of Montalvo in
these surroundings. If the literary fame of Montalvo is consecrated within
every sphere of life on this Continent, and if this fame justifies the tribute of the 21
Republics, a tribute paid to his glory as the truest and most perfect exponent of
the Spanish language, in this building his name should with greater reason be
remembered as he was also a precursor of Pan Americanism. To-day Pan
Americanism possesses an elemental and everyday character in the thought of
all classes of people in Hispanic America, but in the age of Montalvo this was not
true. Hven so, the impression made by Montalvo’s thought is clearly marked,
for he was able to rise above the national frontiers of our countries, and exhorted
the people of his time to follow in a spirit of union the example set by the United
States. He admired the great and model Republic that in this part of the
Continent gave an indication of what the future held in store for the young
Republics of the south.

The classic parallel of Washington and Bolivar drawn by Montalvo is not only
an example of great literary beauty in our language, but has been a source of
inspiration for high sentiment. In this classic parallel Montalvo traced the
outline of his conception of the duality and unity of the American Continent.
If Montalvo magnified his enthusiasm for Washington, it was because he saw
that the fusion of the ideals of the two great liberators was the symbol of the
destiny of the two American Continents. Could Montalvo witness in spirit the
development of his ideal, and could he see the representatives of all the nations of
America assembled in this place to find means for collective action and to speak
of international peace and mutual understanding instead of persisting in the old
path of isolation and distrust, his enthusiasm would be great. Not only as a man
of letters, but also as a true Pan American, the name of Montalvo is heard here
in a most appropriate setting. Could he be present at this session, he would
applaud the tribute that has been paid to Bello, and he would feel pleased to see
himself preceded and accompanied by him, who was his guide and counselor in
everything. That this Governing Board honors the memory of these two great
men, speaks well for the sentiment of cooperation and concord existing among the
nations represented here.

The Chargé d’ Affaires of Paraguay spoke as follows:

The resolution I am about to read is in honor of an eminent man, who was a
loyal servant of our America. We do not consider in the present case, as in the
two tributes that have preceded, an apostle of thought, but one who was a
master of the natural sciences. I refer to José Celestino Mutis. Although born
in Spain, Mutis dedicated all his energies and all the wealth of his scientific
talents to our Continent, and his name has been incorporated into our history
as one of the greatest of American sages. Mutis bequeathed to us a great number
of the products of his long, many-sided, and fruitful scientific career, and it is
hardly necessary for me to mention them.

Such are the reasons that have induced me to present to the consideration of this
Governing Board the following draft resolution:

On this date, the bicentenary of the birth of that illustrious naturalist, José
Celestino Mutis, the Governing Board of the Pan American Union remembers
the great services which he gave to American science, and renders a tribute of
admiration to his memory.

The Minister of Colombia spoke in the following manner:

Mutis was European. A Spaniard, of the city of Cadiz, he gave to Colombia,
ancient Vice Royalty of New Granada, the best part of his life and of his work.
He arrived in Colombia when he was 29 years of age; there he established him-

436 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

self, and there he died half a century later. It is for this reason that I should like
to take a few moments of the time of the Governing Board to add, be it but a few
brief words, to what so generously the Chargé d’Affaires of Paraguay, Doctor
Ynsfran, has expressed. I extend to him my sincere appreciation and thanks.

However, before I begin, permit me to adhere with enthusiasm in the name of
my country and in my own to the two motions that have just been adopted in
honor of Bello and Montalvo.

Montalvo is an illustrious figure wherever Spanish is spoken; his was a daring
energy, a life dedicated with brilliance and valor to the democratic cause in
America. The Ecuadorean nationality of Montalvo is a close bond which we in
Colombia have with Ecuador; he is our spiritual brother.

With reference to Bello, it would be a presumption on my part to attempt to
add laudatory remarks to those that have just now so eloquently been expressed.
I wish merely to say that Bello has intimate ties with Colombia, in the first place
because in the beginning of his career he was a companion of Bolivar, with whom
he labored in a transcendental mission for independence, and anything that
touches upon the life of Bolivar is of the utmost interest to the Colombians, for we
have the worship of Bolivar, and respect and veneration for the Liberator is an
intimate and abiding part of our lives.

Another tie is that of philology. We have always paid special attention to
these studies, and those of Bello have been followed, analyzed, and comple-
mented in Colombia, principally by Rufino J. Cuervo and Caro y Suarez. In
his activity as a philologist, as an internationalist, and as a jurist, Bello is a
teacher of the Colombians. Our Civil Code is an inheritance from that of
Chile, and the Civil Code of Chile was written by Bello, who based his code on
that of Napoleon. Our jurists have satisfied their thirst at the sapient teach-
ings of Bello, and Bello is thus present in the multiple phases of the current of
our intellectual life. It is for this reason that I wish to manifest our cordial and
enthusiastic participation in the tribute that is paid to Bello.

Mutis was a sage; his knowledge, in variety and in profundity, was enormous.
His intellectual curiosity and his capacity for assimilation were truly extraor-
dinary. A great part of what the human mind had accumulated in that age
when knowledge and culture were difficult of access, had in Mutis an authorized
exponent. Philologist, mathematician, physicist, astronomer, naturalist, all these
Mutis was. At the time he arrived in Colombia, he had already produced
studies of a high order in his native country, but he continued studying without
rest practically to the hour of his death. Even more than the title of sage, to
him, by natural right, belongs the title of student.

There were two types of wise men—the one who believes he has reached the
summit, and that for that reason may rest and await the end without further
exertion, and the one who never believes he has arrived, and continues studying
without let and without rest, and each day lights new torches in the chambers
of his mind, and extends more and more over nature the antenne of his investi-
gations. Of this last type was Mutis.

His eminent labors in Colombia were three in number: His professorship at
the Colegio del Rosario, the creation of the Observatorio Astronémico, and La
Expedicién Botanica.

FE] Colegio del Rosario is the alma mater of Colombia. Asked to indicate some
part of our land as the citadel of our country, as the sacred Ark of our history,
the heart and soul of Colombia, we would point to the hundred’ square yards
upon which rests the historic Colegio del Rosario.

In it were educated in colonial times and since the establishment of the
Republic many of the most eminent of our national figures. From it issued men
of valor when the struggle for independence began, many of whom became heroes

PAN AMERICAN UNION NOTES 437

and martyrs of the Republic. From it have come many of our professional men
who have enhanced the prestige of the country; of eminent citizens who have
“maintained with honor the best traditions of the nation.

It is here that Mutis gave his lectures on mathematics, on astronomy, on the
natural sciences, and many of the founders of the Republic were his students.

Mutis was responsible for the construction in 1802 of the Observatorio Astro-
nomico de Bogota, the first of its kind in America. He organized and directed
it for some time, and it exists to-day as a tradition and as a lasting center of
culture.

But the culminating work performed by Mutis was the Expedicién Botanica,
inspired and directed by him, created by the Government of Spain on request
of the Archbishop Viceroy Caballero y Géngora, and to which that extraordinary
man, Mutis, devoted 25 years of effort and all the talent and skill of a long and
most exemplary life of labor and study.

I shall not attempt in the short time at my disposal to give you a summary
of that labor of scientific investigations, of perseverance, of patience, and method.
It is enough to say that when the Spanish invasion of Bogota in 1816 collected
and transported to Spain what, remained of the herbarium planted by Mutis,
104 great cases were necessary for its transportation, and in the Botanical
Garden in Madrid, that herbarium has been and is the object of study and
admiration of the naturalists of Europe.

In conclusion, in order to give you a clear idea of the vastness and variety of
the work of Mutis, I quote the words that Linnzus, who was his friend, dedi-
cated to him: ‘‘Immortal man, whose work will live forever,’’ and Humboldt,
who visited at Bogota in 1801 before his trip to Ecuador and Peru, and who
became acquainted with the labors accomplished by the Expedicién Botanica,
and who knew at close hand and admired his scientific abilities, said of Mutis:
“He is the illustrious Patriarch of the botanists of the New World.”

At its session held on May 4, 1932, the Governing Board approved
the report of a special committee on the procedure to be followed in
the deposit of instruments of ratification of treaties and conventions,
of which the Pan American Union is the depository. Under the
terms of the report, the Pan American Union shall receive the instru-
ments of ratification, including the reservations; communicate the
deposit of ratifications to the other Signatory States, and in the
case of reservations, inform the other Signatories thereof; receive the
replies of the other Signatory States as to whether or not they accept
the reservations; and inform all the Signatories to the treaty whether
or not the reservations have been accepted.

The action of the Governing Board in postponing the date of the
Seventh International Conference of American States from December,
1932, to December, 1933, is reported on pages 388-389 of this issue.

THE COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY

National Library of Bolivia—-A member of the library staff
recently had the pleasure of visiting the National Library of Bolivia,
located in Sucre, of which Dr. Mariano Rosquellas is librarian. The
library, composed of about 22,000 volumes, largely rare documents,
has been classified according to the decimal system.

438 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Accessions.—Among the titles added to the library’s shelves since
the Library Notes last appeared in the BULLETIN is a Catdlogo de la
Biblioteca ‘‘América,”’ edited by José M. de Bustamente y Urrutia,
Librarian of the University of Santiago, Chile, and published as part
of the University’s Anales by the press of ‘‘El Eco,” Santiago. The
catalogue is in two volumes, the first by authors of books of more
than 200 pages, and the second by authors of pamphlets.

Reading lists—The Union has for distribution, as long as the supply
lasts, reading lists designed for the use of students, teachers, members
of women’s clubs, and librarians in the United States. The lists
include: An annotated bibhography of Latin American literature; a
bibhography on the arts in Latin America; and one on Pan American
topics, comprising brief sections on the land and the people; how the
American nations communicate with each other; some great men;
cultural life; the student movement; inter-American relations and Pan
Americanism; juvenile books on Latin America; and education in
Latin America.

The book La Instruccién en Caracas by Caracciolo Parra, listed in
full below, is worthy of special mention. Not only is this a review of
early educational efforts in Venezuela but it is also a methodical and
sympathetic study of the intellectual atmosphere of that country in
its colonial days.

Books of special note are as follows:

La politica exterior de la Republica Argentina. Estudios editados por la Facul-
tad de Derecho y Ciencias Sociales de la Universidad de Buenos Aires, XIX.
Buenos Aires, Facultad de Derecho y Ciencias Sociales, 1931. 445 p. 8:.

Los Estados Unidos. Por Pedro F. Vicuna. Bosquejo histérico. Prélogo de
Agustin Edwards. Paris, Editorial ‘‘Le Livre Libre,’ 1932. xxxii, 357 p. 8°.

La instruccién en Caracas, 1567-1725. Discurso de incorporacién y estudio
histérico anexo presentados a la Academia Nacional de la Historia. Por Carae-
ciolo Parra. Caracas, Parra Leén Hermanos, Editores, 1932. xii, 310,99 p. 8°.

Catalogo alfabético de nombres vulgares y cientificos de plantas que existen en
México. Publicado por la Direccién de Estudios Biolédgicos, dependiente de la
Secretaria de Agricultura y Fomento. México, Imprenta de la Direccién de
Kstudios Bioldgicos, 1923. 670 p. 8e.

Problemas econoémicos y fiscales. Algunas exposiciones parlamentarias. Anexos
a la Memoria del Ministro de Hacienda y Crédito Ptiblico, 1931. Bogota,
Imprenta Nacional, 1981. 182 p. 8°.

Historia de la cancién mexicana. Canciones, cantares y corridos coleccionados
v comentados por Higinio Vazquez Santana. Tomo 3. México, Talleres Graficos
de la Nacién, 1931. 255 p. 8°.

Las estelas zapotecas. Por Alfonso Caso. Monografias del Museo nacional de
arqueologia, historia y etnografia. México, Talleres Graficos de la Nacién, 1928.
204 p. illus. 82.

Educacién intelectual y fisica entre los Nahuas y Mayas precolombinos. Por el
Lic. Ramén Mena y Juan Jenkins Arriaga. México [Departamento de Arqueo-
logia del Museo Nacional], 1980. 75 p. col. pls. illus. 42.

—o

PAN AMERICAN UNION NOTES 439

Carlos Walker Martinez. Una juventud modelo. Homenaje de Francisco
Rivas Walker, Jaime Rivas Walker. Santiago, Imprenta Universo [1930]. 246
joe LAS

La provincia de Aisén: Historia, formacion y desarrollo de las regiones que
forman la provincia actual de Aisén. Por Fernando Septilveda Veloso. San-
tiago, Talleres Graficos ‘‘ Ravill,’ 1931. 167 p. illus. 12°.

Bolivar. Por Cornelio Hispano. San José de Costa Rica, J. Garcia Monge,
LOA op. 12°.

The early constitutions of Chile, 1810-1914. An introduction to the influence
of United States political ideas on the autonomistic activities of Chile. With a
general review of historical events leading to the independence of Spanish colonies
in America. Thesis for the master’s degree submitted to the School of Foreign
Service, Georgetown University. By B. Cohen, May, 1927. 104, 19, xi p. 42°.

New magazines and magazines received for the first time are as
follows:

Costa Rica Grafica. Organo de publicidad de la Junta Nacional de Turismo
e Inmigracién, patrocinado por la Asociacién Nacional de Productores de Café,
San José, Costa Rica. Edicién mensual en espanol e inglés. Vol. 1, No. 1,
febrero, 1932. 24 p. illus. 84 x 11% inches.

The Pan American Dispatch. Financed and published by Latin American
Associated Newspaper Editors. Little Building, Boston, Mass. Vol. 1, No. 1,
April, 1932. (M.) 8p. illus. 13 x 19% inches.

La Enfermera Nacional. Organo Oficial de la Asociacién Nacional de Enfer-
meras, Habana, Cuba. Revista mensual cientifica y literaria. Afio 3, Nim. 9
y 10, enero-febrero, 1932. 50p. illus. 7 x 10 inches.

Revista de la Tuberculosis del Uruguay. Organo Oficial de la Sociedad de
Tisiologia—Organo del Servicio de Lucha y Preservacién Antituberculosa.
Direccién y administracién Avy. 18 de Julio 1746, Montevideo. (Bi-mo.) Tomo
1, No. 6, diciembre, 1931. 184 p. illus. 61 x 9 inches.

Boletin de la Propiedad Industrial y Comercial. Ministerio de Fomento, Cara-
cas, Venezuela. (M.) Ano 1, No. 1, 1° de noviembre de 1931. 57 p._ illus.
614 x 9% inches.

Jardin de Nifios. Organo de la Sociedad de Educadores para Estudio y Pro-
teccién del Nino, publicado por la Cooperativa de Educadoras. Domicilio Oficial,
Jardin de Ninos ‘“‘Spencer,’”’ 72 Guerrero 18, México, D. F. (M.) Tomo 1, No.
4, agosto, 1931. 16 p. illus. 7% x 10 inches.

Miscelanea. Revista mensual. Direccidn General, Apartado 337, Quito,
Eeuador. Ano 2, No. 9. Enero, 1932. 39p. illus. 7 x 10% inches.

Boletin del Patronato Nacional de la Infancia. San José, Costa Rica. (Bi-mo.)
Ano 1, No. 1, 1° de octubre de 1930. 27 p. illus. 6%4 x 10 inches.

Boletin de Estadistica. Organo de la Federacién Nacional de Cafeteros, Bogota,
Colombia. (M.) Vol. 1. No. 1, marzo, 1932. 24 p. 6% x 9% inches. Super-
sede la Revista Cafetera de Colombia, Organo de la Federacién Nacional de Cafe-
teros.

Cypactly. Revista quincenal de variedades—tribuna del pensamiento libre
de América, San Salvador. Ntimero 11, febrero 10, 1932. 28 p. illus. 91% x
12% inches.

Gaceta Postal. Organo oficial del Servicio de Correos, Guatemala. Ano 1,
No. 1, marzo 15, 1932. 26p. illus. 734 x 10% inches.

Inter-America (Trade and Tourist Journal), San Francisco, California. (M.)
(English and Spanish.) Vol. 1, No. 1, April, 1932. 31 p. illus. 9 x 12 inches.

PAN AMERICAN PROGRESS
TREATIES AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

An agreement has been reached between the Governments of
Colombia and Panama, providing for the organization of a mixed
commission which is to mark the boundary between the two countries.
The Colombia-Panama boundary line was fixed by a treaty signed
at Bogota on August 20, 1924.

A decree issued by the Provisional Government of Brazil on Janu-
ary 25, 1932, proclaims the radiotelegraphic convention signed at
Lima on December 31, 1928, by representatives of Brazil and Peru.
The ratifications of this convention were exchanged in Rio de Janeiro
on October 30, 1931.

The General Convention of Inter-American Conciliation and the
General Treaty of Inter-American Arbitration signed by the pleni-
potentiaries of the American Republics at the International Confer-
ence of American States on Conciliation and Arbitration (Washington,
December 10, 1928, to January 5, 1929), were proclaimed by the head
of the Provisional Government of Brazil through two decrees issued
on February 2 and March 15, 1932, respectively. The ratification of
the former was deposited with the Government of the United States
on January 25, 1932, and that of the latter with the Government of
Chile on January 22, 1932.

The President of the Republic of Uruguay, considering “that
relations with the Pan American Union have assumed great impor-
tance, especially in view of the frankly Pan American orientation of
Uruguayan foreign policy, . . .” has decreed the organization
of a special Pan American section in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
to take charge of all matters between the Pan American Union and
the Uruguayan Government.

Resolutions Nos. 260, 263, 264, and 362 passed by the National
Congress of the Dominican Republic and signed by the President on
January 23, 1932, approve four of the conventions signed at the Sixth
International Conference of American States: The convention on the
rights and duties of states in the event of civil strife, the convention
on asylum, the convention on consular agents, and the convention on
treaties, respectively. As provided in these conventions the ratifica-
tions on the part of the Dominican Government have been deposited

440

LEGISLATION 44]

in the Pan American Union, which in turn has notified the other signa-
tory states of the receipt of the ratifications.

On approving the convention on consular agents the Congress of
the Dominican Republic denied approval to Articles 12, 15, 16, 18,
20, and 21 of the convention; and stated that in Article 14, the word —
delito (crime in the English text) was to be interpreted in the widest
meaning of the word to include transgressions, crimes, and violations;
and that the phrase materia criminal (criminal matters) in Article 17
as including ‘‘all penal matters.”

The terms of a treaty for the advancement of peace signed by repre-
sentatives of the United States and Uruguay on July 20, 1914, provide
that all disputes between them, to the settlement of which previous
arbitration treaties do not apply, shall, when diplomatic methods of
adjustment have failed, be referred to a permanent international com-
mission composed of 5 members; 1 member chosen from each country
by the Government thereof, 1 member chosen by each Government
from some third country, and a fifth member chosen by common
agreement between the 2 Governments.

The joint commissionership for which provision is made in the
treaty having been vacant for some time, an agreement was recently
reached by the Governments of the United States and Uruguay to
to invite Dr. Rafael H. Elizalde to accept the position. This invita-
tion was recently extended and accepted. Doctor Elizalde is a promi-
nent Ecuadorean diplomat. During his distinguished career he has
served his country as Minister for Foreign Affairs and as Minister
Plenipotentiary to Argentina, Chile, and the United States.

LEGISLATION

Votes for women and other electoral provisions.—One of the early
acts of the Provisional Government of Brazil was the appointment
of a special commission to draft a new law to govern the election of a
constitutional assembly. The electoral law drafted by this commis-
sion and decreed by the Provisional President on February 24, 1932,
goes farther, however, and has standardized election requirements
throughout the country, since its provisions apply not only to the
forthcoming national election for a constitutional convention but to
all elections held in Brazil, whether Federal, State, or municipal.

The law extends suffrage to women and institutes the secret ballot
system. Any citizen over 21 years of age, without discrimination
as tosex, who can fulfill the requirements of the election law, is declared
eligible to vote. Magistrates, commissioned officers of the Army and

119731—32— Bull. 6 3)

449 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Navy, government employees, professors of educational establish-
ments recognized by the Government, registered merchants, and
physicians, lawyers, and other members of the liberal professions are
eranted the right to vote ex officio. All others must qualify. To be
able to write is the principal requirement. Paupers, enlisted men
in the Army and Navy, and illiterates are not eligible.

Citizens who are eligible to vote and do not register can not hold
public office or be employed in the Government service; however,
women, and men over 60 years of age, as well as citizens residing
abroad or domiciled in Brazil less than one year before the elections,
may exempt themselves from registering and voting if they so desire.

Questions of nationality continue to be governed by the laws in
force before the advent of the Provisional Government, but in regard
to the nationality of a married woman the election law states that
section 5 of Article 69 of the Constitution of 1891 (which provides
that a foreign man living in Brazil and having real property there
who is married to a Brazilian woman or who has Brazilian children,
has Brazilian nationality) also applies to a foreign woman married
to a Brazilian. The law also declares (Art. 3 (b)) that ‘‘a Brazilian
woman does not lose her nationality by marriage to a foreigner.”’

The law institutes a system of courts and magistrates throughout
the Republic, with administrative as well as judicial functions which
will deal with all electoral matters. A Superior Tribunal is to be
established in Rio de Janeiro and a Regional Tribunal in each of the
State capitals as well as in the Federal District and the Territory of
Acre.

ACTIVITIES OF THE URUGUAYAN GOVERNMENT DURING 1931

In Uruguay, as in other Republics of Latin America, it is customary
for the President to open the regular sessions of Congress with a
review of the activities of the Government during the previous year.
The report of the President of Uruguay, however, is limited to a brief
summary of the work of the Departments of the Interior (in charge of
the national police force), Foreign Relations, and War and Navy.
The presentation of facts regarding the work of the Departments of
Public Instruction, Finance, Industry, and Public Works is made by
the National Administrative Council, which, according to the pro-
visions of the Uruguayan constitution, is directly responsible for their
supervision.

In discussing the activities of the Department of Foreign Relations
in his message to Congress on February 15, 1932, President Terra
pointed out that, following a suggestion offered in the presidential mes-
sage of March, 1930, arrangements had been made to enlist the coop-

THE URUGUAYAN GOVERNMENT DURING 1931 443

eration of the diplomatic service in the promotion of national foreign
trade. While it was impossible to realize all that was expected, much
has been accomplished, and when contemplated changes in the diplo-
matic and consular law are effected an even greater degree of coopera-
tion should be secured. Under the new arrangement, the foreign
office will act not only as a directive force, guiding and protecting
established commercial interests, but will engage in definite activities
to open up new markets.

The promotion of economic relations with other Republics by means
of trade agreements has likewise been an object of special interest on
the part of the department during recent months, and at present a
detailed study is being made of the foreign trade of Uruguay with
specific countries, in order to/determine what type of treaty would be
most suitable in each case. One condition essential for the conclusion
of such treaties—the fixing of maximum and minimum customs
duties—has now been met, and as a further step the department
invited Argentina and Brazil to attend a conference for the purpose of
discussing trade agreements favorable to their respective interests.
The conference opened in Montevideo on December 15, 1931 (see
BuuuetTin of the Pan American Union for April, 1932).

The Bureau of Foreign Commerce has continued to render a very
important service which it has endeavored to make still more effec-
tive by maintaining constant communication with those national
institutions directly concerned with trade. The bureau is also now
acting as an exchange where Uruguayan authors may apply for assist-
ance in placing their work before the public of other countries.

Constantly alert to the economic interests of the country, the
department has appointed a commission for the promotion of tourist
travel; this is composed of the executives of agencies interested in
creating conditions conducive to travel. Definite results of its work
are already evident; schedules of railway and steamship lines have
been readjusted, rates reduced, and a system put into operation for
controlling the charges made by porters and taxicab drivers.

According to the report submitted to Congress by the National
Administrative Council the various schools of the university func-
tioned normally during the past year. One of the outstanding events
of the academic year was the University Congress held in Montevideo
from March 15-19, 1931, and attended by students and professors
from several different countries. Reports of the activities of all
the university schools sh ow evidence of progress. The work of the
Institute of Pathological Anatomy of the School of Medicine has
been extended by the creation of a fine museum, and the scope of the
activities of the School of Agriculture has been greatly broadened.
Besides its regular work of experimentation in the laboratories, the

444 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

farms, experimental stations, and cooperative dairies, the latter has
done much to inform the farmer of modern agricultural methods by
means of publications, lectures, radio talks, posters, and handbills.
That this service is proving of value and is appreciated is shown by
the fact that there has been received at the school an increasing num-
ber of requests for further information.

The total number of students registered in the secondary schools
throughout the Republic was 4,113; listed according to Departments
they are as follows

Department Enrollment | Department Enrollment
DRS EIS ah a a ed 204: ||| SRIOINCBrOl his: 23522 5. 4s 162
Canelones# ass eee nee Sate a ee ee eae 1600 Rivera s222- 25. = 2y7/
COG DERRO) Se a Se SN ea oe ee te QAle | Rochan.. 2-4 fans 257
G6) Woy nh fees Se ae oe ae eae es W7OF Sal GOs sees ENS Les SE a er 379
Coloniagvial desc see ee 128 SaniCarlos=2 co: 3.23.4 ss er 94
SD UTAZN Oa aera nes ee eer eet aS oe eee See 19407) "San JOS@ss2252 2.2542 2: se 235
PLOT CS sere ees ee ee a ns eee 146: Sonlanosss. =.-25 2... ee 284
HW Oni das a a ee ae ee ee ee 231.5) Rackarembo:.3-——.- = eee 201
GeV aL] eee Ress Ree Be RS Od nr 194." Dpeinta: y (Bres 222. = een 262
IAL KG Kon as (6 Ko ys ee ees ee a ee nates 80

LEAR NG ND Ls ena 8 See ee ee a ee 314 Total. i es See 4,113

The primary schools in the Republic during the year 1931 num-
bered 1,316. These were staffed by 4,062 teachers, had a total
enrollment of 168,274, and an average attendance of 131,771. Night
schools numbered 63 and were taught by 232 teachers; their enroll-
ment was 8,126 with an average attendance of 6,332. Other educa-
tional institutions included 2 normal institutes, 2 institutes for deaf
mutes, 5 open-air schools, a seaside colony, a school preventorium,
65 itinerant schools, 4 experimental schools, a school for abnormal
children, and the Artigas School in Asuncién, Paraguay. Special
normal courses, classes for the correction of speech defects, and
classes for retarded children were also held under the supervision of
the department during the year.

Through the cooperation of the official radio service, a school of
the air was opened on October 1, 1931, and the broadcasts were
made regularly until the close of the school term. Each program
was adapted to the needs of a certain type of audience. On some
occasions the programs consisted of songs, recitations, readings, and
stories for children, while at other times they were planned for
adults and featured talks on subjects related to education, economics,
hygiene, and child welfare.

During the past year the department decided to snqpend fell
examinations in the public schools of the Republic, a special social
week during which the parents and general public may visit the
schools being substituted. Other innovations introduced during the
year were the establishment of Arbor Week and the creation of the
Day of the American Student. The latter, to be held annually on

——— SS SS OO

THE URUGUAYAN GOVERNMENT DURING 1931 445

September 22, will be devoted to an exchange of correspondence
between the pupils of Uruguay and those of the other American
Republics. It is also planned to hold special programs featuring the
geography, history, and literature of the various Republics on this
date.

Six new dining rooms were established by the department in
different sections of Montevideo during the year. These dining
rooms, which have been placed under the supervision of the School
Medical Corps, are of great importance, since they have made
regular school attendance possible for many children who were
formerly handicapped because their parents could not provide them
nourishing meals at home.

During the year the corner stone of the School Park in Florida was
laid. The park is being established as an experiment, and should it
prove successful other schools of the same type will be built. It was
recently planned to open a summer school in Montevideo where
children might receive cultural training which the regular school, by
nature of its organization, can not offer. The classes, which will be
in charge of well-known artists and writers, will be unique; the child
will learn through direct observation of nature and by visits to
museums, art expositions, and other similar institutions.

At present the Council of Education is particularly concerned with
the adoption of modern pedagogical methods. It does not intend,
however, to make extensive changes immediately. A proposal is
under consideration providing for the reorganization of classes in a
number of schools along the principles of the progressive school, and
should the method be found effective it will be adopted for all schools.

One of the most recent activities of the National Nutrition Commit-
tee was the establishment of a school of dietary instruction, to
provide a 1-month course in each of the child-welfare clinics of the
city. In this way mothers are afforded an opportunity of learning
how to prepare inexpensive but wholesome food for their family.

Outstanding among the activities of the Ministry of Industries
has been the promotion of agriculture, and thanks to the protective
policy of the Government the industry has been kept relatively free
from the disasters which have beset it in other countries. An illus-
tration in point is a review of operations on the grain exchange during
the year.

As a consequence of the law passed on February 7, 1930, which
provided for the purchase by the State of the exportable balance of
the wheat crop at a price of 5 pesos per 100 kilograms, the National
Council has succeeded in protecting producers of this grain during
the past year from losses which would have undoubtedly extended

446 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

into millions of pesos and resulted in the abandonment of large
agricultural areas.

According to estimates, the 1930-31 wheat crop was scarcely suffi-
cient for domestic consumption, being at best large enough to leave
only a very small amount for exportation. Middlemen, however,
endeavored to keep prices low and continued their usual policy of
offering the grain for sale on the international market instead of
reserving it for the domestic market, where it would be protected by the
high tariff. In December, 1930, the price was about 3.70 pesos per
100 kilograms (kilogram equals 2.2 pounds). Since it was evident
that the continuance of such a procedure would be disastrous to the
farmers, the National Council of Administration announced that the
Seed Commission would begin purchasing wheat from the growers
at 5 pesos per 100 kilograms and issued a decree prohibiting importa-
tion of the grain.

Such measur ; had immediate effect. In 15 days the price rose
more than a peso per 100 kilograms, and the majority of the farmers
were able to sell their crops at prices closely approximating that paid
by the Government, which purchased 7,000,000 kilograms.

About the middle of the year‘it was evident that the production
would not be sufficient to meet the needs of domestic consumption.
The Seed Commission, therefore, upon authorization by the National
Council of Administration, proceeded to sell its wheat in the open
market. This transaction netted a small profit and helped to avoid
for a time at least an increase in the prices of wheat and of bread.
Toward the end of the year, however, wheat rose to 7 pesos, and it
was finally necessary to authorize the importation of more than
20,000 tons.

Three years of experience has amply demonstrated the benefits
of the law. The first year of its enforcement, as a result of the dif-
ference between the cost and sale price of wheat as well as the pay-
ment of subsidies for the exportation of flour, the Government lost
about 800,000 pesos. The farmers, however, were greatly benefited
by the rise in domestic prices, which meant an estimated increase of
more than 2,000,000 pesos in the value of their crops. The manu-
facture of flour, moreover, provided work for many persons; and
while the price of bread was not increased, the cost of bran was con-
siderably lowered, a great saving for dairy and poultry men.

During the second year the valorization of the crop netted the
farmers profits of more than 1,500,000 pesos at no expense to the
Government. And while it can not yet be ascertained accurately
what the expenditure necessary will be during this year, it is believed
that the farmers will benefit by about 2,000,000 pesos.

The National Administrative Council has also continued its work
of promoting the cultivation of potatoes in an endeavor to prevent

THE URUGUAYAN GOVERNMENT DURING 1931 447

the continued importation of this staple, with the annual expenditure
of vastsums. Asa result, the area under cultivation has been greatly
extended, and during the past year a crop of more than 50,000,000
kilograms was harvested. While the whole crop could not be utilized
on account of difficulties of preservation, what was used was sufficient
to reduce by a third the amount spent on imports. The chief meas-
ures used by the council to this end were the sale of seed potatoes at
prices 60 per cent below those ordinarily paid by the farmers and the
establishment of increased custom duties on imported potatoes during
the harvesting period.

The 1931 flax crop was estimated at 145,000 tons, or 16,000 tons
more than that of the former year, and represented an export value
of approximately 7,000,000 pesos at present prices. The wheat crop
at current market prices was valued at 12,000,000 pesos.

The quantities of seed wheat, flax, and potatoes sold by the Seed
Commission during the past year amounted to 18,000,000 kilograms
and the number of bales of sisal cord to 5,000. Ordinarily the price
of the latter ranges from 12.15 to 20 pesos per bale, but with its sale
by the commission at 9.50 pesos the price was reduced and a saving
of more than 100,000 pesos effected for the farmers.

The production of other farm products was continued satisfactorily.
Laws and regulations for the protection of fruit growing, dairying, and
poultry raising proved effective. Thanks to measures taken by the
Ministry of Industries, the National Refrigerating Plant, the Bureau
of Agronomy, and the Bank of the Republic, more than 300,000 pesos
were realized from the export of eggs during the past year, a sum
larger than any previously derived from this source.

In accordance with the Law of October 14, 1931, the national
services of public welfare and hygiene were reorganized as the Council
of Public Health. The new organization is in charge of all activities
formerly carried on by the National Welfare Bureau, the Council of
Hygiene, the Institute for the Prophylaxis of Syphilis, and the School
Medical Corps.

Despite unfavorable financial conditions, the construction and
enlargement of hospitals and other public-welfare institutions was
continued. The municipal lodging house in Montevideo was finished
and temporarily furnished that the homeless might be cared for dur-
ing the winter months. The Catalina Parma de Beisso Mothers’
Home was also finished, but it has not yet been furnished. Other
buildings or additions completed during the year were the Fermin
Ferreira Hospital, Dispensary No. 9 for respiratory diseases, and a
ward for cancer patients in the Radiological Institute. Buildings
have been reconditioned and equipped as child-welfare dispensaries
in Cerrito de la Victoria, Pantanoso, and Marofias. Construction on
the maritime hospital, the gynecological radium treatment ward in

AAS THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

the Pereira-Rossell Hospital, and the Carmelo, Batlle y Ordéiiez,
Santa Isabel, Artigas, and Rosario Hospitals was continued during
the past year, and the polyclinic ward of the Melo Hospital, the
maternity wards in the Rocha and Florida Hospitals, and the com-
muricable disease ward in the hospital at Rivera have been com-
pleted.

Through its health brigades, sanitary commissions, chemical labora-
tory, office of port sanitation, antirabies service, pharmacy inspection
service, corps of public health physicians, health information service,
and other divisions, the bureau has done much effective work.

The activities of the trade schools throughout the country is con-
stantly being broadened and their number increased. During the
past year a course on the industrial use of vegetable fibers has been
introduced in the schools of San Carlos and Colonia Suiza, and School
No. 3 of Montevideo; the study of home economics was made obliga-
tory for all students in the women’s trade school. The trade school
at Trinidad has been completed and a school in cooperative organiza-
tion was established in Carmelo.

During 1931 the Bureau of Agronomy, through its Division of
Agricultural Promotion, has cooperated with other organizations in
the sponsoring of numerous expositions, published regularly informa-
tion on the state of the crops, arranged for the exhibition of motion-
picture films on agricultural subjects, collaborated in the compila-
tion of agricultural statistics, supervised the exportation of furs,
farms for the breeding of nutrias, and the sale of gasoline for agri-
cultural purposes, issued game laws, and carried on other related
activities. The information office reported having arranged a num-
ber of lectures for the dissemination of agricultural information.
One hundred and thirty-six motion-picture films were shown, 377
radio programs broadcast, and 12 new school gardens organized.
These last, added to those already in operation, bring the number of
gardens being worked at the present time to 80.

Other services maintained by the bureau included that of the
cleaning of seeds and the forestry, brands, and poultry raising sections.

The work of the official Seed Commission, in charge of the distri-
bution of selected seeds, was greatly intensified durmg the year.
A total of 24,844 requests, involving 18,363,388 kilograms of seed
valued at over 850,000 pesos, were received by the commission.
Wheat, flax, oats, barley, alfalfa, corn, potatoes, and Sudan grass
were among the seed sold and a quantity of chick-peas was distrib-
uted free of charge.

The work of the National Phytotechnic Institute and Seed Farm,
in charge of experiments in applied plant genetics, general agricul-
tural experimentation, and the production of pedigreed seed, was
carried on as usual. The institute is composed of three sections—

SS EEE

THE URUGUAYAN GOVERNMENT DURING 1931 449

the flour and bread-baking experimental laboratory, the division of
industrial and forage plants, and the phytopathologic laboratory,
organized during 1931.

During the year the General Bureau of Immigration and Colonial
Inspection was moved to a new building which provides spacious
quarters for the whole service. Immigrants arriving in the country
numbered 12,715, a total considerably less than that during the
previous year, when the arrival of 18,116 immigrants was reported.
Spain was the nation having the largest group of immigrants, 3,392
individuals having arrived from that country; Poland came next with
1,671; and the number from other countries was as follows: Italy,
1, 324; Rumania, 794; Germany, 719; Yugoslavia, 656; and Hungary,
504.

Other sections and bureaus under the Department of Industries
carrying on effective work during the year were the Institute of
Chemical Industry, the Mining and Industrial Inspection Service,
the National Labor Office, the Patent Office, the Geological Institute,
the Printing Office, the Bureau of Fisheries, the National Observa-
tory, and the General Bureau of Standards.

The Ministry of Public Works announced that despite unfavorable
financial conditions it had continued its work practically as hereto-
fore. The port works authorized by the law of January 26, 1922,
have been continued; some of them have been finished and work on
others such as the floating dock and repair work, was carried on as
funds permitted. The fruit market which was begun in October,
1929, was finished, and the construction of the National Refrigerating
Plant as well as of storage places for inflammables has been continued.

The maintenance of ports and the conservation of navigable chan-
nels in the Uruguay and other rivers has received much attention
on the part of the office. Port works at Salto, Paysandu, and Fray
Bentos have been completed with the installation of electric cranes.

The construction of the Florida-Sarandi and Treinta y Tres—Rio
Branco railway was continued; work on the former had progressed
sufficiently to permit temporary service for the transportation of
cereals produced in the region between Florida and kilometer 50 at
rates favorable to the farmers in that section.

The expenditures of the Ministry of Public Works during the year
reached a total of 16,872,294 pesos, of which approximately 7,000,000
pesos was spent for labor. Amounts expended for the various phases
of the work were as follows: Highways, 4, 581, 334; hydrography,
1,263,352; topography, 10,106; sanitation, 1,590,594; architecture,
2,119,906; railways, 4,835,366; port works, 1,627,645; the Colonia
Highway, 824,993; and the Maua Bridge, 18,996 pesos.

MONETARY AND BANKING REFORMS IN MEXICO

The reorganization of the Bank of Mexico in a form similar to that
of the Federal Reserve Banking system of the United States is the
latest of a series of monetary and banking reforms initiated by the
Government of Mexico on July 25, 1931, with the passage of the law
depriving gold of its monetary functions and establishing the silver
peso as the monetary unit of Mexico.! The fact that this law pro-
hibited the further coinage of silver currency created certain fears
that paper money would be issued without guarantee. This led to
the hoarding of the silver coins and a subsequent decrease in the
number in circulation. According to a statement issued in the spring
of 1932 by the Minister of Finance, sight deposits in national currency
in all the banks of Mexico diminished from 143,000,000 pesos on the
date the law was issued to 115,000,000 five days later and continued
to dwindle to 95,000,000 pesos. To restore the stability which had
been affected by this dangerous depletion of available currency as
well as to strengthen credit and restore business confidence, a new
monetary law was passed on March 9, 1932, which made several
important changes in the law of July 25, 1931. The Central Banking
Commission, established the previous year, was dissolved and the
Bank of Mexico restored to its functions as the regulator of national
currency, with authority to order the mintage of coins in accordance
with the monetary needs of the country. The reserves of the bank
were to be increased with the difference between the cost of bullion
and the face value of the coins which it minted.

As an extraordinary measure to offset the scarcity of money in
circulation the Secretary of Finance was authorized to order im-
mediately the coinage of silver pesos to the extent and quantity
deemed necessary by the directors of the bank. The law was
favorably received throughout the country, and without materially
affecting fluctuations in the foreign exchange rate of the peso it has
caused an appreciable increase in bank deposits, a sign that hoarded
money is being put in circulation and a reflection of an increased
feeling of confidence. The number of silver pesos to be coined was
not fixed, for the law declares the amount is strictly limited to that
which the bank considers necessary to offset the scarcity of money in
circulation. Naturally the more pesos put back in circulation the
smaller the total issue needed.

The Bank of Mexico was established on September 1, 1925 (see
Buuuetin of the Pan American Union for December, 1925); it is a

1 For a detailed account of the law of July 25, 1931, see the BULLETIN of the Pan American Union for
November, 1931.

450

MONETARY AND BANKING REFORMS IN MEXICO 451

Government-controlled institution not to be confused with the
National Bank of Mexico, which is under private control. The law
of August 25 of that year which created the bank empowered it to
perform the functions usually associated with a central bank; how-
ever, it also provided for direct loan and discount operations, and in
actual practice the Bank of Mexico came to exercise more of the
functions of a private bank than those peculiar to a central institution
of issue and rediscount.

The Bank of Mexico, however, will no longer compete with private
institutions. The decree issued by President Ortiz Rubio on April 12,
1932, abrogates the law of August 25, 1925, and places the bank in a
position to assume new and important functions. The decree pro-
vides that the Bank of Mexico shall be the sole bank of issue in the
Republic, regulate the monetary circulation, the interest rate, and
the foreign-exchange rate, carry on rediscount operations arising out
of legitimate commercial transactions, centralize the banking reserves
of the nation, act as a clearing house for its member banks, be the
fiscal agent and sole depository of the funds of the Federal Govern-
ment, and in general do all business of a nature consistent with its
functions as a central bank within the limitations prescribed by the
law.

The authorized capital of the bank has been reduced from 100,000,000
to 50,000,000 pesos, which is fully paid. The writing off of between
16,000,000 and 17,000,000 pesos of doubtful paper from the capital
of the bank has been reported by the United States Department of
Commerce to have had a wholesome effect on banking and business
generally.

Fifty-one per cent of the capital is held by the Government in the
form of series A shares, the remaining 49 per cent, in series B shares,
being held by banking institutions and private individuals. ‘Those
banks which according to the General Law of Credit Institutions
(Ley General de Instituciones de Crédito) must be affiliated with the
Bank of Mexico are obliged by law to purchase series B shares up to
an amount equivalent to not less than 6 per cent of their capital and
reserves. A later decree, issued by the President of the Republic on
May 19, 1932, requires all credit institutions—including foreign banks
or branches of foreign banks—receiving deposits from the public at
30 days or less to become affiliated with the bank. Domestic banks
are allowed 30 days from the date of issue of the decree to subscribe
to or purchase their shares; foreign banks are allowed three months.’

The Board of Directors (Consejo de Administracién) is composed of
9 members, 5 appointed by the Government and 4 by the holders of

2This decree also places certain restrictions on foreign banks. They are forbidden to receive savings
deposits, act as trustees, issue cash, mortgage, or collateral bonds, shares, or deposit certificates, and a
control is provided for their foreign currency deposits.

452 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

series B shares. Only individuals connected with the banking,
industrial, agricultural, or commercial interests of the Republic can
be directors, public officials being among those not eligible.

The four directors appointed by the holders of series B shares and
one other director will constitute a special committee controlling a
large share of the bank’s business. They will pass upon rediscount
and other operations which the law authorizes the Bank of Mexico
to transact with its member banks: the purchasing of bankers’
acceptances; the opening of secured current account credits; and the
granting of advances on bills of exchange, cash certificates, and loan
certificates issued by bonded warehouses. The entire board (on
which the Government has a majority) passes on all matters of issue
and monetary circulation, the fixing of the rediscount rate, the
requisites of rediscountable paper, and the limit of rediscount opera-
tions. In order that the Government may have control over those
functions of the bank which may concern the sovereignty and security
of the State, the Secretary of Finance has the right to veto resolutions
of the board of directors dealing with investments in foreign securities,
deposits abroad, new currency issues, or operations involving the cur-
rency circulation or the public debt when in his opinion these opera-
tions may disturb the economic equilibrium of the country. In this
manner it has been sought to divide equitably the control of the
bank’s functions between the two groups which contributed to the
bank’s capital.

Profits will be distributed as follows: 10 per cent to the reserve
fund until this equals the capital and 5 per cent thereafter; 6 per cent
to the dividends on the series B shares; 6 per cent to the Government
(series A) shares; 10 per cent to the officers and employees of the
bank, according to their salaries, until this amount reaches 30 per
cent of the annual pay roll; and half of the remainder to the Federal
Government as compensation for the privilege of issue, the other half
being used to declare additional dividends up to 6 per cent on all
shares.

At present the bank will issue bank notes only against documents
payable in silver arising out of rediscount operations with member
banks. The value of the notes issued can not exceed twice the amount
of cash on hand in national currency, after deducting the sums made
up by the monetary reserve, certain deposits of the member banks,
and the reserve for deposits withdrawable in less than 30 days.
Acceptance of the paper currency issued by the bank is voluntary,
but the Federal, State, and municipal governments must accept it
to any amount at face value in payment of public dues. The notes
are convertible on demand into silver at their nominal value when
presented at the Bank of Mexico or any of its branches; the law

MONETARY AND BANKING REFORMS IN MEXICO 453

expressly states that the Government stands behind all notes in cir-
culation. The issue of bank notes against gold or bills of foreign
exchange will not be made until conditions in the country return to
normal and the growth in volume and value of the monetary reserve
permits the stabilization of the peso.

The Bank of Mexicoisspecifically forbidden to make loans to the Fed-
eral Government, to States or municipalities, to grant current account
credits, except to member banks when such credits are adequately
secured, or to carry on direct operations of loan and discount. How-
ever, the bank is allowed under certain conditions to buy drafts and
bills of exchange in the open market and to make advances on liquid
securities. It may also make loans or advances on shares of corpora-
tions organized to establish new member banks, up to 50 per cent of
the value of such shares. It can not accept and pay drafts; cash or
certify checks unless duly guaranteed; subscribe to or invest in shares
of any kind, except those of national credit institutions up to 10 per
cent of their capital, provided that the total invested in these opera-
tions does not exceed 10 per cent of the capital of the bank; invest in
bonds not quoted on official exchanges or in those which have not
paid regular dividends for five years previous; invest more than 6 per
cent of its capital in buildings and office equipment; pay interest on
sums deposited for less than 30 days; pledge its securities or bank notes
or use them as collateral; or mortgage its real estate.

SUBJECT MATTER OF CONSULAR REPORTS

REPORTS RECEIVED TO MAY 10, 1932

Subject Date Author
ARGENTINA |
1932
Excerpt from report on general conditions in Argentina | Mar. 23 | Embassy, Buenos Aires.
from March §8 to 21, 1932. (Guggenheim scholarships |
and population.)
Argentine Government salaries________________________ | Apr. 15 ; A.M. Warren, consul at Buenos Aires.
Celebration of and press comment on‘‘Pan American | Apr. 21 | Embassy, Buenos Aires.
Day” and ‘‘ Pan Americanism.”’
CHILE |
The Santa Maria Educational Foundation of Val- | Mar. 8 | Frank A. Henry, consul at Valparaiso.
paraiso.
MOouristiseasonlatavaay Gell Meares eee een enna Mar. 18 | Do.
Trade and industries of the agriculturai city of | Apr. 23 | Thomas D. Bowman, consul at San-
Temuco. Chile. | tiago.
COLOMBIA i
|
No. 29 of the ‘‘ Boletin de Estadistica”’ of the Depart- | Feb. 16 | Carlos C. Hall, vice consul at Mede-
ment of Antioquia. | llin.
Copy of‘ ‘Informe al Gobernador del Departmento del | Mar. 5 | Erik W. Magnuson, consul at Ba-
Atlantico,’’ February, 1932. rranqiilla,
Popayan-Pasto Highway____________-_________________| Miar. 16 | Lyle C. Himmel, vice consul at Cali.
CUBA
List of principal newspapers and magazines of Habana | Mar. 24 | Harold B. Quarton, consul at Habana.
Consular District.
Copyxole@ulb anvcensusro yl) Siler eee .| Apr. 12 | Embassy, Habana.
Observance of Pan American Day_____-----.-________- | Aprs 19 Do.
ECUADOR |
Excerpts from report on general conuitions prevailing | Mar. 1 | Legation, Quito.
in Ecuador for February, 1932. |
Centennial of the birth of Juan Montaivo_____________ | Maer. 17 Do
HAITI
|
Excerpt from report on general conditions in Haiti | Mar. 10 | Legation, Port-au-Prince.
from February 1 to 29, 1932. |
Pam’ Abr Or] Carrell) ispecies ne aa | Apr. 22 Do.
HONDURAS |
|
IDISASULOUS sine pala ay © Clio cee ene eye ee Mar. 7) Warren C. Stewart, vice consul at
La Ceiba.
Decree No. 95. (Taxes and charges for construction | Mar. 29 | Gaston Smith, consul at Tegucigalpa.
fund for School of Medicine and Pharmacy.)
PANAMA |
Pan American Airways open direct service between | Apr. 14 | Herbert O. Williams, consul at Panama

Panama and Mexico City.

454

City.

SUBJECT MATTER OF

Reports received to May

CONSULAR REPORTS

10, 1932—Continued

455

Subject

Date Author
URUGUAY
1932
Excerpt from report of generai conditions prevailingin | Apr. 1 | Legation, Montevideo
Uruguay for March, 1932. (Uruguayan attendance |
at Olympic games, and Uruguayan delegation to
Refrigeration Congress.)
VENEZUELA |
Radiotelephonie service between Venezuela and for- | Apr. 20 | Legation, Caracas.

eign countries.

ee eee ULE COONS

BUI LLETIN
OF THE

| MOUNT VERNON

OCEANS TACO TEAC DORAN EINER TECRISED

2 eS

mann fete

v
WuvuuuUcuUUU UU UU < Sy

YuvuyvuuMUYD

GOVERNING-BOARD-OF-THE
PAN-AMERICAN
UNION

Mr. Henry L. Stimson, Chairman

Areentina eee Ors Sefior Don Fretipz A. Espiu,
1806 Corcoran Street, Washington, D. C.
Bolivigt oes: Senor Don Luts O. ABELL,

2830 Forty-fourth Street, Washington, D. C.
Braves. Snhr. Dr. R. pe Lima & Sitva,
Mitchell Cottage, Magnolia Avenue, Manchester, Mass.

Chale ccatstanuesoatihins se? Sefior Dr. Miguret CrucHaGa
TocoRNAL,
2154 Florida Avenue, Washington, D. C.
Colombiag.c222548. Sefior Dr. Fasio Lozano,
Hill Building, Washington, D. C.
Costa, Rlcaisc2 352 ~ Sefior Don Manvurt GonzALEz,
3451 Newark Street, Washington, D. C.
OTF Me adn ian bes lagi Sefior Dr. Jos& T. Barén,

2630 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
Dominican Republic. Sefior Dr. C. M. Lamarcue,
Woodward Building, Washington, D. C.

Beuadoreses er 8 Sefor Don GonzaLo ZALDUMBIDE,
2633 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

El] Salvador_-_------ Sefior Don Roserto D. MELENDEZz,
National Press Building, Washington, D. C.
Guatemala____.__-- Sefior Dr. Apr14n ReEctnos,
1614 Eighteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
4 Ralph aby a tN BS M. Dantks BELLEGARDE,
1703 Q Street, Washington, D. C.
HOT EAT gts ag phic gal Sefior Dr. Citro DAvita,
1100 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

Mexicomiee oe 5 Sefior Don PasnLo HERRERA DE HUERTA,
2829 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

Niearaguaseitoec - Sefior Dr. Luis M. DEBayYte,
1711 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C.
Panama: 2 Sefior Dr. Horacio F. ALFARO,
1535 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C.
PSTAQUayee5s-S5ce ~ Sefior Don Pasto Max. YNSFRAN,
1726 Irving Street, Washington, D. C.
POE ye yea ah Sefior Don M. pz Frryre y SANTANDER,
1300 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

United States__-_-__-_ Mr. Henry L. Stimson,
Department of State, Washington, D. C.

| OP TEATS, Rte Sn eee Sefior Don Jos& RicHuine,
17 Battery Place, New York City.

Venezuela________-- Senor Dr. Pepro Manvuen Arcaya,
1628 Twenty-first Street, Washington, D. C.

ran tA AOAAAD AD RAAALA ADL AAAALAAAAAMD AAA ADAOORODAA ASSAD ADDI ADA AID ACAAALALALARLL AAO hes Cael

Se a Ae

gc caaas

=
=

Peres

eF So

ELSES

P «

4?
*

® >

TABLE OF CONTENTS
GEORGE WASHINGTON BICENTENNIAL NUMBER

The Americas Pay Homage to Washington____________________________
The Governing Board Honors the Memory of Washington_______________

Washing fonvaslaniinternationalista 92)" 925" 92) 2a) yeas eT ee
By Albert Bushnell Hart, LL. D., Historian, United States George Washington Bicenten-
nial Commission

AG TrilbitescomWwashine ton. =) 25 22 2 ere ce kee se eek kek
By Ricardo J. Alfaro, President of the Republic of Panama

The Essentials of Pan Americanism: An Address by Dr. Orestes Ferrara_

The Achievements of the Pan American Union: A Letter by John Bassett
ING OTe Mela ire D) Meme a a eer ee ee Be Le ee SS

A Messenger of Good Will: The Launching of the S. S. ‘‘Santa Paula,’’

Grace Line (Panama Mail Service)________________________________-
Excerpts of an address by L. S. Rowe, Ph. D., LL. D., Director General of the Pan Ameri-
can Union

Washington’s Influence on the Early Spirit of Independence in Brazil____
By Annie D’Armond Marchant, Assistant Editor, Boletim da Uniao Pan-Americana

Washington at the Centenary of Bolivar: Statue and Mementos in Caracas_
By Aristides Rojas

ColtumbusmWemorial library, Notesse2- 22) 252) eee

Pan American Progress:

Page
457

471

474

493

497

500

502

504

507

515

518
519
524
526
531

(The contents of previous issues of the BULLETIN OF THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

can be found in the READERS’ GUIDE in your library.)
III

Glad Moa AURAL A
PRACT
een

ee:

16s :

3)
ai
al
|
Et |
a ea
4
ay)
27
=
as
=

LUGTAS ALR ih Und set said Th oh

a tle hehl kc ied en esa

Sie hie Wie SR) Us

Courtesy of the George Washington Bicentennial Commission. Bust by Houdon

GEORGE WASHINGTON

“Tn honoring his memory we are in a very real sense doing honor to those
principles upon which rests the fabric of government throughout the Ameri-
can Continent.’’—Henry L. Stimson

NU 5 22 SBE SIS SSeeoots Ow Jism

Vout. LXVI JULY, 1932 No. 7

THE AMERICAS PAY HOMAGE
TO WASHINGTON

NOTABLE tribute was paid to the memory of George Wash-
ington when the 20 Latin American Republics united on Pan
American Day, April 14, in sending messages from their respective
presidents to be read at his tomb at Mount Vernon by their Ambas-
sadors, Ministers, and Chargés d’Affaires in the United States, who
stood with the Hon. Francis White, Assistant Secretary of State of
the United States, under the open sky before the simple brick mauso-
leum containing the sarcophagi of George and Martha Washington.
One message after another eulogized Washington for the “‘strength
of his uprightness,’’ and the encouragement which his example gave
to the American nations of the south ‘‘when on the threshold of
their great destinies,’ and spoke of him as the hero who “represents
the advent of republican democracy in the world,” ‘‘the warrior, the
governor, and the citizen, three times great, who was born two
centuries ago for the good of the United States, for the honor of the
new continent, and for the glory of the world.’”’ Thus the voice of
the Americas confirmed the opinion expressed by Thomas Jefferson
more than a hundred years ago when he said of Washington: “On
the whole, his character was, in its mass, perfect, in nothing bad, in
few points indifferent; and it may truly be said that never did nature
and fortune combine more perfectly to make a man great, and to
place him in the same constellation with whatever worthies have
merited from man an everlasting remembrance. For his was the
singular destiny and merit of leading the armies of his country suc-
cessfully through an arduous war, for the establishment of its inde-
pendence; of conducting its councils through the birth of a govern-
ment, new in its forms and principles, until it had settled down into
a quiet and orderly train; and of scrupulously obeying the laws through
457

458 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION
the whole of his career, civil and military, of which the history of

the world furnishes no other example.”
The presidential tributes in full were as follows:

ARGENTINA

The Government and the people of the Argentine Republic join
the Government and the people of the United States of America in
this act in which homage is paid to the memory of their most illus-
trious citizen, Gen. George Washington, on the occasion of the
bicentennial celebration of his birth. It behooves the nations of the
New World to render this just tribute to him who through his heroic
efforts and his exemplary life gave a model of republican virtue to
serve as a common ideal which all the nations of America strive to
realize in their democratic life, adapting to this ideal their political
and juridical institutions.

By giving an impetus to the struggle for the independence of his
country, George Washington led the way to lasting emancipation.

The Argentine Republic, acclaiming once more the triumph of
republican ideas, cherishes the memory of the hero of the great
Nation of the North, because of the encouragement which the Ameri-
can Nations of the South received through his example when on the
threshold of their great destinies.

Aaustin P. Justo.

BOLIVIA

The people and the Government of Bolivia join in this celebration
and are proud to pay a tribute of loving respect and admiration to
George Washington, the Father of American Democracy.

DANIEL SALAMANCA.

THE AMERICAS PAY HOMAGE TO WASHINGTON 459

BRAZIL

When the United States, as all America, is commemorating the
bicentennial of Washington’s birthday and thinking of his venerated
and beloved figure as an Apostle of Democracy, I have the honor to
convey to the American Government and to the American people the
sincere admiration and the friendship of the Brazilian Government
and the Brazilian people.

GETULIO VARGAS.

On this day, set apart by the American Republics to join in a re-
affirmation of their common aspirations for peace and friendly coopera-
tion, the Governing Board of the Pan American Union has chosen
to pay reverent and admiring homage to the memory of George
Washington.

To George Washington Latin America is indebted for the ideals
he defended with incomparable brilliance and tenacity. When the
time came for its determination to be free, the example of the
United States was its inspiration, wherein it found the strength for
its battles for liberty.

George Washington was not only the father of the democracy of
this great Nation but also a model of inspiring genius for the great
liberators of the peoples of the American continent.

JUAN EHsTEBAN MONTERO.

460 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

COLOMBIA

From the life of George Washington one lesson stands forth that
is to me of more interest than the great work he accomplished in
winning the independence and liberty of his country. It is that in
this great American is incarnate the type of statesman that is capable
of converting his ideal of government into a practical and stable
reality through the sheer strength of his uprightness and determina-
tion, without having recourse to secret machinations, to opportunism,
or to that divergence between public and private morality of which
the science and art of politics have been believed for many centuries to
consist.

Washington intrusted his success to the rectitude of his purpose,
and he was indifferent to, if not disdainful of, the fortuitous and
transitory unpopularity of his deeds.

Washington is the new Prince, whose rules of government are
studied with devotion and followed with loyalty by the conscientious
men of all nations.

ENRIQUE OLAyYA HERRERA.

COSTA RICA

RICA CEN
og “RR
ea. >
fae’ os

Great and powerful is the United States. Its population astonishes;
its swift development astounds; its productive power is immeasurable;
the rapidity of its rise on the path of progress appears the work of
centuries, though it is the result of barely a hundred years.

On the heights of this great Nation is outlined an august silhouette.
Clothed in gentle austerity, with a faint smile that betokens paternal
pride, with thoughtful mien, this noble figure sees the just and patri-
otic work of his hands grow from day to day. Along the straight road

THE AMERICAS PAY HOMAGE TO WASHINGTON 461

that his wisdom determined the great Nation marches forward,
proud of its youthful might, but when it stops to meditate, the soul
of the Nation is uplifted and blesses the father of its institutions, the
ereat Washington.

CLETO GONZALEZ VIGUEZz.

George Washington, guide and soul of the Revolution which gave
independence to the thirteen Colonies, was, at the same time, the
precursor of all the revolutions which have given liberty to all
America. His efforts, his energy, the continuity of his aims in the
most difficult hours as in those of victory, and his definite achieve-
ment were as an imperative mandate to the patriots of the rest of
the new continent. In the long chain of historical events the North
indicated to the South the route which led to the formation of a national
conscience, the highest stage of our modern era.

Washington, from the highest national magistracy, practicing all
the virtues, became the great teacher of all rulers. His life, dedicated
to the public good, his serenity of action, his equilibrium in those
difficult times in which nationality, though already politically formed,
was not moraily or psychologically perfected, constitute the funda-
mental teaching which was followed by all rulers in new countries.

Cuba, the last nation of America to cease to be a colony, has felt the
influence of the Great American, as she could feel that of one of her
most illustrious sons. His grandeur served as an example to our
heroes, his high standards of morality to our governors, and all his
acts inspired the best actions of our people.

On this day, the 14th of April, which has been consecrated to
Pan Americanism, permit me in the name of the people and of the
Government of Cuba to unite with all the other peoples and Govern-
ments of the Americas in rendering our homage of admiration and re-
spect to the warrior, the governor, and the citizen, three times great,
who was born two centuries ago for the good of the United States,
for the honor of the new continent, and for the glory of the world.

Grrarpo Macuapo.

462 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

(GPPZ,,

To evoke the memory of George Washington on Pan American Day,
on the occasion of the bicentenary of his birth, is the same as to re-
affirm the continental significance of this great champion of liberty.
The glory of Washington as a symbolic hero does not belong exclu-
sively to the United States of America; the whole American continent
claims it for itself. Washington represents the advent of republican
democracy in the world, and that lofty principle in the realm of
political ideals was developed and consolidated in modern times by
the joint effort of all the nations of the New World when they became
independent republics. To America is due the strengthening of
republican ideals, which each day become more and more widely
spread throughout the world, and the lofty figure of George Wash-
ington marks the beginning of this new stage in the political develop-
ment of nations.

Fervently admiring the military glories and the civic virtues of
George Washington and fully understanding the high significance of
his personality, I have the honor, as a faithful interpreter of my
Government and my people, to associate the name of the Dominican
Republic with this tribute.

RaFaEt L. TRUSILLO.

ECUADOR

The Pan American Union, by taking an active and leading part in
the commemoration of the second centenary of Washington’s birth,
is performing a service worthy of the highest praise and one that will
be a stimulus to true continental solidarity.

THE AMERICAS PAY HOMAGE TO WASHINGTON 463

Nobility of character, a serene spirit, virile energy, and a heart
full of sympathy, love, and humanity—these qualities which Wash-
ington possessed offer a magnificent exemplar for the ready admiration
of America and the world.

May it be our good fortune that he who was first in so many paths
of greatness, in war, in peace, and in the hearts of his countrymen,
may sincerely and loyally unite the nations of America in a lasting
union of peace, prosperity, and progress.

AuFREDO BaguEerRizo MORENO.

EL SALVADOR

On the auspicious occasion of Pan American Day, I have the honor
of offering my admiring homage to the memory of the great patriot,
George Washington, and of paying my respects to the Pan American
Union, which I fervently hope will continue to be a bond of union,
a bulwark of justice, and a strong tie joming the Americas in con-
structive brotherhood.

MaximMiItiANo HERNANDEZ MartTiNEz.

GUATEMALA

Two centuries ago, by the grace of Providence, there was born in
the thirteen Colonies of the New World that great man by whose
hands human liberty, sacrificed through the absolutism of the past,
was to be revived, and whose redeeming sword was to erect on a foun-
dation of law the first democratic republic, the example of which
would furnish to all the nations on earth the means of their political
redemption.

464 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

By virtue thereof, George Washington ceased to be merely a hero
of the United States and became the founder of a new era which
united all men in the same ideals of progress through equality and jus-
tice. But it was in Spanish America that his work found the unani-
mous welcome and immediate application that brought freedom from
long-endured enslavement.

For this reason Guatemala to-day spontaneously and enthusiasti-
cally joins the great Republic of Washington and unites with the
rest of the continent in paying honor to hisname. All her schools are
teaching the life and work of that blameless patrician and our press
is publishing the different views by which historical criticism discovers
in George Washington the most untarnished of memories, the purest
of statesmen, and the most perfect of patriots.

May it please Heaven that his example shall continue to serve as
a beacon to our Republics in their darkest moments of doubt and
adversity.

JorGe UBico.

I gladly associate the Republic of Haiti on this Pan American Day
with the ceremony which is part of the impressive celebration of the
bicentennial of the birth of George Washington.

Our continent owes to this leader, eminent among all leaders, its
first lesson of patriotism, its first glorious deeds, its first breath of
emancipation, its first democratic virtues, the first basis of its inter-
national community of interests.

Furthermore, our hemisphere owes him that great principle—
which he proclaimed with profound feeling in his Farewell Address to
the American people—that the independence of the Nation should be
considered more precious than all the benefits which might be ob-
tained from abroad—a grandiose conception of national dignity which
should be the gospel of the Latin American Republics.

THE AMERICAS PAY HOMAGE TO WASHINGTON 465

It is true that we have the doctrine of Pan Americanism, which we
place to-day under the tutelary power of that dead hero. Let usinvoke
at his tomb the enlightenment of his authority so that continental
union may be better understood.

It can not be for naught that, following the example of George
Washington, the American peoples should have cast off the chains
of slavery, social or moral degradation, political domination, or the
tyrannous persecution of their Kuropean mother countries; that they
should have shaken off with no definite result the unhappy and unjust
legacies of the colonial régime; that they should have approved the
celebrated message of 1823, without enjoying in their own countries
the ideas of liberty and independence proclaimed with respect to
Kurope; that their dreams of a regenerating civilization should be
brutally dispelled by the selfish realities of international life.

At this tomb we must draw the lessons of experience and of history.
The peoples of America must reassert themselves.

Appeals to solidarity, steps toward understanding and compre-
hension, hymns of cooperation and conciliation, manifestations of
friendship and good will, efforts at closer relations, should be com-
pensated by our democratic equality and by respect for our national
independence and our liberty.

We must put behind us destructive doctrines, legal subtleties,
new and strange dogmas, as well as the entire system ‘‘of interposi-
tions of a temporary character,” praised by blind forces seeking the
protection of their commercial and banking status abroad, but which
foster doubts, rancors, reservations, fears, utilitarian pressure, and
fictitious independence.

Permit me to pay here a heartfelt tribute to President Hoover,
whose powerful will is struggling against opposing currents and is
giving proof of his liberalism, especially to the Republic of Haiti.
President Hoover witnessed the great tragedy of the World War.
Well he knows at the price of what miseries, what distress, what
sufferings, what sacrifices, nations struggle for their independence
and the maintenance of their rights.

Heir to the great tradition of George Washington, like his pred-
ecessor he will take up his responsibilities and confront the obscure
forces which desire to prevent his Government from permitting the
idea of sovereignty to prevail over private or individual interests or
over ‘‘benefits to foreign countries.”

STHNIO VINCENT.

466 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

HONDURAS

The Government and people of Honduras join in the homage that
the United States of America is rendering to George Washington on
this second centenary of his birth.

The founder of the great American Republic will always merit
universal admiration. So long as the spirit of democracy abides in
the world, the fundamental principles which he defended—the union
of all; sacred respect for public justice; the maintenance of peace
and harmony with other nations; the balance between the branches
of government; tolerance for the opinions of others—these will
forever be an inexhaustible fount of inspiration for all peoples.

The nations of America owe him a debt of gratitude, for by the
most constructive example that the ages have seen he showed them
how to build on a solid foundation a republic, free, great, affluent,
powerful, and commanding universal respect.

VicENTE Mesia CoLinpDRES.

MEXICO

My Government and the Mexican people associate themselves
with the Government and people of the United States of North
America on the occasion of the bicentennial of the birth of George
Washington, that exemplary patriot in whom America recognizes
the originator of the independence of our continent.

PascuaL Ortiz Rusio.

THE AMERICAS PAY HOMAGE TO WASHINGTON 467

NICARAGUA

Upon each occasion of homage to the memory of Washington, the
people of the United States are most profoundly moved by the tribute
of admiration offered by the whole civilized world. The Liberator of
the United States gave not only liberty to his country but a national
spirit that has been an example and an inspiration to the other
nations of the earth. This is his greatest achievement. Greater even
than his military triumphs, greater than his wise and noble statesman-
ship, is the desire he carried in his heart for the hberty of all America.

Jost M. Moncapa.

PANAMA

The work of freedom accomplished by George Washington precedes
by almost half a century the emancipation of the Latin American
colonies. Bolivar was born in Caracas the same year in which
Washington entered New York at the head of his troops after being
victorious in the Revolutionary War and making peace with England;
and the American Cincinnatus went to his tomb at Mount Vernon
10 years before the movements to regain liberty broke out in Hispanic
America. There could, then, be no direct relation between Wash-
ington and the Republics of Iberian origin which to-day share with
the United States the high ideals of Pan Americanism, but to America
and to the whole world George Washington was the valiant paladin
of liberty and the purest incarnation of democracy. For this reason
on the bicentennial of his birth it is fitting to remember that in the
history of republics it was Washington who pointed out the way, who
cleared the path, and who bequeathed to future generations imperish-

468 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

able examples of rectitude, unselfishness, wisdom, and true repub-
licanism; and therefore, in the name of the Republic of Panama, of
which I have the honor to be President, I send to-day to the people
of the United States, through the Governing Board of the Pan
American Union, a message of cordial sympathy with the universal
tribute which the free nations of the earth are rendering to the illus-
trious memory of the Liberator of the United States.
Ricarpo J. ALFARO.

PARAGUAY

The public hfe of George Washington, so fertile in its immediate
results, was fertile also in the consequences it had in Hispanic America.
The energy and will with which he carried forward the great enter-
prise of bringing a new and great nation into being, his love of democ-
racy and liberty, his unbounded faith in the future of the New World,
were lessons followed in the struggles for the independence and firm
establishment of our nations which began on the Rio de la Plata in
1810.

Like a powerful beacon his memory illumined the path which the
fathers of the Hispanic American nations followed. And this light
has never failed; to-day as yesterday it shines supreme in the skies of
American democracy.

José P. GuGGIARI.

In this commemoration of the second centenary of the birth of
George Washington, the founder of American independence, the
Peruvian Government and people associate themselves through me

THE AMERICAS PAY HOMAGE TO WASHINGTON 469

with the rejoicing of the American Government and people, and pay
the homage of their admiration to the hero and patriot who ordained
in the United States the freest of all democracies and bequeathed to
the world the unsurpassed example of his political integrity.

Luts M. SAnNcHEz CERRO.

URUGUAY

The Republic of Uruguay, where independence and democracy
are revered by the people, joins in the homage which is being rendered
to the memory of Washington on this second centenary of his birth.
Washineton’s uprightness in the exercise of the highest public offices,
the orientation of his Government in the direction of peace and
respect for other nations, and the recognition of his virtues by his
fellow citizens make of the first President of the United States a figure
venerated throughout America, but particularly in Uruguay, where
his memory and example are this year being honored.

GABRIEL TERRA.

VENEZUELA

I am happy to take part in the homage which the Pan American
Union is to-day rendering to the memory of Washington.

Washington it was who made the principle of the sovereignty of
the people prevail for the good of the country, and who loved peace
founded on justice and mutual respect.

Inspired with the same ideas, Bolivar strove to bring about the
union of the nations of this continent, and Venezuela, modeling its

124832—_32—Bull. 7 _—2

470 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

policy on the counsels of the Liberator, renews once again on this
occasion its sincere good wishes for the brotherhood of the Republics
of America and for universal peace.

J. V. G6mEz.

After the last message had been read, a wreath was deposited on
behalf of all the speakers by His Excellency Dr. Adrian Recinos,
Minister of Guatemala.

Because of the departure of Secretary of State Stimson for Europe,
the response for the Government of the United States was made by
the Assistant Secretary of State, Hon. Francis White, who said:

GENTLEMEN OF THE GOVERNING Boarp:

I wish to assure you how deeply the Government and people of the
United States appreciate the tribute which your respective nations
are paying to the memory of Washington. Here at this sacred shrine
which was the scene of his activities for so many years, the assembling
of the representatives of the Republics of America to do him honor
possesses a special significance.

It was a most gracious act on your part to devote the 1932 celebra-
tion of Pan American Day to the founder of this Republic. The
ideals for which he struggled have so much in common with those of
the founders of the other Republics of America that I feel that we
are to-day paying tribute to that great company of patriots to whom
we owe the existence of the free nations of this Continent. Although
we can never hope to repay the debt which we owe to them, we can
show our devotion to the ideals for which they struggled by con-
stantly emphasizing and fostering the common interests of the
American Republics and developing in every possible way the spirit
of cooperation and mutual helpfulness which happily exists between
them.

I desire again to express to you and through you to the Chiefs of
State here represented the deep and heartfelt gratitude of the Gov-
ernment and people of the United States for this generous tribute.

THE GOVERNING BOARD HONORS
THE MEMORY OF WASHINGTON

EBRUARY 22, 1932, was observed with special ceremonies

everywhere throughout the United States as the bicentennial of
the birth of that hero whom the entire Nation delights to honor.
In the Capital the Governing Board of the Pan American Union,
composed of the representatives of the 20 Republics of Latin America
and the Secretary of State of the United States, met in special session
to commemorate the day. The assemblage in the imposing Hall of
the Americas of the Pan American Union was but a small part of
those who shared in the ceremonies, broadcast over nation-wide chains
throughout the United States and also sent by short wave to all the
other countries of the American Continent. The Marine Band
orchestra played a program of music as part of the exercises.

The Vice Chairman of the Board, His Excellency Dr. Orestes
Ferrara, Ambassador of Cuba, made an eloquent address on behalf
of his colleagues, paying homage to Washington in the following
words:

The great principles which sum up the experiences of mankind do not suffice
to show us the path of duty and the road to salvation in times of difficulty. On
the other hand, the life of a man, converted into a symbol, may dominate our
minds, guide our hearts, and elevate our spirits. A great man is the noblest work
of God, for he is the incarnation of beauty and goodness, of honor and service,
of that eternal virtue which illumines the straight and narrow way of thought
and deed.

George Washington is one of the beacons placed at intervals along the high-
road of history. For his country he serves as a guide in time of stress and a
refuge in tranquil moments; a never-failing example of true goodness; a warning
to turbulent youth; and a mute accusation of selfish interests. Thus it is always
he who vivifies the moral principles of his fellow countrymen. The difficult
and absorbing scene in which he played the leading role did not mar his personal-
ity. He was a redoubtable agitator because the times required it, yet he always
preserved his serenity of spirit; he was an energetic revolutionary, imbued, how-
ever, with the ideal of order; he was a politician, but not an opportunist; a citizen
of a new democracy, but not a martyr. His character was admired by his con-
temporaries and is venerated by posterity.

Washington is an example of perfect balance, of perfect harmony. He was
equally great in peace and in war, in the little acts of daily life and in the prin-
ciples which he followed with constancy and devotion.

The people of the United States, with legitimate pride, hold him their greatest
glory. But although Washington gave himself only to the service of the thirteen
Colonies of North America, his life is a heritage belonging to the whole world.
Virtue claims him for her own and, regardless of frontiers, makes him a citizen of
every corner of the globe.

471

472 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The example of Washington, the chief leader in securing the independence of
his country, was an inspiration to the free governments organized on the vast
continent discovered by Spain. The American revolution was a notable step
forward along the path of progressive ideas and because of this, as well as for
geographical reasons, it had a far-reaching effect on the peoples to the south of
the United States. All the institutions erected on the ruins of colonial rule were
modeled on the constitution which their brethren of the north had previously
written for themselves.

In the heroic struggle for independence throughout the wide lands of Latin
America, many were the illustrious and glorious leaders who, with magnificent
generosity, offered their strength and their intellect to the cause of liberty. To
them the name of Washington was a shining symbol, and each son of a new repub-
lic who rendered the greatest service to the nascent democracy was figuratively
called the ‘‘ Washington”’ of his country.

The principle that no President should succeed himself for a third term,
although not included in the Constitution of the United States by the signers of
that document, was nevertheless established by Washington in his country by
his own volition. Latin America, however, adopted this principle in its written
constitutions, maintaining it notwithstanding crises and lapses. The precedent
set by George Washington in refusing to bow to the will of the majority of his
compatriots, who would have elected him to the Presidency for the third time,
has for more than a century been the Latin American constitutional principle that
is most cherished and respected by the masses.

The parting advice given to his fellow citizens in his Farewell Address, not to
take part in European struggles and not to intervene in the controversies which
geography and history might occasion in that noble and ancient continent, was
a solemn warning heeded also by Latin America. The statesmen of the 20
republics which were successively established managed to keep themselves
aloof from the confused fluctuations of European politics, thus preventing the
balance of power in Europe, when disturbed, from being redressed as a result of
conflict in America, according to the phrase and the desire of an eminent statesman
of the last century.

Universal applause, without dissent and without reserve, is a worthy tribute
to the admirable picture presented by the life of George Washington. The voice
of his soul told him that only noble purposes and good deeds inspire and nourish
unselfishness. His mental powers gave him, from his earliest years, a clear com-
prehension of the fact that in our mortal life the part reserved for each one of us
is but small and fleeting, for from birth we live with others and for others. His
penetrating intelligence, trained in the school of integrity, taught him that all
men, even confirmed egoists, look outside themselves to study the great
truths handed down from age to age and to strive eagerly in fathoming the
secrets of that future which they themselves will not see. Washington in his
maturity learned how to impose upon himself and his soldiers the supreme
sacrifice in homage to an ideal.

His life was a hymn in praise of honor, uprightness, and patriotism. Therefore,
on this day, the two hundredth anniversary of his birth, let us hail a man whose
personality, at once martial and benevolent, is our inspiration in hours of sorrow
as well as in hours of rejoicing.

The Chairman of the Board, Hon. Henry L. Stimson, Secretary of
State, responded on behalf of the Government of the United States:

Permit me to express to you the deep appreciation of the Government of the
United States for the fine tribute which you have to-day paid to the memory of

GOVERNING BOARD HONORS MEMORY OF WASHINGTON 473

Washington. The eloquent address of the Vice Chairman of the Board, His
Excellency the Ambassador of Cuba, which has been heard far beyond the con-
fines of this building, will, | am certain, make a deep impression on the people of
this country.

Washington belongs to that great company of patriots—founders of the Repub-
lies of this continent—animated by a common purpose and inspired by a common
ideal. In honoring his memory we are in a very real sense doing honor to those
principles upon which rests the fabric of government throughout the American
Continent.

GEORGE WASHINGTON OF VIRGINIA

This portrait by the Ecuadorean artist, Luis Cadena, was painted in 1877, at Quito. The prop-
erty of the White House, it has been lent to the Pan American Union for exhibition during
the bicentennial year by the President and Mrs. Hoover.

WASHINGTON AS AN INTERNATIONALIST

By Ausert Busunett Hart, LL. D.

Historian, United States George Washington Bicentennial Commission
I. SCHOOLS OF BIOGRAPHY

OUR dissonant schools of biography during the last hundred years

have been contending for supremacy in the wide and important
area of George Washington. The first is the infantile school, which
under the leadership of the late Parson Weems (never Rector of
Mount Vernon) has acquired such a hold on the minds of youthful
and mature Americans as would make posterity believe that the
greatest of American statesmen, in his own period and in American
history, was a prize Sunday school product; and that triviality was
the characteristic of his youthful mind and of course must have af-
fected his decisions throughout his life. After the Revolution sprang
up a second group of biographers, who worked on the heroic basis.
They saw in him a great soldier—which he was—but left out of
account his remarkable individual characteristics.

It was nearly a hundred years after his death before there rose a
third school of so-called historians made up of writers apparently
enraged by the national admiration of Washington, who have spent
aeons of research and avalanches of print paper in the effort to prove
him a failure—defeated in frontier warfare, nerveless in the Revolu-
tion, hesitating in statesmanship, occupied with sensual intrigues—
in a word, a possessor of one of the earliest reported inferiority
complexes. The main purpose of this debunking, negative, down-
hill literature appears to be to sell books to a public which is jaded
with successive doses of historical virus.

A fourth school of writers treat Washington as a remarkable
human being with an extraordinary staying power. This school
was really founded by Washington Irving, whose Life of Washington
is still one of the excellent biographies. These writers see in Wash-
ington not only the frontiersman, the general, the president, but a
leader of the American people; a prophet who foresaw in his mighty
mind some of the possible complications of the nineteenth century.

Il. INTERNATIONAL STATUS OF THE AMERICAN COLONIES

To understand how far the mind of Washington may have gone
in the direction of fundamental international understandings, it is
necessary to take account of the status of international relations in

475

476 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when the English colonies
were established. It seems incredible that North and South America
should have lain for ages unknown to Europeans. In the first century
after discovery, both North and South America were treated as
territory conquered or to be conquered for the benefit of the European
nations who first sent out voyages of discovery, and then armies and
navies of conquest.

The extent of wild territory was so vast that for a time there was
room for separate Spanish and Portuguese and French and English
and Dutch and Swedish occupations. The Latin nations practically
asserted that the colonies were outlying portions of the European
countries, and as such the colonies became units of conquest and
occupation in European wars. Conflicting theories of possession by
discovery, by occupation, and by continuous colonization led to
violent controversies over title and boundaries. The Mississippi
Valley was an object of contention between Spain, France, and Eng-
land till 1763; and its status was not put on a continuing basis until
the Louisiana treaty of 1803, four years after Washington’s death.

Every exploring and colonizing power claimed title by a combina-
tion of first discovery, first occupation, first extinguishment of the
title of the natives, and first organization into colonies and colonial
systems. The North American colonies at the time of Washington’s
birth in 1732 were planted rather at haphazard: French northern
islands and the valley of the St. Lawrence; Spanish settlements on
the Gulf of Mexico contested by French and English; and the Ohio
Valley, as yet almost free from European colonists and open to dis-
covery and settlements. The English had obtained a clear coastline
from Maine to Georgia, having extinguished the small Dutch and
Swedish colonies; but the question of the western interest was just
coming up.

Under directions from England, carried out by Governor Dinwiddie,
Washington in 1753 was sent out to the frontier as the agent to warn
the French that the English Government claimed the Ohio Valley.
In 1754 he commanded colonial troops on his first battlefield, the
encampment of Jumonville, which happened to be near the watershed
between the Atlantic and Mississippi waters. This was the first
armed conflict for the English claim to the Ohio Valley. In 1755 he
participated in Braddock’s formal campaign by English regular
troops, combined with colonial militia.

This was a very practical experience of the influence of territorial
claims and the status of international law as to title to new territory.
Carrying out decisions made by the ministry of Great Britain, this
young man was the most active personal force in asserting the doctrine
of interior territorial claims not based on first discovery or occupation.
In all the proceedings, from Washington’s first official notice in 1753
that the English claimed the title, to the treaty of 1763, in which

WASHINGTON AS AN INTERNATIONALIST 477

that title was made good, it never entered his mind that arbitration
was the proper recourse in such contentions; and still less that there
could be such a thing as a combination of nations which would have
authority to make and perhaps to enforce decisions between rival
claimants to territory, or to decide other international controversies.

Ill. INTERNATIONAL LAW OF FEDERAL UNIONS

Notwithstanding Washington’s haziness as to international law
respecting discovered territory previous to the Revolution, there
were publicists in his time who recognized governmental organiza-
tions, somewhat resembling the League of Nations, which had been set
up centuries before the American Revolution. These weak but long
continuing federal governments sprang up in various forms in Europe.
That a combination of national and state political organizations was
possible was certainly clear to James Madison when he made up
for the use of the Federal Convention of 1787 an analysis of all
the forms of federal government of which he could find record, from
the Greek and the early Latin to the Holy Roman Empire, and thence
down to 1787. The reason for the study of those organizations was
that they suggested mutual concessions and forms of organization
which might be realized in the forthcoming Constitution of the
United States of America.

The Federal Constitution involved a merger of sovereignty. Public
law was a subject little studied in the English colonies of North Amer-
ica, though the College of William and Mary in the eighteenth century
began to take cognizance of that field of human organization. John
Adams read Burlamaqui while an undergraduate at Harvard. Hein-
eccius was not unknown. Nevertheless, Grotius is quoted little or not
at all, and there is no evidence before the Revolution that the founders
of the American Republic had definite knowledge of the then existing
remnants of disparate nations.

Nevertheless, when Washington was born in 1732 there was still in
existence a Holy Roman Empire, which included in imperfect form
what moderns consider the three coordinate branches of federal
government: A ‘‘ Deutscher Kaiser im Reich,’’ chosen by seven elec-
toral princes was a weak federal executive; a federal Diet wrangled
over public business; and on occasion, decisions were rendered by
a federal court, whose hall of sitting is still to be seen in Regens-
burg. Disputes between members of the union were sometimes
referred to that court. There were even some constitutional docu-
ments which set forth the forms and conditions of the federal system.
Within the area of the Holy Roman Empire, certain Swiss cantons
and cities had built up a federal constitutional system, expressed in
written documents, and including a method of settling legal disputes
between the member states, which was in operation till 1806.

478 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The most notable example of composite states having a common
denominator, was the federation of seven Dutch Provinces, which
revolted from Spain, and in 1579 formed the Union of Utrecht.
This federation provided itself with a written constitution and created
a body called ‘“‘Their Highmightinesses the States General,” which
was the nearest approach to a federal congress, made up of members
designated by the states, previous to the Albany Congress of 1754
and the Stamp Act Congress of 1765. That congress, and its succes-
sors, the later Continental Congresses uf 1774 and 1775, were ap-
proaches to a general union of communities, eventually defined by
the Articles of Confederation of 1781 as a “‘league of friendship.”

The Articles of Confederation were a chapter in the federal ex-
perience of the British colonies in America, and the principles of this
federation achieved the most effective form of international combina-
tion placed on a statutory basis known in the world up to that time.
But the articles were not the first chapter of this experience. In 1643
delegates from Massachusetts, Plymouth, New Haven, and Connec-
ticut, came together in Boston and drew up ‘‘a firme and perpetuall
league of ffrendship and amytie for offence and defence, mutuall ad-
vice and succour upon all just occations both for preserueing and
propagating the truth and liberties of the Gospell and for their owne
mutuall safety and wellfare.”” The Dutch Confederation must have
been known to the draftsmen of this document, for its form and spirit
reappears in the New England Confederation. A hundred and
twenty years later, Franklin drew up a federal form of government
for the colonies, which he proposed at the Albany Congress, the text
of which shows that he must have used the constitution of the New
England Confederation. In 1775 he proposed a plan of federal union
to the Continental Congress which resembles his Albany Congress
document; and some of its features appear in the Articles of Confed-
eration of 1781.

Meanwhile, Franklin had been in Holland and become acquainted
with the Dutch system of government, involving restrictions laid by
an instrument of government on states otherwise supposed to be
sovereign. From his place on the floor in the Constitutional Con-
vention of 1787, he called attention to factors in the Dutch system
which might well be considered by the convention. The idea of a
Federal Bill of Rights, binding on all members of the federation and
set forth in the earliest amendments to the Constitution, can not be
traced to any previous federal system. Some parts of original
charters of the English colonies included personal rights, and the
idea was closely connected with the English documents of liberty,
and the Bills of Rights in state constitutions previous to 1787.

One of the main purposes in all these previous federal experiences
was to furnish a tribunal for the settlement of disputes among the
member states; and one of the most difficult tasks of the Federal

WASHINGTON AS AN INTERNATIONALIST 479

Convention of 1787 was to create a court with supreme jurisdiction
over the operations of the states in fields stated in the Constitution.

IV. INTERCOLONIAL EXPERIENCE

Considering Washington’s means, his fondness for travel, and his
personal connection with English trade and finance, it is remarkable
that he never went outside the later established limits of the United
States of America except in his brief experience in the Island of
Barbados in 1751-1752. To his latest days he kept up a personal
relation with Englishmen and with Englishmen who had become
Americans, and with Americans who visited England. Many young
men from Virginia and other colonies spent several years in England.
Once or twice in his life he considered a journey overseas. He was
for years in direct touch with the envoys—first unofficial, and then
regular—of the United States to foreign countries. No man in the
country realized more than he the importance of trade and cultural
relations with the mother country. He corresponded with various
English people—particularly with Sir Arthur Young, the agriculturist.
The great internationalist of the period was Benjamin Franklin,
known and admired in both England and France, from whose pen,
however, never proceeded a plan of supernational organization,
although his plans for federal organization under one sovereignty
contained germs of such a development.

Washington was by training and by interest a statesman who
recognized the necessities of international harmony. Everybody
knows that Washington’s only public speeches were made before
Congress as inaugurals in 1789 and 1793 and as annual messages.
For about 16 years a member of the Virginia Assembly, none of his
comembers recorded that he made a speech on the floor. He had,
however, a lively part in the discussions of the western frontier.
His Journal of 1753, which was sent to England as a public document,
is really the record of a diplomatic mission. He inaugurated the
French and Indian War in 1754 by his attack on Jumonville, also
recorded in a journal first printed in French.

Washington throughout his life had close contact with many men
who understood international relations, including the English officers
in the frontier wars, travelers, and writers of travels, particularly
Lord Fairfax, his patron and intimate friend. During the Revolu-
tionary War, he cultivated French officers and civilians of large
experience and great political influence. A study of his diaries
would probably reveal the names of a hundred men and women of
mark whom he met and with some of whom he discussed international
affairs. No one, however, has recorded that Washington read any
of the treatises on international law, of which there were several
during the eighteenth century. Whatever the international history
or the public services of the surviving combinations of nations, the

480 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

German and Dutch confederations, they were little known to him;
and they declined and almost disappeared during his lifetime. The
eighteenth century was a period of disregard of small and weak
states and of small and weak men. Washington’s conception of
international law and of international combinations was, therefore,
that of a hard-headed, practical man of vast experience in public
affairs, but without knowledge of the possibility of an international
organization which would limit the authority of the constituent
nations, outside of the federal principles of the Articles of Confedera-
tion and later Constitution of the United States.

V. EXPERIENCE IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS DURING THE REVOLU-
TIONARY WAR

The workings of George Washington’s mind were never from the
general to the particular. It was not in his makeup to work out a
system of thought and then to distribute it over the problems and
incidents of his life. His mind was not analytical but constructive.
His goal is described in a letter of 1778: ‘“‘Nothing short of inde-
pendence, it appears to me, can possibly do. A peace on other
terms would, if I may be allowed the expression, be a peace of war.”

His school of diplomacy was substantially his own experience with
representatives of nations that had elaborate systems of public law.
In the controversy between the Colonies and the home country, most
of the international precedents were on the side of the British Govern-
ment. The great international triumph of the United States in the
Revolution was the establishment of a relation with the French
Government, which was actuated not by any admiration of Washing-
ton or love for the English colonists but by the opportunity to weaken
Great Britain by aiding in the secession of the most important group
of English colonists.

The exigencies of the war kept Washington most of the time away
from the Continental Congresses, of which he had been a member in
1774 and 1775. And Congress interfered very little directly with
Washington’s control of the army in service. From the beginning,
he assumed the rights and dignities of a commander of an army in
the field. His refusal to accept the official letter of the English com-
missioners directed to ‘‘George Washington, etc.’’ was not merely
an assertion of personal dignity but of the rights of the representative
ofanation. Both sides remonstrated at occasional failures to observe
the etiquette of war. Nevertheless, Washington knew and practised
in general the military side of international law.

Likewise, Washington could improvise practices not written in the
books. The separation of command between the navy and the
army, characteristic of both England and France, was quite ignored
by Gen. George Washington from his headquarters in Cambridge
when he gave out naval commissions authorizing captures of British

*POoOM Sol1ied penbs ons1yey eB ‘mIEy) JO you ‘[epIdsoy v OJ OpRAUIOD YOIS B SUTAIIV OIV SIOIP[OS ‘YOST OY} OF, ‘OJIM S,10}} 8, 9Y} PUB JOIP[OS popunoM wv 04
aXq-pood SUIPPIG UMOYS ST OFM ‘UOISUIYSeAA JO OpIs ouURTUNY OT} JIdOp 04 pols) SvY ASTIIV ONL “UMIG Sty Jo AIvsIoATUUR YIpoIpuUNyY OM} 0} 97eI0
-U19UIU100 0} JAY JO ALOT [eH [VUOIIVN OY UL OZOIIJ V BULUIIO] pUB UOJSUIGSeAM JO OJ] OY} UL Sapostds surinjord wee,1No0; Jo dnois v Jo ou SI ZuUIed SIU,

UATTAM ANVAC AG IVUAW V «‘AOUOA AATIVA,,

UBUIYOSIIFT “Wf ed109y) AG YAvisoj,oyT

NaS

REESE

482 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

merchantmen. The cargoes of some of those captures made possible
the continuance of the Siege of Boston to the surrender point. Con-
gress later organized a navy and formulated its legal status.

It required unusual assurance for Congress to accredit ministers
to Spain, France, Holland, Prussia, Austria, Tuscany, and Russia. ~
There is no evidence that Washington intervened in the appoint-
ments or suggested instructions; but he held personal correspondence
with various of the ministers accredited to foreign powers—partic-
ularly Benjamin Franklin.

It is not too much to say that his capture of Boston in 1776 was
the most potent argument in securing in France arms and stores,
and bringing about the first treaty concluded by the United States
of America. The most important immediate fruit of the unrec-
ognized envoys was the coming over of Lafayette, who, without
any previous communication with Washington, sought out the
American representatives, who were delighted at the purpose of
the chivalric young Frenchman to place his life and his fortune and,
still more important, his status in the French court at the disposal of
the Americans. The international law of that time paid little atten-
tion to a change of allegiance by an experienced soldier from one
nation to another. Evidently neither Washington nor Congress
consulted a textbook in international law as to the right to receive
soldiers of fortune.

Washington was on the same footing as the civilians in his intense
desire for international alliance on any possible terms, not to include
cessions of territory to friendly powers. According to John Adams,
the deciding voice in permitting Lafayette to bring the unofficial
sympathy of France to Washington was that of the powerful Noailles
family, of which Madame Lafayette was a member. They were
delighted at the opportunity of giving indirect aid to the enemy of
France who had squeezed the French out of eastern North America.
Silas Deane, who was the first envoy sent over to France, went to
and beyond his powers in promising a major-generalship to the young
Frenchman, a promise carried out by Congress.

The relations between the commander in chief and the new major
general are bright spots in an international field abounding in vague-
ness. Lafayette’s rank as a commanding officer helped to secure the
treaty of alliance between France and the United States in 1778, in
which perhaps the most notable incident is the absolute lack of any
pledge of territorial indemnity for the French in the peace when
obtained, except a guaranty of their West Indian possessions.

The success of the Lafayette episode is the more remarkable be-
cause Washington never learned French, must have used translations
of the French despatches, and was under obligation to come into
personal, though not subordinate, relations with Rochambeau and
the French naval commanders. The war was a desperate enterprise

WASHINGTON AS AN INTERNATIONALIST 483

in 1778, and there is no evidence that Washington foresaw the status
of the United States in the family of nations. An act of extraordinary
judgment and foresight was the placing of young Lafayette in com-
mand of one of the American divisions operating with the French land
forces at the Siege of Yorktown—the crowning victory of the war;
but the relations with the French Fleet and the French Army clearly
showed that to the French mind the United States of America was
rather a protegé than an ally.

VI. THE TREATY OF PEACE (1779-1783)

Washington’s sound views on the negotiation of peace were often
evidenced in his letters: ‘‘ We may rely upon it that we shall never have
peace till the enemy are convinced that we are in a condition to carry
onthe war. Itis no new maxim in politics that for a nation to obtain
peace, or insure it, it must be prepared for war.’’ On the other hand,
he appreciated the difficulties of unarmed peace, and again wrote:
‘“There is nothing so likely to produce peace, as to be well prepared to
meet an enemy; and from this persuasion, and the effect you justly
observe the contrary on our part might have on the mind of the
Court of France, and also on that of Spain, I think it would be right
for us to hold forth at least every appearance of preparation and vigor
and really to do what our abilities and the circumstances of our fi-
nances may well justify.” He wrote again: “‘Certain I am, unless
Congress speak in a more decisive tone, unless they are vested with
powers by the several States competent to the great purposes of war,
or assume them as matter of right, and they and the States respectively
act with more energy than they hitherto have done, that our cause
is lost.”

In the final negotiations of peace, Washington had no direct part.
His letter to the governors of the States in 1783 was a plea for national-
ism, and a warning of the disaster that would come about if the States
could not accept a permanent national government. He wrote in
1787: ‘‘From the former infatuation, duplicity, and perverse system
of British policy, I confess I am induced to doubt everything, to sus-
pect everything.’”’ Elsewhere he wrote: ‘‘If we are wise, let us pre-
pare for the worst. There is nothing, which will so soon produce a
speedy and honorable peace as a state of preparation for war; and
we must either do this, or lay our account for patched up and inglorious
peace, after all the toil, blood, and treasure we have spent.”’

He was much interested in the territorial results of the treaty of
peace, as is shown by his well-known letters of 1783 relating to the
western frontier. By the treaty of peace, the English remained in
possession of Canada, contrary to the request of Lafayette to retrieve
Montgomery’s and Arnold’s defeat under the walls of Quebec.

Washington had a modern view as to the seriousness of war: ‘‘The
maritime resources of Great Britain are more substantial and real,

A484 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

than those of France and Spain united. Her commerce is more exten-
sive, than that of both her rivals; and it is an axiom, that the nation
which has the most extensive commerce will always have the more
powerful marine. Were this argument less convincing, the fact speaks
for itself. Her progress in the course of the last year is an incon-
testable proof. . . . In modern wars, the longest purse must chiefly
determine the event. I fear that of the enemy will be found to be so.
Though the government is deeply in debt, and of course poor, the
Nation is rich, and their riches afford a fund, which will not be easily
exhausted. Besides, their system of public credit is such, that it is
capable of greater exertion than that of any other nation.”

VII. THE TRANSITION PERIOD (1783-1789)

Washington’s expectation of the reception of his own country as a
unit among nations is stated in a letter of 1783: ‘‘The citizens of
America, placed in the most enviable condition, as the sole lords and
proprietors of a vast tract of continent, comprehending all the various
soils and climates of the world, and abounding with all the necessaries
and conveniences of life, are now, by the late satisfactory pacification,
acknowledged to be possessed of absolute freedom and independency.
They are, from this period, to be considered as the actors on a most
conspicuous theater, which seems to be peculiarly designated by
Providence for the display of human greatness and felicity.”

For war the successful general had no fondness. He wrote in 1785:
‘““As the complexion of European politics seems now . . . to have a
tendency to peace, I will say nothing of war, nor make any animadver-
sions upon the contending powers; otherwise I might possibly have
said, that the retreat from it seemed impossible after the explicit
declaration of the parties. My first wish is to see this plague to man-
kind banished from off the earth, and the sons and daughters of this
world employed in more pleasing and innocent amusements, than in
preparing implements and exercising them for the destruction of
mankind.”

In the six years of interlude between the end of the war and the
Federal Constitution, no advance was made in international organi-
zation either in Europe or in America. So far as the peace referred
to Europe, the principal European powers had learned little from the
experiences of the American war, had gained no serious territorial
advantages, and were no nearer to the establishment of an interna-
tional system which would obviate the recurring grouping and regroup-
ing of powers and costly wars by land and sea. Europe did not realize
how fast the new Republic would go forward, and still less was fore-
seen the whirlwind of the French Revolution and the emergence of the
French military empire.

During this interval, the principal international interest of Wash-
ington was in the West. In addition to his journey of 1783 to west-

WASHINGTON AS AN INTERNATIONALIST 485

ern New York, with its suggestion that a canal could be constructed
from the Hudson to the Lakes, he interested himself in the interstate
question of water communication between the seaboard and the
basin of the Ohio, and had a plan of an extensive journey through
the West, going down from the source of the Illinois River via the
Mississippi to New Orleans, returning by Pensacola. The only for-
eign issue connected with the West was the tendency of the westerners
to establish trade relations with Spanish Louisiana, thus weakening
the ties between the East and West. The American merchant marine
began to come out of the condition to which it had been reduced by
the long war, and a lively slave trade sprang up.

Since no European war was going on, the questions of “‘free trade
and sailor’s rights’? had not yet come to the front. The treaty had
given to the United States of America the status of an independent
nation, but had not provided for the revival of the almost unrestricted
trade between North America and England which had been enjoyed
before the Revolution.

Another troublesome question was the liability of Americans for
sums due to British creditors at the outbreak of the Revolutionary
War. Washington laid down the proper course in a letter of 1787
that is a classic in international law: ‘‘ With respect to British debts,
I would fain hope, let the eloquence or abilities of any man or set of
men be what they may, that the good sense and justice of this State
will never suffer a violation of the treaty, or pass acts of injustice to
individuals. Honesty in States, as well as individuals, will ever be
found the soundest policy.”

VIII. FOREIGN STATUS OF THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC (1789-1793)

Some writers have endeavored to discover modern ideas as to inter-
national organization in the policy and the statements of President
Washington from 1789 to 1797, but with little success. The student
of international history finds little first-hand material in Washington’s
Diary, except a few items as to conferences with members of his
cabinet or with other persons on the incidents of foreign policy. In
1790 he briefed a letter from George Nicholas on the danger of the
westerners forming direct commercial relations with the Spaniards
on the lower Mississippi, a subject about which Washington was very
anxious. In July, 1790, he was deeply concerned by a communica-
tion of Beckwith, aide-de-camp of the Governor of Canada, Lord
Dorchester, to the effect that “‘the cabinet of Great Britain enter-
tained a disposition not only towards a friendly intercourse but towards
an alliance with the United States.”’ This was entirely contrary
to Washington’s views of the international relations of his country.
The renewal of war in Europe as an outcome of the French Revolu-
tion, and the disturbance of American commerce as a result of the

124832—32—Bull. 7——3

“6821 ‘0g [ady uo
‘AVG YIOK MON ‘[[PH [elope Jo oor10d 044 WO ‘voIIOULY JO Se4e1g pexTUy) 94 JO JUOpISeLd 4SIy oy} Sv WOj}ZUIGSe AA 951004) JUTYCINANvUI JO AuOUII1e0
euj Sjoldep SeAuvO ONT, ‘SJIV OUlY JO WOISS!MIMIODH 944 Aq poTquIEsse MOJZUIYSEM 4B AIN[eH [CUOMSN O44 Ul oZelIy PeIUMAJUOIG ey UI [euRd JeqJouY

UALNIM VUZH AG « MHOA MAN NI NOILVUNDOAVNI S\NOLONIASVM,,
UBUIQOSIIFT ‘J eF109y Aq Ydvidojyoyg

Wi:

Villy,

7),

WASHINGTON AS AN INTERNATIONALIST 487

naval warfare, made it essential that the status of the new Federal
Republic in the family of nations should be defined; and the difficulties
with the French consular and diplomatic representatives in the United
States in 1793 and thereafter compelled an appeal to the principles of
international relations and international responsibility, based upon
international precedents. In his speech to Congress, November 6,
1792, Washington said: ‘Observations on the value of peace with
other nations are unnecessary. It would be wise, however, by
timely provisions, to guard against those acts of our own citizens
which might tend to disturb it, and to put ourselves in a condition
to give that satisfaction to foreign nations, which we may sometimes
have occasion to require from them. I particularly recommend to
your consideration the means of preventing those aggressions by our
citizens on the territory of other nations, and other infractions of the
law of nations, which, furnishing just subject of complaint, might
endanger our peace with them.’’

Washington’s general policy as to the relation of the United States
to international conflict is set forth in a letter to David Humphreys of
1793: “If it can be esteemed a happiness to live in an age productive
of great and interesting events, we of the present age are very highly
favored. The rapidity of national revolutions appear no less aston-
ishing, than their magnitude. In what they will terminate is known
only to the Great Ruler of events; and, confiding in his wisdom and
goodness, we may safely trust the issue to him, without perplexing
ourselves to seek for that, which is beyond human ken; only taking
care to perform the parts assigned us, in a way that reason and our
own consciences approve of.

‘“All our late accounts from Europe hold up the expectation of a
general war in that quarter. For the sake of humanity I hope such
an event will not take place; but, if it should, I trust that we shall
have too just a sense of our own interest to originate any cause, that
may involve usinit. And I ardently wish we may not be forced into
it by the conduct of other nations. If we are permitted to improve
without interruption the great advantages, which nature and cir-
cumstances have placed within our reach, many years will not revolve
before we may be ranked, not only among the most respectable, but
among the happiest people on this globe. Our advances to these
points are more rapid than the most sanguine among us ever predicted.
A spirit of improvement displays itself in every quarter, and princi-
pally in objects of the greatest public utility, such as opening the
inland navigation, which is extensive and various beyond conception,
improving the old roads and making new ones, building bridges and
houses, and, in short, pursuing those things, which seem eminently
calculated to promote the advantage and accommodation of the
people at large. Besides these, the enterprises of individuals show at

A488 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

once what are the happy effects of personal exertions in a country,
where equal laws and equal rights prevail.”

IX. DIFFICULTIES WITH FRANCE (1793-1798)

Outside of Washington’s public papers, there is little to be gleaned
on his attitude toward the French crisis of 1798. The original
resentment of France over Washington’s policy of neutrality, which
she considered a violation of the treaty of alliance of 1778, was
increased by the American commercial treaty of 1794 with Great
Britain (Jay treaty), and culminated in a refusal to receive the
American envoys. The resentment was also shown in violations of
the rights of American neutral trade. Under the administration of
Washington’s successor, President Adams, preparations were made
for war, but except for a few clashes on the sea, it did not reach
open hostility. Washington was so clear that the United States had
received treatment from France which made war inevitable, that he
accepted the appointment of Commander of the American Army.
In a letter to Lafayette of December 25, 1798, he stated his policy as
to intervention with unmistakable clearness: ‘‘That there are many
among us, who wish to see this country embroiled on the side of
Great Britain, and others, who are anxious that we should take part
with France against her, admits of no doubt. But it is a fact, on
which you may entirely and absolutely rely, that the governing powers
of the country and a large part of the people are truly Americans in
principle, attached to the interest of it, and unwilling under any cir-
cumstances whatsoever to participate in the politics or contests of
Europe; much less, since they have found that France, having for-
saken the ground she first took, is interfering in the internal concerns
of all nations, neutral as well as belligerent, and setting the world in
aMeULOa ee

“On the politics of Europe I shall express no opinion, nor make any
inquiry who is right or who is wrong. I wish well to all nations and
to allmen. My politics are plain and simple. I think every nation
has a right to establish that form of government, under which it
conceives it shall live most happy; provided it infracts no right, or is
not dangerous to others; and that no governments ought to interfere
with the internal concerns of another, except for the security of what
is due to themselves.”

X. ADVICE ON NEUTRALITY (1796-1799)

The textbook for those who believe that Washington had a concep-
tion or a plan of an international peace organization is his Farewell
Address, prepared in collaboration with Hamilton and other states-
men, and using many of Hamilton’s phrases. Long in preparation
and issued in 1796, it is a plain statement of his convictions both
as to peace and war. A selection of his precepts will bring out its

WASHINGTON AS AN INTERNATIONALIST 489

character. He advises his countrymen to be prepared for war by
establishing public credit: ‘“One method of preserving it is, to use it
as sparingly as possible :—avoiding occasions of expense by cultivating
peace, but remembering also that timely disbursements to prepare
for danger frequently prevent much greater disbursements to repel
it—avoiding likewise the accumulation of debt, not only by shunning
occasions of expense, but by vigorous exertions in time of Peace to
discharge the debts which unavoidable wars may have occasioned, not
ungenerously throwing upon posterity the burthen which we ourselves
ought to bear.”

Then follows the passage frequently quoted as an evidence that
Washington favored some kind of international organization which
could be invoked in threatening times to prevent war. The passage
is long, and some admonitions and expectations must be left un-
quoted: ‘“‘Observe good faith and justice toward all Nations...
Cultivate peace and harmony with all .... It will be worthy of a
free, enlightened, and, at no distant period, a great nation, to give
to mankind the magnanimous and too novel example of a People
always guided by an exalted justice and benevolence .... The ex-
periment, at least, is recommended by every sentiment which ennobles
human nature.—Alas! is it rendered impossible by its vices? In the
execution of such a plan nothing is more essential than that permanent,
inveterate antipathies against particular nations and passionate
attachments for others should be excluded; ... Antipathy in one
nation against another disposes each more readily to offer insult and
injury, to lay hold of slight causes of umbrage, and to be haughty and
intractable, when accidental or trifling occasions of dispute occur. . . .
So likewise a passionate attachment of one Nation for another pro-
duces a variety of evils—Sympathy for the favourite nation, facilitating
the illusion of an imaginary common interest in cases where no real
common interest exists, and infusing into one the enmities of the other,
betrays the former into a participation in the quarrels and wars of the
latter, without adequate inducement or justification: It leads also to
concessions to the favourite Nation of privileges denied to others, which
is apt doubly to injure the Nation making the concessions; ... Ex-
cessive partiality for one foreign nation and excessive dislike of another,
cause those whom they actuate to see danger only on one side, and
serve to veil and even second the arts of influence on the other... .

“The great rule of conduct for us, in regard to foreign Nations, is, in
extending our commercial relations, to have with them as little
Political connection as possible. . . . Europe has a set of primary
interests, which to us have none, or a very remote relation. . . .
Hence therefore it must be unwise in us to implicate ourselves, by
artificial ties in the ordinary vicissitudes of her politics, or the ordinary
combinations and collisions of her friendships, or enmities. Our de-
tached and distant situation invites and enables us to pursue a dif-

490 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

ferent course. ... Why forego the advantages of so peculiar a situa-
tion?—Why quit our own to stand upon foreign ground?—Why, by
interweaving our destiny with that of any part of Europe, entangle
our peace and prosperity in the toils of European ambition, rivalship,
interest, humour, or caprice?—’Tis our true policy to steer clear of
permanent alliances, with any portion of the foreign world; .. .
There can be no greater error than to expect, or calculate upon real
favours from Nation to Nation.—’Tis an illusion which experience
must cure, which a just pride ought to discard.”

XI. WILLINGNESS TO NEGOTIATE

His final attitude toward the preservation of peace is shown in a
letter to the Secretary of State in 1799 with reference to the difficulties
with France: ‘‘In plainer words had we said to M. Talleyrand,
through the channel of his communication; ‘We still are, as we
always have been, ready to settle by fair negotiation all differences
between the two nations upon open, just, and honorable terms,
and it rests with the Directory (after the indignities with which
our attempts to affect this have been treated, if they are equally
sincere), to come forward in an unequivocal manner, and prove
it by their acts’; such conduct would have shown a dignified
willingness on our part to negotiate, and would have tested their
sincerity on the other. Under my present view of the subject, this
would have been the course I should have pursued; keeping equally in
view the horrors of War, and the dignity of the Government.”’

Washington lived long enough to see the crisis between the United
States and France disappear; and he had no prevision of the coming
attacks upon all principles of international law in the Napoleonic era.
Yet there was at least one prophet of world peace in his time. He
could not have been aware that in the year 1795 there had appeared
in the field of European diplomacy a professor in a remote German-
speaking university on the shores of the Baltic; for in that year,
Immanuel Kant, sage, prophet, and publicist, published to an in-
different world a plan of securing the peace of the world by the good-
will and combination of civilized nations—which, could it have been
carried out, would have spared acres of print, and millions of lives.

XII. APPLICATION OF WASHINGTON’S DOCTRINE

Throughout the eighteenth century, Europe had been the battle
ground for a succession of international alliances, involving the
colonies of European powers. The English colonists for a century
and a half shared in most of the conflicts in which England was a
party. In all that period no leading statesman anywhere suggested
a permanent organization of powers open to all civilized nations
though such plans had been drawn up, notably the so-called Peace

WASHINGTON AS AN INTERNATIONALIST 49]

Plan of Henry IV, designed to bring into harmony the central
European nations. During a century and a half conceptions of the
rights of neutrals and the extent of the rights of belligerents had been
recorded and classified as the basis of generalizations by a school of
experts in international law.

All those systems were based upon a conception of war as a legiti-
mate operation of unquestionable powers of government, a right of
which no nation can be deprived. That theory seems to be contained
in Washington’s advice to his countrymen to keep out of other people’s
wars. The American Republic advanced little farther in the direction
of world obligations expressed in a world-wide document during the
century and a quarter to follow, during which it was involved in
three foreign wars, and a great Civil War which was based on the
English rather than the American theory of the Revolutionary War.

The Pan American Union was formed in 1890, and this was the
first distinct adherence of the United States to the doctrine
of international solidarity. The World War brought the nation
into a wider attempt at internationalism, which would have been
much more impressive had there been only one international
eroup concerned. The modern rapid increase in the destructive
powers of war plainly requires some solution of international
relations that shall make it impossible for any one nation to set
the world on fire. Yet in the present state of warfare, the laws
of war, so far as they provide protection to the noncombatant and
even the neutral, are no longer effective. Washington’s remedy,
which was so sensible in the year 1796, is no longer efficacious.

Yet Washington’s ideas may be considered, in the light of geo-
graphical conditions of his time, as forerunners of present-day
internationalism. From the very beginning of his public career he
was a fervent apostle of unionism. His pleas for this began during
his command of the Virginia frontier in the French and Indian War
and reached their climax in his great Farewell Address of 1796. For
sectionalism he had no toleration. He was not an internationalist as
we now use the term; nevertheless his Americanism of that day was
akin to it within the restrictions of geographical conditions and com-
munications. Many feared that the country was too extensive for
a successful Union; as Washington himself phrased it, ‘‘Is there a
doubt whether a common government can embrace so large a sphere?”’
In his Address he invoked the mutual dependence of the sections, and
much for which he then pleaded can be applied to international
affairs to-day. Love of peace and justice were predominant traits
in Washington. He reflected ‘‘with pleasure on the probable influ-
ence, that commerce may hereafter have on human manners and
society in general. On these occasions I consider how mankind may
be connected like one great family in fraternal ties.”’

THE FORMAL GARDEN OF THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The Washington monument rises in the background in this view from the garden in the rear of the Pan
American Union.

A TRIBUTE TO WASHINGTON’

By Ricarpo J. ALFARO
President of the Republic of Panama

T IS with a feeling of genuine satisfaction that I take part in this

celebration in honor of the great hero whose memory is revered not

only by the people of the United States but by lovers of democracy
all over the world.

In the 200 years which have elapsed since the birth of George
Washington the world has witnessed great transformations. When
Washington was born on the shores of the Potomac there was little
difference between the simple, patriarchal, homogeneous life then
known to humanity and that which it had lived for centuries upon
centuries. There was no steam, no electricity, no machinery, no
ereat industrial development, and only a limited commerce, restricted
on the one hand by national monopolies and on the other by the
ravages of pirates and privateers. Transportation was limited to that
which could be afforded by beasts of burden on land, by vessels at the
mercy of winds at sea. Communication between individuals or
between nations could not help being as difficult and slow as trans-
portation.

In political life the doctrine of the divine right of kings was unques-
tioningly accepted everywhere; emperors, kings, and princes exercised
a generally absolute power over all lands within reach of their military
forces. Africa and Asia, unknown in their greater part, remained
extraneous to western civilization. Europe was dominated by age-
old dynasties which decided the destinies of nations either by war or
by family covenants. America was the property of four European
crowns. The English governed the Atlantic colonies, the French
Canada, the Portuguese Brazil, and the Spaniards the vast empire
which extended from Florida and California to the Straits of Magellan.

Humanity was apparently sunk in a lethargy which gave no reason
to believe that great changes were near. Yet in the second half of
that tranquil century in which Washington was born, events took
place indicating that the human spirit was ripe for the advent of a new
era of progress and freedom. The political ideas which had germi-
nated in the brains of a few French thinkers found concrete expression
in the Western Hemisphere when the English colonies revolted against

1 An address delivered by President Alfaro at a meeting of the American Society held on February 22,
1932, in the Instituto Nacional, Panama. This version is based on the reports published in both English
and Spanish in ‘‘ The Star and Herald,’ Panama, February 23 and 24.

493

494 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

the Crown. The dream of the Encyclopedists became a reality when
the American Republic emerged from the Revolution as a promise of
freedom for oppressed peoples, of democracy for the whole world.
And since the establishment of that great Commonwealth whose
guiding spirit In war and peace was Washington, what great changes
have taken place in history! We have seen the spirit of liberty return
from America to France and start the enormous conflagration in
which the horrors of feudalism and the institutions of the Ancien
Régime disappeared forever. From that orgy of blood rose a man
who gathered in his powerful hand the forces unchained by the
Revolution, loosed them upon an astonished Europe, and erected an
empire upon the ruins of the fallen monarchy and the foundations of
the First Republic. The new Cesar humiliated old dynasties, wiped
out frontiers, and created new kingdoms, which he distributed among
his family; thus a Bonaparte came to sit upon the Spanish throne.
This usurpation in turn crystallized political convictions in the
Spanish colonies which, after a long and bloody struggle, finally won
their independence and established republics whose model was the
great and prosperous Union of the North.

Bitter and tenacious was the struggle between the old régimes and
the new spirit of nationalism, democracy, and freedom. Through a
number of wars and revolutions we see absolutism rise and fall, in one
country and another. The Napoleonic Empire crumbled and France
changed her form of government four times. Something similar
occurred in Spain; and in Latin America monarchical government
was abolished forever in Mexico and in Brazil. Where formerly mere
geographical expressions had existed, as in the case of Italy and Ger-
many, new, strong, and unified nations came to the front. England
became Mistress of the Seas and Russia was recognized as the strong-
hold of serfdom and the impregnable bulwark of autocracy. New
nations broke away from the old Ottoman Empire while historic
nations remained absorbed by the apparently indestructible might of
the Austrian colossus. Mighty powers weakened while other nations,
whose beginnings had been modest, increased in wealth and power to
an astonishing degree. And these changes, which took place during
the course of the nineteenth century, have been succeeded by new,
more radical, and more profound transformations in our twentieth
century, when the World War disrupted the economic and social
structure of nearly all nations and remade the map of Europe.

In this changing panorama of the political world we can observe
the decadence and growth of nations and of peoples, we can follow
the rise and fall of their wealth and power. But the curve that
never drops is the one marking the ascent of those principles which
George Washington espoused and for which he fought. As time has

A TRIBUTE TO WASHINGTON 495

elapsed, the number of republics has constantly increased and, not-
withstanding the many shortcomings of the democratic system, no
better substitute nor even one as good, has yet been found.

The historical figure of George Washington is characterized by a
moral balance and by a serenity of mind which constitute the greatest
gifts of a truly republican ruler. Great as were his virtues as a mili-
tary leader, as an able statesman, as an indefatigable organizer, and
as a valiant fighter, the most admirable feature of his career is that
judicious way in which he kept his country and his countrymen from
feeling the weight of his superior qualities and advantages, by means
of which it would have been easy for him to wield power as long as
he desired.

For that reason J venture to say that, from the Latin American
point of view, the greatest glory of George Washington consists in
having governed with success the first republican nation established
in modern times and in having set examples and standards that will
last as long as justice and righteousness, honesty and wisdom, unself-
ishness and patriotism preside over the destinies of free and civilized
nations.

Courtesy of the George Washington Bicentennial Commission
TOMB OF WASHINGTON AT MOUNT VERNON

From an old lithograph published in aid of the Ladies Mount Vernon Association which took possession of
the estate in 1860 with the idea of preserving it as a national shrine. Within the tomb, which was built
in accordance with Washington’s wishes, are the sarcophagi containing his remains and those of his wife.
The stone shafts in front of the tomb mark the graves of Nellie Custis Lewis and her daughter.

‘UOIUA UBOTIOMLY UA OY} JO 10JDOITG JULASTSSV ‘SeS10G [1D “A “Id PUB -voIY BISOH JO somreyy .P gs1eyO ‘Ze[eZzU04)
“i OULIE[[IND WOT OUSY -AOpENdy JO 1o}STUTTAL ‘QpIquUINp[vZ O[ezu0H Wod ous ‘BIQULO[OD JO 1OYSIUTTAL ‘OUVZOTT OTGBA “Id {OoIXO PI JO LOpessequly “OUPINeSeO
SIN [ONURIA YSOL “AC, -BAVIIOY SO}SO “Id ‘T1zBlg JO 1Opessequiy “BAIS 9 VUII'T ep “Y IOYUOY ‘ejenzeudA JO 1e}STUTT ‘ekeoly [ONUBI, O1POd “Iq :Seinp
-W0P{ JO AO}SIUITL ‘PITABC O919D IG ‘QTIUO JO SOMIVY VP 9SIVYO ‘TELA COURT IvdSO WOT 10U0S ‘MOlU() UBIIEUL YW UB OL} JO [PIOUSZ) 10J001TG ‘OMOY “ST AG
‘plvOg BUIUIOAOS BY} UO LOpBATVS TH JO dAIIUESeIdey [Body “zopuITIT “C OJOGoY WOT 10S “BIAT[OG JO JOISIUTIL “MIPAY “O Siu Uo 10S ‘41Vey Jo
IOSIUIP ‘epresoy[ed sejJued “WW ‘euIyUesIy JO Jopessequry ‘[Idsq “Vv Odlow “AC ‘SeyeVjJg powluUg ot} JO 07eIS Jo A£1B{01009 ‘MOSMIIYY “| AIUeP] “WOP :nseq Jo Lopes
-sequiy ‘lepuejues A erforg op jonuvyy] Uod 10ues ‘e[VUIEYLNH JO JOISIUIJ, ‘SOULEY UBUPV “Id forTqndey UBdlUIMOC, Ot} JO 1o{STULTAL Tepvidsed 0419q0% WOp

IOUGY {VUIVULA JO JOISIUIJA] ‘OIVITY “A CLVIOFT “I ‘EnBeAVOIN JO SOMIVIVV.p 9slvyO ‘ojAvged enuvy, si] “Iq 01V JO] OY} 9B BuTuUIZeq ‘olqv] 9} PUNOIL po}eeS

Ze6r 02 AVIN ‘VUVUUAA SULSAUO “UG ‘VqnoO JO WOAVSSVANV DNIVILEY AHL OL NOWHONDT TIAMEYV A

THE ESSENTIALS OF PAN AMERICANISM
AN ADDRESS BY DR. ORESTES FERRARA

N May 20, 1932, His Excellency Dr. Orestes Ferrara, retiring

Ambassador of Cuba in the United States, now Secretary of
State of his own country, was the guest of honor at a farewell luncheon
offered him by the Governing Board of the Pan American Union.
During his stay in Washington Doctor Ferrara played a distinguished
role not only in his diplomatic post, but also as an official delegate to
various Pan American conferences and congresses, and especially as
Vice Chairman of the Governing Board.

The eloquent address which Doctor Ferrara made on severing his
connection with the Pan American Union, a ‘‘school of international
ethics,” to quote his own words, is his credo of Pan Americanism.
Friendship, mutual respect of nations on a basis of equality, the
acceptance of the principles of international law, especially as they
lead to the pacific settlement of inter-American disputes, are, he
believes, ideals which guide the Republics of this hemisphere in their
relations with each other. These views were expressed in response to
the remarks of the Hon. Henry L. Stimson, Secretary of State of the
United States and Chairman of the Governing Board, who said:

We have come together to-day to do honor to our distinguished colleague, the
Ambassador of Cuba, who is about to leave us to assume the heavy responsibilities
of Secretary of State in the Cabinet of President Machado. Our gratification
at the high honor which has come to him is tinged with a deep feeling of regret
that we are to be deprived of his counsel and companionship in the work of the
Governing Board of the Pan American Union. As a member of the Board and
as its vice chairman, he has never wavered in his enthusiasm and devotion to the
purposes for which the Union was founded. During his stay in Washington,
he has won the confidence and affection of all those who have been privileged to
come into close contact with him. I feel certain that I am giving expression to
what is in your mind when I tender to him our sincere thanks for the important
service which he has rendered to the Pan American Union during his stay in
Washington.

To-day marks the thirtieth anniversary of the installation of the first independ-
ent government of Cuba and it is a happy circumstance that we have assembled
on this day to honor Doctor Ferrara. We extend to our colleague, who will
soon be the Secretary of State of his country, our most cordial felicitations,
combined with the warmest wishes for a full measure of success in the fulfillment
of the important duties entrusted to him by the President of Cuba.

Doctor Ferrara then paid his impressive tribute to Pan Americanism
in the following words:
Permit me to express my thanks for this compliment to me by my colleagues

of the Governing Board, and to say that I am profoundly affected by the cordial
words of our chairman, the Secretary of State of the United States. I do not

497

498 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

take credit to myself, nevertheless, because of the importance of this occasion and
the presence here of so many distinguished colleagues, nor because of the chair-
man’s phrases, since I know that everything is due to the charming kindliness
which governs your lives and to the habitual expression of your innate courtesy.

My work on the Governing Board of the Pan American Union has been modest
and my activities limited; in the balance which might now be struck upon my
retirement, there remain in my favor only the enthusiasm and faith which have
strengthened me during all the time I have cooperated with you.

T can not deny that I leave the Pan American Union with great regret. This is
not because of the contribution which I might continue to bring to our common
task, but because of the influence which the Union has exercised upon the temper
of my mind, modifying and improving it.

Indeed, it is my duty to state at this time, when I cease to belong to the central
representative body of the American nations, that the practice of Pan American-
ism has elevated my international principles. My studies in the diplomacy of
the so-called great periods, my convictions with respect to the methods of defend-
ing the interests of one’s own State, as well as my opinions of the public men of
the past, have been totally revised. A fresh and vigorous breeze has swept away
many ideas which seemed to me incontrovertible, ideas which my mind then, as
now, considered reprehensible, but which I regarded with the respect paid to the
inescapable. In this atmosphere of ours, I have seen in actual practice that
moral integrity and intellectual integrity are not incompatible in international
matters.

This confession is a tribute of gratitude which, on taking my departure, I pay
to the Union of which I have been a member.

Pan Americanism to-day is, in my opinion, not merely a continental institu-
tion but, and I should almost say chiefly, a notable step in the progress of ideas
and in the improvement of our collective life. It has exiled from international
procedure secret agreements, previous understandings and combinaztoni, as
Machiavelli called them, by which a well-organized minority could overwhelm
the majority in conferences and congresses. Under its influence, we have seen
every individual pact fit into the general whole. Every bloc, although based on
similarity of interests, has been considered a practice of questionable morality.
Secret diplomacy, so difficult to banish from world affairs, has been abolished for
many years on American soil. A real equality of States, large and small, has
arisen under the Pan American aegis, and our gatherings give the impression that
the strong recognize it as beneficial to themselves that all should enjoy high inter-
national standing and prestige, for only thus will all have the deep sense ot
responsibility indispensable to the general good.

The collective labors of the Americas have placed international law in the field
of ethics, and have taken into consideration the fact that there exists a higher
principle than sanctions, a principle based on the universal condemnation and
repudiation of deeds injurious to the community of nations. It was in Pan Amer-
ican assemblies that the recourse to war, formerly considered the supreme expres-
sion of sovereignty and to-day happily abolished, was first stricken by responsible
powers from the law of nations.

The policy of the ‘“‘balance of power,”’ which colored international life during
all the last century and the beginning of the present, was never accepted in
America; and the system of alliances, although practiced with disinterested motives
and for the common good, could not survive the first obstacles encountered.
Pan Americanism had its origin in an aggregation of free and equal nations, with
no intermediaries between the national unit and the continental whole, and it
still maintains this basic principle intact. Those who prophesied that chaos
would result from this international society of free and equal members were as
mistaken as those who believed, when modern democracy was born, that it would

THE ESSENTIALS OF PAN AMERICANISM 499

inevitably descend to anarchy because of the absence of dominating leaders and
dominated masses.

An international structure conforming more closely to the ideas of general
good and general usefulness does not necessarily presuppose perfection. Con-
flicts of interests exist and will continue to exist as long as mankind rules our
planet, but the results of such conflicts are weakened; the solution is found not in
the threatening and arrogant diplomacy of other times, nor in political or eco-
nomic aggression, but in the application of the principles of justice, which brings
everything controversial within the field of law. We may claim with pride that
even in cases of century-old disputes over American territorial questions when
the parties, influenced by inflamed public opinion, not unnaturally lose sight
of all the different and complex aspects of the problem under discussion, of the
pros and cons to be weighed before reaching any solution, the proposal to maintain
friendly relations at any cost encourages them to accept the friendly, sincere,
and scrupulously impartial cooperation of the whole continent.

In international affairs it must be recognized that this part of the world has
set history a new course and opened a new horizon to law. On the basis of the
evolution of internal public law, Pan Americanism has proved that the interest
of the strong, to give this term its literal meaning, is not in domination but in
general cooperation, in reciprocal good will, in common effort for the welfare of
all, in friendly cooperation.

My stay of more than five years among you has given me the opportunity of
attending this school of international ethics, in which these principles are daily
observed.

You can therefore understand my deep gratitude.

Distinguished colleagues: Although distance may separate us as we continue
our course in life, the ties of friendship created during a long period of joint labors
are imperishable, especially when one has had the good fortune of relations with
statesmen of your ability and attainments. In any position where my Govern-
ment may place me to serve my country, I shall cherish, with the memory of the
years which we have spent together in this Capital, the friendship which to-day
unites us.

Mr. Chairman, I can not tell you, without perhaps embarrassing you by paying
you the tribute which you well deserve, how pleasant I have found it to serve
my Government as its representative to yours. Permit me to-day, when I am
on the eve of assuming a post like that of Your Excellency’s, to tell you that I
have closely followed your labors and admired your always frank and correct
attitude. A clear mind, an alert spirit, a quick comprehension of others’ customs,
a kindly interpretation of facts and ideas, are the best qualities a Secretary of
State can have, and these qualities Your Excellency possesses. It is my ardent
desire that in the future, as in the present, they should continue to exert the
same influence that I now feel as I follow your steps and admire your success, so
that I may successfully perform the duties of the new position entrusted to me.
Before concluding, gentlemen, I desire to express to the Director General, Dr.
L. S. Rowe, my warm friendship and gratitude. While our stay in this institution
is but transitory, he remains here permanently, animating it with his spirit and
quickening it with his enthusiasm. As Dante said of Pier delle Vigne, so I shall
say of Doctor Rowe, that he holds the two keys of the Pan American heart.
To his able collaborator, Dr. Esteban Gil Borges, I again express my cordial
admiration, and to all the officials of this institution I extend my sincere good
wishes.

Permit me, in closing, to express to you my fervent desire that in the new posi-
tion which I am to hold, I may have the privilege of serving the cause of Pan
Americanism, the cause of progress and of peace, with a zeal and a faith consonant
with its high ideals.

THE ACHIEVEMENTS
OF THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

A LETTER BY JOHN BASSETT MOORESEESD>

Joun L. Merritt, Esq.,
President, The Pan American Society,
67 Broad Street, New York, N. Y.

Dear Mr. Merriuu: A mere expression of regret over my absence
from the celebration of Pan American Day would do injustice to my
feelings. Ever since 1885, when my first service in the Department
of State, at Washington, began, I have taken a deep interest and
often an active part in the conduct of our relations with the American
countries; and as the result of long and varied associations, official
and personal, I entertain for the peoples of our sister States not only
an abiding sentiment of respect and good will, but also an ardent
desire for the perpetuation and development of the ideal of Pan
Americanism.

We live to-day in a world racked and torn by the passions inflamed
by a great war and perpetuated by the peace by which the war was
nominally ended. In consequence, we have had new wars and rumors
of wars, until we have at length reached the stage at which professed
apostles of peace, aghast at the prospect, have nothing better to offer
than the frantic proposal to avert armed conflicts by equipping our
peace pacts with artificial teeth and claws, with which, under the
euphemistic guise of ‘‘economic sanctions,” they may bite and
scratch their way to universal concord and brotherly love.

From this fantastic conception, indifferent alike to the teachings
of history and the daily manifestations of human nature, we turn
with grateful relief to the International Union of American Republics,
formed more than 40 years ago for the purpose of cementing relations
of friendship between the independent nations of America and pro-
moting the cause of peace with justice. As a human institution, it
naturally has not achieved perfection. It has not prevented the
occasional commission of acts which we could not unite in com-

1 This letter, which is self-explanatory, is here published by courtesy of the writer and of the Pan Ameri-
can Society of the United States, of which Judge Moore is honorary president. It will be recalled that
since 1913 he has been a member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, The Hague. Among the many
other well-merited distinctions conferred on this eminent jurist and diplomat is that of having been elected
in 1921 one of the 11 judges who composed the Permanent Court of International Justice on its organization.
Judge Moore resigned froin the Court in 1928. He is now editing ‘‘International Adjudications, Ancient
and Modern, History and Documents, together with mediatorial reports, advisory opinions and the deci-
sions of domestic commissions on international claims,’’ of which four volumes have appeared.—Editor.

500

THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE PAN AMERICAN UNION 501

mending as exemplifications of the ideal which it raised in the western
world. But there can be no doubt that through the conferences for
which it provided, and its permanent official organ, the Pan American
Union, it has accomplished results of the highest beneficence not
only to the nations of America but to the world as a whole. Based
upon the principle of conciliation combined with the mutual recogni-
tion of national rights and aspirations, it has repeatedly averted the
calamities of war and brought about the peaceful settlement of
serious disputes.

No infatuation can be greater than the supposition that war,
which is itself simply a contention by force, can be prevented by a
union of nations for the use of force. War, even though peace be its
professed object, is waged for victory; and its consequences may
bring disaster to victor and vanquished alike.

In the last analysis, the preservation of peace must ever depend
upon the propensities and desires of peoples and of those by whom
their affairs are administered. We celebrate this year the bicen-
tennial of the birth of George Washington, one of the wisest men
and greatest characters the world has ever known, who, although
now often dubbed by peddlers of millenial devices an ‘‘isolationist,”’
was, as a dispenser of justice and good will, an internationalist in
the most practical and most exalted sense. When, in his immortal
Farewell Address, he adjured his countrymen to observe good faith
and justice toward all nations, to cultivate peace and harmony with
all, and particularly to avoid the attachments and antipathies that
tend to make a nation a slave to its partialities and its passions, he
preached nothing that he had not practiced in his conduct of foreign
affairs. Conceding to all independent states equality before the
law, he made to the improvement of international relations contri-
butions of far-reaching and incalculable value, not the least of which
was the revival of the practice of international arbitration, which
recurrent wars in Europe had for two centuries caused to fall
into disuse. Recalling to-day his precepts and his deeds, we do well
to acclaim him as an apostle of the spirit and purpose of Pan
Americanism.

Very faithfully yours,
(Signed) JoHN Bassett Moore.
124839 =E 3 ME Ms

A MESSENGER OF GOOD WIEE

THE LAUNCHING OF THE S. S. “SANTA PAULA”, GRACE
LINE (PANAMA MAIL SERVICE)

EXCERPTS OF AN ADDRESS
By, Les: hows. bua Dy iD:

Director General of the Pan American Union

HE launching of the steamship Santa Paula possesses a signifi-

cance far deeper than the addition of another splendid vessel to the
service of inter-American commerce. In a broader sense, it marks a
step in that larger Pan American movement which means so much to
the progress and prosperity of the entire continent.

I have had the privilege of witnessing, almost from its inception,
the great and significant movement for the development of closer
communication between the nations of America. When a little over
25 years ago I made my first trip to South America, I was compelled
to go to England in order to find a vessel that would take me to Rio
de Janeiro. When I contrast this situation with the fine service to
every section of Latin America that exists to-day, I begin to appre-
ciate the great advance that we have made in this respect during the
last quarter of a century.

It is a source of gratification to every one interested in our relations
with the countries of Latin America that tourist travel to Mexico,
Central America, and to the countries of South America is steadily
increasing with each year. This splendid group of vessels, to which
the Santa Paula represents the latest addition, will now shorten by
20 per cent the period of time necessary to reach the west coast ports
of Costa Rica, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Mexico.
When our people fully appreciate the great natural beauty of these
countries and the unending interest which they offer to the tourist,
I feel certain that the volume of tourist travel will be increased many
i@lGl 3 5

There is, however, a still deeper significance to the launching of the
great messenger of good will which we have just witnessed. It is
another indication of the new position which the United States occupies
in world affairs and especially in relation to the 20 Republics to the
south of us. They are destined to be the best customers for our
manufactured products, and this, combined with the fact that we
have over $6,000,000,000 invested in their industries and their securi-

502

A MESSENGER OF GOOD WILL 503

ties, is but one indication of the fact that our destiny is closely bound
up with theirs. In a larger sense we are quite as deeply interested in
their progress and prosperity as in our own. Probably the greatest
problem to-day confronting the people of the United States is to bring
their national thought into harmony with their new international
position. We still cling to outworn doctrines with a tenacity which
means a real obstacle to our own prosperity. We still give obedience
to outworn shibboleths of the eighteenth century and we still nurse the
mistaken belief that national prosperity can best be secured by reducing
our purchases from foreign nations to a minimum. It is this lack of
adjustment of national thinking to our influence as a great world power
which is at the root of many of our difficulties. When we begin to
appreciate that our present international position calls for new stand-
ards of public opinion, when we are conscious of the fact that to-day
the prosperity of every nation of America is a matter of deep concern
to us and adjust our policy accordingly, then, and not until then, will
the great steamship lines, of which the Santa Paula is such a proud
representative, be assured of the prosperity which they so richly
deserve.

In again extending to you congratulations on the launching of this
splendid messenger of good will, I combine therewith the confident
hope and expectation that she will also be the messenger of prosperity.

WASHINGTON’S INFLUENCE ON
THE EARLY SPIRIT OF INDEPENDENGS
IN BRAZIL

By ANNIE D’ArMoND MaArRcHANT

Assistant Editor, BoLEtTIM da Unido Pan-Americana

Heroic deeds, especially when inspired by the sacred desire for
liberty, make themselves felt wherever noble spirits are found. The
liberators of humanity can not, if they will, confine the results of their
actions within the narrow limits of their own countries. Their names
echo threateningly in the ears of tyrants and bring encouragement to
the oppressed; they carry inspiration and hope to the champions of
the cause of liberty—heroes all, whether victorious and glorified, or
vanquished and martyred.

Thus the name and fame of Washington resounded throughout
the world of his time. The successful conclusion of the American
Revolution shook the hold of Portugal and Spain on their colonies in
the New World. In fact, surprise was expressed in Europe that
Brazil did not follow the example of her northern sister and sever
the bonds uniting her to the mother country. However, shortly
after Americans had won their freedom there was a handful of
courageous and idealistic men ready to sacrifice everything in the
cause of Brazilian independence, but since the time was not ripe for
the attempt, it brought its leader not the laurel wreath of victory
but the martyr’s crown of thorns. Therefore later generations of
Brazilians have always held in especial reverence the memory of the
first movement for their independence, and especially that of its
chief figure, Tiradentes.

In France, where the struggle of the American colonies had awak-
ened great enthusiasm and received substantial support, a group of
Brazilian students were fired by the magic names of Washington and
Lafayette, symbols of independence and glory. A young man named
José Joaquim Maia talked and corresponded, under the pseudonym
of Vendek, with Thomas Jefferson, then representative of his country
in France; in one letter he said: ‘‘We have decided to follow the
striking example which you have just set us, and therefore to break
our chains and renew our liberty.”

The aspirations of Maia and his companions for the liberty of their
country were transmitted by one of them across the sea to other
idealists in the Captaincy of Minas Geraes, where high-spirited youths

504

WASHINGTON ’S INFLUENCE ON INDEPENDENCE IN BRAZIL 505

and men of mature age—lawyers, officers, poets, and priests—united
to draw up bases for the establishment of a new republic and to
launch their supreme attempt.

In the secret conclaves which these knights errant managed to
hold in Ouro Preto, the ideal which inspired their souls, which their
minds never relinquished, was that of the successful revolution in
the United States. What the English colonies had accomplished
Brazil also could do. A Brazilian liberator would arise, as Wash-
ington had done, to free the colony. All the information about the
American Revolution which they could obtain was absorbed with the
greatest eagerness; a compilation of laws of the United States, printed

TIRADENTES

Second Lieut. Joaquim José da Silva
Xavier, better known as ‘“‘Tiraden-
tes,’”’ was the leader of the group of
patriots who, inspired by the success-
ful revolution under Washington,
began the first movement for Brazilian
independence

eee

in French, was considered a veritable treasure. They set about
translating these statutes, as well as several books in English dealing
with the subject so dear to their hearts.

A flag was devised for the new republic. How much affection,
how much idealism, must have gone into the designing of a banner
to represent the inspiration of that handful of heroes! A white
background was chosen, on which appeared a symbolic figure breaking
fetters. The motto unanimously adopted was Libertas quae sera
tamen—Liberty, although late.

The uprising never actually came to a head. The Portuguese
authorities learned in 1789 that subversive plans were under way,

506 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

and arrested more than 30 conspirators. Their leader was Second
Lieut. Joaquim José da Silva Xavier, better known as Tiradentes.
He stood out among his associates not by reason of wealth, learning,
or social position, for others exceeded him in these, but because of
his devotion to the cause, his fiery energy, and his brave and gener-
ous heart. He is remembered with affection for the great heroism
with which he took upon himself all responsibility for the conspiracy,
thus saving his companions from death, for the loyalty, courage, and
calmness with which he bore himself throughout the whole great trag-
edy, and for the serenity with which he went to the gallows after
three long years of incarceration. Fate did not even allow him a
tomb for his final resting place, for his remains were dishonored by
order of the authorities. The other members of the band were con-
demned to a cruel imprisonment on the African coast.

It may be asked whether this movement toward independence was
of sufficient importance to merit the severe measures which Governor
Barbacena took against it. The object of the movement was, of
course, to establish a republic, modeled after the United States; the
emancipation of slaves was also discussed and other liberal ideas
were advocated. Since in Minas Geraes, which suffered under an
oppressive rule, there was an especially rebellious spirit, it was jus-
tifiable to count upon popular support for a revolutionary uprising
which, once started, might reasonably be expected to spread to the
Captaincies of Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. Furthermore, there
was a prospect that, as in the case of the United States, the European
powers would not remain inactive, and it was hoped that the new
Republic in the north would aid the movement. Therefore it may
be concluded that the enterprise was by no means chimerical.*

With the passage of the years, Brazil became first an independent
empire and then a republic. The cordiality between the countries of
Washington and Tiradentes has become traditional. The history of
their relations is full of acts testifying to the sincere and lasting
friendship dating from the establishment of Brazilian independence,
recognition of which the United States was the first nation to accord.
But, in the present-day multiplicity of common interests, let us not
forget their distant beginnings in the days of Tiradentes, nor the
idealism which gave rise to the first intangible but indissoluble con-
nection between the United States and Brazil.

1 This is the opinion expressed by Lucio José dos Santos in his work on A Inconfidencia Mineira:
Papel de Tiradentes na Inconfidencia Mineira. Sao Paulo, 1927. The same work is the general authority
for this account.

WASHINGTON
AT THE CENTENARY OF BOLIVAR’

STATUE AND MEMENTOS IN CARACAS

By AristipEs Rosas

T may be inquired why, during the celebration of the Centenary of

Bolivar in 1883, a statue of Washington was erected in the city
where the first ery of the South American revolution was heard. In
the period dedicated to national gratitude, when hundreds of cities
raised their voices in praise of the warrior who freed Greater Colom-
bia, what idea did the patriarch of the United States symbolize
among us?

For the first time in a city of Spanish origin, the effigy of the modern
Cincinnatus was erected as a bond between two nations of different
race, customs, and language. It was a symbol of alliance, because
Washington was not a stranger among us; he was the father of the
whole American fatherland, the creator of the Republic in the New
World. Both Americas, united by common glories at the altar of
gratitude, honored Washington in the birthplace of Bolivar. . . .

The erection of a statue of Washington at such a time was not only
a tribute to the glory of the illustrious founder of the Republic but
also a just homage to the great nation which amazes the world with
its renown, its industry, and its conquests of civil power. When
Washington founded republican government in the New World,
he bequeathed his virtues as a citizen and a statesman not only to
the country where he was born and which was the theater of his
triumphs: he gave them also to the whole human race, which has
proclaimed him honest and just, the equal of the greatest. On this
account his fellow citizens have summarized his worth in the eloquent
phrase: ‘First in the hearts of his countrymen.”

It was on the very fields where Washington won ne laurels that
Miranda, the friend of Hamilton, Fox, and Lafayette, began the work
of South American emancipation. The banner planted by Miranda
in 1806 on the Corian 2 coast—where, for the first time, the name
Colombia was heard—was the same one which Bolivar bore on the

1 Revised translation of Washington en el Centenario de Bolivar. ‘‘World’s Columbian Exposition at
Chicago. The United States of Venezuela in 1893.’’ Published by order of the Government of Venezuela.
New York. This essay is here reprinted to recall the historical connection of Washington and Bolivar
through Lafayette —EDITOR.

2T. e., The coast of Venezuela. It was at Coro, on the Gulf of Venezuela, that Miranda landed with the
ill-fated expedition of 1806, which started from New York and which included about 200 Americans.

507

508 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Courtesy of Dr. Pedro Manuel Arcaya

OBSERVANCE OF THE WASHINGTON BICENTENNIAL IN CARACAS, VENEZUELA

The Minister of Foreign Relations of Venezuela, Dr. Pedro Itriago Chacin, and high officials of the Vene-
zuelan Government placed a floral offering at the statue of George Washington on February 22, 1932.
Addresses were made by Dr. José Gil Fortoul, Ex-President of Venzuela, and Mr. Rudolf Dolge,
President of the Venezuelan Chapter of the Pan American Society. This monument, dedicated in
1883, was the first erected in honor of Washington in Spanish America

fields of Boyaca and Carabobo, and with which he finally reached the
heights of Cuzco and Potosi.

There is here a fitting compensation. Many towns of the United
States bear the name of Bolivar, and grateful Venezuela awaited the
centenary of the Liberator to erect in his birthplace a statue of Wash-
ington, to be handed down from generation to generation that we
might become familiar with the name of the patriarch and founder
of republican government in the New World. Gratitude was thus
added to the sentiments of international brotherhood.

When the Venezuelan revolution began in 1810, it was from the
United States of America that we received our first war material.
If the successors of Washington could not then recognize our inde-
pendence, their sympathies were with us and enthusiastic citizens

WASHINGTON AT THE CENTENARY OF BOLIVAR 509

helped us as years before they had helped Miranda. Two years
later a great catastrophe, the earthquake of 1812, overthrew nearly
all the cities of Venezuela, and to the misfortunes of war were added
misery, hunger, and death. When the news of this disaster reached
the United States, the Congress of that Republic unanimously
decreed that five ships loaded with flour should be sent to Venezuela
to be distributed among the neediest. A celebrated traveler, Hum-
boldt, on recounting this deed, describes it in the following eloquent
words: ‘‘Such generous help was received with the liveliest gratitude,
and this solemn act of a free nation, this demonstration of national
interest, of which our ancient European civilization shows few recent
examples, seemed a precious assurance of the mutual good feeling
which should always unite the peoples of the two Americas.”’

After many trials and sacrifices, the Revolution, which failed twice,
was ultimately successful; from victory to victory Bolivar bore the
banner of Colombia to the snowy peaks and highest inhabited regions
of the Andes. An unexpected and fortunate incident then created a
fresh bond of union between the two Americas and their inhabitants.

One of the founders of the United States was expected to visit that
great Republic. In 1824 a unanimous vote of Congress had author-
ized President Monroe to issue an invitation to General Lafayette,
in the name of the nation. ... On the 15th of August, after long
years of absence, Lafayette landed in New York, to view the scene
of his former glory. Is there a pen which can describe the ovation
which welcomed him? ... Lafayette visited all the States of the
Union, and in every one he was enthusiastically received. From the
moment he touched American soil until he departed, his journey was
one long triumphal procession. In December, 1824, Congress pre-
sented to its illustrious guest $200,000 in gold and 2,000 acres of land
as a small offering from the country of Washington in recognition of
his services... .

Was there any mention of Bolivar during these festivities, something
to show that the events which had just occurred in South America
were known and appreciated? The history of the first years of
Colombia, the sanguinary character of the struggle, the sensation
which the emancipation of a great continent rightly caused in the
civilized world, all this was familiar to the people of the United States.
Americans had followed from afar all the scenes of the drama, and
during the triumphal tour of Lafayette, in 1824 and 1825, they heard
of its glorious last act—the victory of Junin, the decisive battle
of Ayacucho, and the surrender of Callao. By that time the name of
Bolivar had already become celebrated in history, and the people
of the United States gave him without hesitation the honorable title of
“The Washington of South America.”

510 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

More significant events were to follow. At the splendid banquet
offered by Congress to General Lafayette in Washington, Henry Clay
spoke of Bolivar as follows:

While we are peacefully enjoying, in the midst of abundance and security,
the benefits of the free institutions founded by the bravery and patriotism of
our forefathers and of their valiant companions here present, whilst calling to
mind with freedom and satisfaction the memory of our Revolution, can we
forget that our neighbors and friends on this same continent are now struggling
to obtain that same freedom and independence which amongst ourselves has
been so fortunately secured? No nation, no generous and disinterested Lafay-
ette, has come to their assistance; alone and without help they have sustained
their glorious cause, trusting to its justice, and with the assistance only of their
bravery, their deserts, and their Andes. . .

Clay concluded by proposing the following toast: ‘To General
Bolivar, the Washington of South America, and to the Republic of

WASHINGTON MEDALLION PRESENTED TO BOLIVAR
This gift from George Washington P. Custis to Bolivar, transmitted by General

Lafayette, is treasured by the Venezuelan Government. It is the only me-
dallion or decoration which appears on statues of Bolivar.

Oolombia.”’ More than 600 representatives of the Anglo-American
race rose to their feet on that festive occasion and, lifting their glasses,
exclaimed as one man in the presence of Lafayette: ‘‘ To Bolivar, the
Washington of South America, and to the Republic of Colombia.” With
these cordial and eloquent words the great Republic greeted the young
nations of South America which Bolivar had just created.

Before departing for Europe, Lafayette visited the tomb of Wash-
ington at Mount Vernon. He wished once again to return to the
place where the American Cincinnatus spent the last years of his life,
and where his mortal remains now rest. In the presence of the
glorious ashes of Washington, Lafayette received from the great
man’s family, among other gifts, the ribbon of the Order of Cincinnati
which the Liberator of the United States had used. He further
agreed with heartfelt pride to serve as an intermediary for presenting

WASHINGTON AT THE CENTENARY OF BOLIVAR it

to Bolivar a gift which Washington’s family wished to make to the
Liberator of South America. This consisted of a gold medal which
the American people had presented on one of the anniversaries of
independence to the Father of their Country and a medallion con-
taining a portrait of Washington and a lock of his hair. The medal-
lion now belongs to the Republic; it was donated by Gen. Guzm4n
Blanco, President of Venezuela, who had received it from Bolivar’s
nephew, Sefior Pablo 8. Clemente. It is elliptical in shape, 7 centi-
meters long and 5 wide. On the obverse appears a miniature of Wash-
ington by Steward after the large picture painted by the celebrated
Field; on the reverse is a blue enamel background in the center of
which appears under a small crystal cover a lock of the modern
Cincinnatus. Around the crystal the following inscription is en-
graved on a gold border:

Auctoris Libertatis Americanae in Septentrione hanc Imaginem dat Filius ejus
Adoptatus Illi qut glortam similem in Austro adeptus est. (This portrait of the
founder of liberty in North America is presented by his adoptive son to him who
has won equal glory in South America.)

_ Thus it was that the family of Washington in the name of the
United States, evoking the glorious shade of its illustrious leader, the
Father of his Country, manifested its admiration for the Washington
of South America. But what imparted special character to this gift
is the fact that it was Lafayette, so celebrated in the annals of modern
liberty, who was entrusted with the pleasing duty of transmitting the
precious souvenir to Bolivar. The Liberator received from Lafayette
the following letter through the Colombian Legation in Washington:

WASHINGTON City, September 1, 1825.
To the PRESIDENT-LIBERATOR:

Str: The family of General Washington could not have shown in a better way
their appreciation of my filial and religious affection for his memory. To-day a
most honorable duty has been entrusted tome. It was with the utmost pleasure
I recognized the exact resemblance of the portrait, for I would rather offer this
record of my fatherly friend to General Bolivar than to any man living or to any
of those who are famed in history. What more can I say to the great citizen
whom Ameriéa has saluted with the title of Liberator, a name confirmed by the
Old and the New Worlds, and who, while endowed with a power equal to his dis-
interestedness, yet bears in his heart the unreserved love of liberty and a sincere
affection for the Republic. However, the public testimonials of your kindness
and esteem authorize me to send you the personal congratulations of a veteran in
our common cause. I am soon to take my departure for another hemisphere,
but I shall follow with sympathy the glorious termination of your labors and the
course of that solemn Assembly of Panama, in which will be consolidated and
completed all the principles and all the interests of the independence, liberty, and
policy of America.

Accept, Mr. President-Liberator, the homage of my profound and respectful
admiration.

LAFAYETTE.

512 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

With this courteous letter the Liberator had a dispatch from the
Minister Plentipotentiary of Colombia in Washington. . . . These
letters did not reach the Liberator until March 26, 1826, six days
after he had answered an earlier letter of Lafayette, recommending
one of his countrymen. Bolivar, however, had already heard through
the newspapers that the gift was being forwarded to him by the il-
lustrious French general. In his answer, he did not hesitate, therefore,
to refer as follows to the present he had not yet received:

Lima, March 20, 1826.

GENERAL: I have had the honor of seeing for the first time the characters
traced by that hand which has conferred such benefits on the New World. f
owe this honor to Colonel Mercier, who has handed me your much appreciated
letter of October 15 of last year. Through the public newspapers I have learned
with the greatest pleasure that you have had the kindness to honor me with a
gift of precious guerdons from Mount Vernon. Through your hands I am to
receive the portrait of Washington, a relic of his person, and one of the tokens of
his glory, in the name of the family of the great citizen, the first-born son of the
New World. No words can express the full value which my heart attaches to
this present, and to the motives which occasioned it and which are so glorious
for me. The honor conferred upon me by the family of Washington is greater
than any I could have hoped for, even in imagination, because Washington,
presented by Lafayette, is the crown of all human rewards. He was the noble
promoter of social reform, and you are the citizen hero, the champion of liberty,
with one hand serving America and with the other the Old World.

What mortal could really be worthy of the honor which you and Mount
Vernon have conferred on me? My confusion is equal to the immensity of
the gratitude which I offer you, joined with the respect and veneration which
every man owes to the Nestor of Liberty.

With the utmost consideration I am your respectful admirer,

Bouivar.

With the interesting letter of Lafayette, Bolivar received one from
George Washington P. Custis, in which the latter forwarded to him
the medal which the city of Williamsburg, the former capital of
Virginia, had presented to Washington. . . . On the obverse is en-
graved the spirit of American liberty, represented by wisdom and
bravery, with the following legend: Virtute et labore florent Respublicae.
Cwitas de Williamsburg. On the reverse appears an armed warrior
who, having put aside his shield, is piercing with a lance a crowned lion
which is attacking him. Above the warrior shines the American
constellation representing the thirteen States. .. . The gift of this
medal had a national rather than a private significance because it
formed a close tie between the two illustrious representatives of the
Republican cause on the American continent.

Two months after replying to Lafayette, Bolivar ae to Wash-
ington P. Custis from Lima, on May 25, the day on which he received
the noble gift, a courteous letter in which he said: ‘‘The portrait of

ors

| : : : | CZ Lie LB GY
: DE, Sy eer caf : af
VA - Le Bt ee ee “78 5

Ee roe Ao eo S ae Ze

Zi TZ fe

eo Zo oe Cae CeO Bie Bee Ss
fowl sheesh A. 7 2 ee Fa 5 ao oe a ——

Pes
ae Fe etn ae Lae Pe oo Bee BEE Orn
Sf a7 LE 2 es a oe LEE
el ange ee Cas pete
(Mie Coes es 6 fe ee af Lo
Va ieee cae oe, be. oe ae LEE ae SF We
Bees ee refi Hanus cf ee ie
oar nee fa See Lo 22 A ©
Vp Ee gee ee es oe EE Ee ae Petar
ae ee et ee Pe oe Ceri ff ars, BE
Fa
5 ne td “PPA 7 Lit Lae Leet —
Se yA foe. ce ee es
Hoo eee a gs pe ey
aes g Aaot ee ee oe oes 2 Ze

-
oo 7 ce Pek

Aeok # Yo Bes,
ae ee eu Z, Ze er eae P) Bee
a Z Yl Ee idee

Eee

WASHINGTON MEMENTO IN THE HOUSE OF BOLIVAR, CARACAS

This copy ofa letter from General Washington to his wife was sent to Bolivar by Eliza Parke Custis, grand-
daughter of Mrs. Washington. Her-letter of transmission stated, in part: “‘To General D’ Evereux I
confide these sacred memorials of my adored parents. I have ever regarded him as an adopted brother,
and deem the ardent friend and Soldier of Liberty, worthy to recieve (sic) these precious relics, and trans-

mit them to Bolivar the Liberator of Colombia.”’

514 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

the principal benefactor of the continent of Columbus, presented
by the noble descendant of his illustrious family through the citizen
hero, General Lafayette, would be a sufficient reward for the merit
of the greatest man in the universe.”

The family of Washington, to express their admiration for the
glory and virtues of Bolivar, presented him with yet another
gift. Through General D’Evereux, Mrs. Eliza Parke Custis sent
an autograph of Washington to Bolivar on November 8, 1828. It
was the letter in which he bade good-by to his wife before leaving
for war in 1775. . . . [See reproduction on p. 513.]

Two years after receiving these presents, Bolivar went to his rest
in the midst of the conflicts of political parties. . . . To the noble
José Ignacio Paris, survivor of the horrors of the ‘‘War unto Death”
(Guerra a Muerte), belongs the honor of having erected in the Andes
the first statue of the Liberator in 1846. This admirer and friend
of Bolivar bore the entire expense of the work by Tenerani which,
a tribute to the great citizen, adorns the square of Bogota. It was
presented to the Congress of his country, New Granada (now
Colombia), and the offering of love and duty thus became national
property.

It is noteworthy that when Ignacio Paris gave the models to the
artist he ordered that on the breast of Bolivar only one medal was
to appear—that which bears the likeness of Washington and which
his family presented to the Liberator.’

What was the motive of these instructions, of this exclusion of
any other medal? It was because the effigy of Washington on the
breast of Bolivar, perpetuated in bronze, is to be eternal like Wash-
ington—as the memory of the great benefactors of the human race
is eternal. ...

3 Since that date all statues, busts, and portraits of Bolivar bear the effigy of Washington.

COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY NOTES

Mexican bibliography.—The Government of Mexico, through its
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, has issued the first volume of a national
bibliography under the title: Anuario Bibliogrdfico Mericano de 1931.
México, Imprenta de la Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, 1932. In
it are listed 635 books on Mexico, printed by Federal and State
Governments or issued privately. The book comprises 243 pages and
includes an index by subjects and a list of book dealers throughout the
country.

Accessions.—Among the publications received in the library since
these notes were last published was a collection of 32 volumes of
poetry, fiction, and history from the Director of the Bibliotheca
Nacional in Rio de Janeiro. Among these were O Brazil Nagao,
realidade da soberania brazileira, by Manoel José de Bomfim; Livro de
fabulas, by Balthazar Pereira; Na terra das palmeiras: Estudos brasi-
leiros, by S. Froes Abreu; A margen da historia da Republica: ideaes,
crengas e affirmacoes, by various authors; a collection of histories, one
for each State, of Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catharina, Minas Geraes,
Rio de Janeiro, Alagoas, and Bahia, and one for the city of Rio de
Janeiro; Outubro, 1930, by Virgilio A. de Mello Franco; Frei Migueli-
nho: ou aspectos politicos e moraes do tempo de D. Jodo VI; a drama,
Independencia, by Luis Edmundo; four volumes of poems by Amadeu
Amaral, Enrique Gonzalez Martinez, Luis Edmundo, and Leonardo
Motta, respectively; a volume of essays by Gustavo Barroso, entitled
Aquem da Atlantida and Ruy Barbosa’s Escola da Calumnia and other
essays.

Another highly interesting addition was the 11-volume work
Manual grafico-descriptivo del bibliéfilo hispano-americano, by Fran-
cisco Vindel. With a prologue by D. Pedro Sainz Rodriguez . .
Madrid, 1930-31. This work lists 3,287 rare books, including 450
Spanish incunabula and 1,800 titles of the sixteenth century. Volume

515

516 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

11 is an index by subjects, authors, and date of publication, with an
estimated price for each entry.

Students of Peruvian history will welcome a new edition of the
Diecionario histérico-biogrdfico del Pert compiled by Manuel de
Mendiburu and originally published in Lima from 1870 to 1890 in
eight volumes. The new edition is being prepared by Evaristo San
Cristéval with additions and bibliographic notes and is printed in
Lima by the Imprenta ‘‘Enrique Palacios.’’ So far volume 1, 1931,
and volume 2, 1932, have appeared, each priced at 10 soles.

Some of the other outstanding books received during the past
month are as follows:

El sentido de la vida. Novela. Por Francisco R. Villamil. Montevideo,
Impresora Uruguaya, 8S. A., 1931. 204p. 12°.

Salvaje. Cuentos regionales. Por Valentin Garcia Sdiz. Prélogo por Juan
M. Filartigas. Cardtula por José Luis Zorrilla de San Martin. Montevideo,
Casa A. Barreiro y Ramos, 8.A ., 1927. 163p. 12°.

Forma del mar. Por Rémulo Nano Lottero. Montevideo, Palacio del
Libro, 1930. 216 p. 82.

Compendio de historia patria. Por Belisario Quevedo. Biblioteca Ecuato-
riana, Volumen VI. Quito, Editorial Bolivar, 1931. 245 p. 8°.

En elogio de Henri Barbusse. Por Gonzalo Zaldumbide. Madrid, Imprenta
Resén de Pafios, 1919. 60p. 12°.-

José Enrique Rod6; inica reimpresién autorizada. Por Gonzalo Zaldumbide.
New York, Paris, Revue Hispanique, 1921. 104 p. 12°.

Flautas y cigarras. Por José M. Pichardo. Santo Domingo, Tip. Listin
Diario, 1931. 139 p. 8c.

My English book. Part 2. By Josefina A. Molinelli Wells. Buenos Aires,
Ferrari Hnos., 1932. 108 p. 12°.

Historia de la esclavitud de los indios en el Nuevo Mundo. Seguida de la historia
de los repartimentos y encomiendas. Por José Antonio Saco. Introduccién de
Fernando Ortiz. Tomo 1. Coleccién de libros cubanos, vol. 28. Habana,
Cultural, S. A., 19382. lv, 297 p. 8e.

El General Eugenio Garzén. Soldado de la independencia americana. Por
Telmo Manacorda. Montevideo, Impresora Uruguaya,S. A.,1931. 325 p. 8°.

Crénica de la reja. Por Justino Zavala Muniz. Grabados en madera de
Adolfo Pastor. Montevideo, Impresora Uruguaya,S. A.,1930. 302p. ilus. 8°.

Privilegios diplomdticos. Sintesis tedrica y de legislacién comparada. Por
Jaime Eyzaguirre. Santiago, Prensas de la Universidad de Chile, 1932. 118
[D> to

Almanaque del labrador y ganadero, 1932. [Montevideo], Publicado por el
Banco de Seguros del Estado, seccién seguros rurales. 1932. 544 p. ilus. 8°.

La doctrine de Monroe. Conférence prononcée le 20 aotit 1929, au palais de
la faculté de droit, des sciences politiques et sociales de Buenos Aires (Argentine),
par Monsieur Joseph Jolibois Fils. Port-au-Prince, Imprimerie Aug. A. Héraux,
19382. xxiv, 43 p. 82.

Ferrocarriles colombianos. La tltima experiencia ferroviaria del pais, 1920—
1930. Por Alfredo Ortega. Biblioteca de historia nacional, Volumen 47. Bo-
gota, Imprenta Nacional, xvii, 371 p. TIlus. 8e.

COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY NOTES 517

Crénica de la real y pontifica universidad de México. Escrita en el siglo xvi por
el bachiller Cristé6bal Bernardo de la Plaza y Jaén. Versién paleografica, proe-
mio, notas y apéndice por el Prof. Nicolas Rangel. Tomo 1-2. México, Univer-
sidad Nacional de México Autonoma, 1931. 4e.

Doctrina.de. Monroe-y .cooperacién-internactenal.:--Por:Camilo Barcia Trelles

Madrid, Compania Ibero-Americana de Publicaciones [1931]. 741 p. 12°.

La contribution de l Amérique Latine au développement du droit international
public et privé. Par J. M. Yepes ... Paris, Librairie du Recueil Sirey, 1931.
109 p. (Extrait du Recueil des Cours, Académie de Droit International).

New magazines or magazines received for the first time were as
follows:

Boletin de la Direccién de Agricultura y Ganaderia (Ministerio de Fomento).
Lima. Ano 1, No. 1, septiembre—-octubre de 1931. (M.) 160p. ilus. 7x 9%
inches.

Salud y Sanidad (Publicacién mensual del Departamento Nacional de Higiene;
Seccién de Uncinariasis, para la propaganda y vulgarizacién de la higiene publica
y privada). Bogotdé, Colombia. Afio 1, No. 1, marzo de 1932. 12 p. ilus.
634 x 9% inches.

El Motor (Organo del Sindicato Central Nacional de Chéferes). Bogotd,
Colombia. (M.) 30p. ilus. 6% x 9% inches.

La Casa de Montalvo (Organo de la Biblioteca de ‘‘ Autores Nacionales’’). Am-
bato, Ecuador. (M.) Afio 1, Nos. 6—7, enero-febrero de 1932. 88 p._ ilus.
7 x 10 inches.

El Obrero (Organo del ‘‘Obrero” Sport Club). San Cristébal, Estado Tachira.
Venezuela. (M.) Ano 1, No. 5, 1° de mayo de 1932. 16 p. 8% x 12 inches.

Boletin de Estadistica Municipal de la Ciudad del Rosario de Santa Fé (Oficina
de Hstadistica Municipal). Rosario de Santa Fé, juliode 1931. 29 p. 8% x 11
inches.

Resumen Agricola (Direccién General de Agricultura, Secretaria de Agricultura
y Fomento). México, D. F. (M.) [Vol. 1], No. 1, abril de 1932. 183 p. 8% x
10% inches.

Boletin del Reformatorio de Menores, Quito, Ecuador. Talleres Tipogrdficos
Nacionales, Afio 1, No. 1, marzo de 1932. 54 p. 7%4 x 10% inches.

Revista del Museo Nacional, Lima. [Vol. 1], No. 1, 1982. 124 p. ilus. 8%
x 11 inches.

Servir (Revista y boletin de informaciones de la Cruz Roja Juvenil Peruana).
Lima. (M.) Vol. 1, No. 1, mayo de 1932. 16p. ilus. 6%4 x 934 inches.

Antioquia Industrial (Revista mensual, érgano de la Asociacién de Industriales
de Medellin). Medellin, Colombia. Vol. 1, No. 3, noviembre de 1931. 32 p.
8% x 11% inches.

El Maestro Rural (Organo de la Secretaria de Educacién Ptblica). México,
D. F. (M.) Tomo 1, No. 1, 1° de marzo de 1932. 20. p. ilus. 9 x 13 inches.

La Brecha (Periédico de los Trabajadores de la Federacién de Sindicatos
Obreros del Distrito Federal). (Quincenal.) Amno1, No. 1, 1° de mayo de 19382.
8p. ilus. 12 x 16 inches.

Boletin Comercial, La Paz, Bolivia. Suspended publication from February 15,
1931, to May 1, 1932.

124832—32—Bull. 7——5

PAN AMERICAN PROGRESS

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Honor to the Liberators of America.—There has been formed in
Washington an organization to be known as ‘‘The Association for
Honoring the Liberators of the Nations of America.”’ The Honorary
Presidents of this Association are Elihu Root, former Secretary of
State of the United States; Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, President
of Columbia University, and Dr. L. 5. Rowe, Director General of the
Pan American Union.

The President of this Association is Dr. James Brown Scott, Secre-
tary of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. The
Honorary Secretary General is Dr. E. Gil Borges, Assistant Director
of the Pan American Union, and the Secretary is Mr. George A.
Finch, Assistant Secretary of the Carnegie Endowment for Inter-
national Peace.

The formation of this association during the period set apart for
the commemoration of the bicentenary of the birth of George Wash-
ington offers an opportunity to pay special tribute to the memory
of this outstanding patriot of the United States of America.

In the Hall of Patriots in the Pan American Union in Washington,
the nations forming the Union have each placed a bust of their out-
standing national hero. On November 2, 1932, will occur the
centenary of the death of José Matias Delgado, El Salvador’s rep-
resentative in this gallery of patriots. Delgado, regarded by El
Salvador as its foremost son and defender of liberty, is equally revered
throughout Central America as one of its heroes in its early struggle
against the rule of Spain.

“The Association for Honoring the Liberators of the Nations of
America”’ plans to commemorate the great anniversaries in the
history of the American nations, and it hopes to interest the students
in the educational institutions of the Americas in a more intensive
study of the great virtues and the outstanding events in the lives of
great national heroes. It is the plan of the association to establish
branches in the capital cities of all of the Americas, and to hold in
Washington during the month of October a function where special
tribute will be paid to the heroes whose centenaries of birth or death
are being commemorated during 1932.

518

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE

Inter-American Commercial Arbitration —Misunderstandings arising
out of business transactions between merchants of one country and
another have in the past been the source of much ill will. Controversies
between merchants in the United States and those in Latin America
regarding such subjects as prices, quality of merchandise shipped, and
terms of payment have frequently occurred and these disputes have
sometimes become bitter because there was no way for the seller and
the buyer to arbitrate. The recent establishment in New York of an
Inter-American Arbitration Tribunal under the auspices of the
American Arbitration Association and the Committee on Inter-
American Relations! is a long step toward the solution of these
controversies and the promotion of friendly commercial relations.

What the Inter-American Arbitration Tribunal proposes is to offer
an agency through which business men in the United States and the
representatives of business men in Latin America may arbitrate com-
mercial disputes under adequate legal safeguards, whenever both
parties have voluntarily agreed to arbitrate in the United States.
In other words, the business men of the other American Republics are
offered the national facilities now existing in the United States for the
arbitration of commercial controversies, this country’s arbitration
statutes providing that an arbitration agreement, whether in a primary
contract or in a submission agreement, is legally valid and enforceable
and that an award is enforceable as a judgment of the court when
rendered in conformity to the law. The success with which these
facilities have been administered by the American Arbitration Asso-
ciation is evident when one considers that during the last six years
2,567 controversies, involving millions of dollars, have been sub-
mitted to the American Arbitration Tribunal for arbitration and no

1 The Committee on Inter-American Relations was founded in New York by a group of prominent
American business men on March 6, 1930. Its purpose is not only to retain and increase United States trade
with Latin America, but also to promote a better and more practical understanding of the racial, cultural,
and intellectual characteristics of all the nations concerned in the growth and interchanges of the Western
Hemisphere. It has adopted a broad program covering the general fields of aviation, communications,
highways, cooperation with chambers of commerce and trade associations, education, and publicity. The
committee supports the Pan American Information Service, which sends news sheets in Spanish and
Portuguese to more than 900 daily newspapers throughout Latin America and releases to United States
papers translations of editorials and special articles which appear in the press of Latin America. It also
makes available to the Institute of International Education funds with which to bring to the United States
Latin American-college students in order that they may pass a year or two in schools of the United States
pursuing special courses. In connection with the National Foreign Trade Council the committee is at pres-
ent conducting a study of Latin American commercial, investment, and public credits. According to the
chairman of the committee, Gen. Palmer E. Pierce, the purpose of the study is not only to discover what
constructive measures may be undertaken now, but also to build up a better understanding in the
American countries of their mutual interests and relationships as a guard against future recurrences of the
present credit situation.

519

520 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

award rendered by the Tribunal has been vacated by the courts. The
proceedings in these disputes were conducted at an average cost-of
$35 to each party.

The Inter-American Tribunal will conduct its proceedings in
accordance with the rules of the American Arbitration Association,
which have been so carefully drawn as to be legally enforceable under
all Federal or State laws in the United States. In order to insure
absolute impartiality in the proceedings, an arbitration committee
of five members is being selected, two of which will represent the
United States and three the other American Republics. This com-
mittee will have charge of the conduct of the tribunal and of the
proceedings under its rules.

To assure the availability of impartial arbitrators, the first step
in the establishment of the tribunal was to select a permanent Inter-
American Panel of Arbitrators which now comprises over 150 care-
fully chosen men. The nominations for the panel were made by the
consuls-general representing American Republics in New York and
by members of the Inter-American Commercial Arbitration Council
of the American Arbitration Association. Every country in the West-
ern Hemisphere is represented. In order to keep down the cost of
arbitration, which will be between 1 or 2 per cent of the amount of
the claim or less, and to insure no private relationship or interest
between parties and arbitrators, these arbitrators have agreed to
serve without compensation, in the belief that by so doing they are
making a genuine contribution to inter-American commercial under-
standing.

Mr. Herman G. Brock, vice president of the Guaranty Trust Co.
and vice chairman of the Inter-American Commercial Arbitration
Council, in outlining the plans for the tribunal at a recent luncheon
at the Bankers Club in New York, described how the tribunal will
operate when a dispute arises which the parties wish to submit to
arbitration. ‘If the controversy,’’ he said, ‘‘arises under an arbi-
tration clause in a contract or under a submission agreement, the
party desiring arbitration communicates with the clerk of the tri-
bunal, making a demand for arbitration. The clerk then gets in
touch with the other party or his agent, representative, or attorney
in the United States, and arrangements are made for a statement of
the issue and for a hearing. According to the nature of the case
and the kind of qualifications required in the arbitrators, the clerk
prepares a list of 10 or 15 arbitrators which he submits to each party
with instructions to cross off the names of any persons for any reasons
not desirable. From the remaining names on both lists, the arbi-
trators are appointed, and if one list is not sufficient, others are sub-
mitted. When the arbitrators have been selected, a date is set for
the hearing and the arbitration then carried through to completion.”’

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE all

Besides providing in advance facilities for the dealing with con-
troversies arising under arbitration clauses used in inter-American
commercial contracts, the tribunal will also serve as a center of ex-
periment and education through the actual conduct of inter-American
arbitrations which might be helpful in devising a method for cooperat-
ing organizations in other American Republics.

The Fourth Pan American Commercial Conference, which met at
the Pan American Union from October 5, to 13, 1931, recommended
that the Pan American Union have a thorough inquiry made as to
the possibilities of the commercial interests of the American Repub-
lics joining in the support and active use of a system of arbitration
to be utilized in trade disputes between all countries.

Pursuant to this resolution the Pan American Union has under-
taken a comprehensive inquiry covering every phase of commercial
arbitration in the American Republics. With the cooperation of the
American Arbitration Association, a study is being made of existing
legislation covering commercial arbitration in all countries and ques-
tionnaires and inquiries have been directed to commercial associa-
tions, lawyers, educators, business men, and economists with a view
to determining the possibilities of extending the use of arbitration in
the settlement of trade disputes.

The results of this survey will be submitted to the Seventh Inter-
national Conference of American States, which will meet at Monte-
video, Uruguay, in December, 1933. <A topic on this subject has
been incorporated in the program of the Montevideo Conference.

Ten Points in Argentine Economics.—Dr.-Alejandro E. Bunge, the
well-known Argentine economist, opened the sessions of the National
Academy of Economics of the University of Buenos Aires last April
with a lecture, published in the May, 1932, issue of the Revista de
Keonomia Argentina, in which he analyzed the relative position of
ARGENTINA in the face of the present world-wide depression. In
the same manner that international disturbances at the beginning of
the last century were the starting point of Argentine political inde-
pendence, the present crisis, he says, will mark the beginning of the
economic liberation of his country. According to Doctor Bunge, the
following 10 points in the economic structure of Argentina favor the
country in this undertaking and place her in a relatively privileged
economic position:

1. “Among civilized countries Argentina has one of the smallest
public debts, taking into consideration the number of its inhabitants
and its productive capacity.” In support of this statement Doctor
Bunge, among other things, points out that the total national, pro-
vincial, municipal, consolidated and floating, internal and foreign
debt of Argentina amounts to $167 per capita, as compared with $204
per capita for Italy, $224 for Canada, $289 for the United States,

Sy THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

$361 for France, $863 for Australia, and $930 for the United King-
dom.

In his opinion there are three unfavorable aspects of the debt
question: (1) A large proportion of the public debt is foreign and
must be paid in gold in addition to the gold payments that must be
made because of the large sums of foreign capital invested in the
country; (2) the floating debt amounts to about 1,300,000,000
paper pesos and is a serious hindrance to business, labor, and bank-
ing; and (3) the decline in the price of export products and the
rise of the foreign exchange rate have been equivalent in their effects
to the addition of 1,000,000,000 paper pesos to the public debt.
He suggests two remedies: No more foreign loans for a number of
years and the consolidation of the floating debt.

2. “The inhabitants of Argentina have a smaller tax burden than
those of the majority of countries, considered in relation to both
their number and their economic capacity.”’ The total cost of the
national, provincial, and municipal governments of Argentina has
increased five fold in the last 30 years, from 260,000,000 to 1,300,000,000
paper pesos. In the meantime the population has only doubled, thus
in one generation the tax load each inhabitant must carry has in-
creased two and a half times. This burden, says Doctor Bunge, is
in reality not so heavy, because the economic capacity of each inhabi-
tant, measured in terms of the value of national production, has
doubled. To prove that national production has increased four times
in 30 years, Doctor Bunge mentions the amount of freight transported
by the railways, which increased from 12,000,000 tons in 1900 to
53,000,000 tons in 1927 and 44,000,000 tons in 1931, and the growth
of the export trade in volume and value. Thus, public expenditures
have increased only somewhat more than 25 per cent in relation to the
economic capacity of each inhabitant. This increase in the cost of
government, it is pointed out, is universal and has been attributed in
part to armaments and wars and in part to the increasing State regu-
lation of and participation in commerce and industry. Argentina, in
the opinion of Doctor Bunge, has fared better in this respect than
many other countries. While there the public expenditures—which,
including those of the provinces and municipalities, now amount to
1,300,000,000 pesos a year—represent at par $44 per inhabitant, in
France they amount to $49; in Canada, to $61; in the United States,
to $82; in the United Kingdom, to $104; and in Australia, to $151.
He makes three reservations to this advantage: The system of taxa-
tion, which he finds inconvenient and unfair and believes should be
modified; the fact that an excessive portion of the revenue derived
from taxation is devoted to salaries, pensions, and State monopolies
which do not benefit the country; and finally that the general decline
in prices is equivalent to an abrupt and important tax increase, as in
the case of the public debt. ‘‘If the value and the income from a

FINANCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 523
piece of property,” says Doctor Bunge, ‘‘has decreased 30 per cent,
the tax on that property, since it has remained the same, may be
said to have increased practically py 30 per cent.”’

“The present deficit in the national and provincial budgets are,
compared with the revenue, relatively extremely low and very easy to
make up.” In support of this statement Doctor Bunge says that the
deficit which was to be met this year amounted to only 15 per cent of
the national budget, while in the United States it was nearly 45 per
cent. Doctor Bunge bases his contention that the Argentine deficits
are relatively easier to meet on the reasons with which he suppers
oe INfon 2

. “Argentina is one of the most eminently peaceful nations and
= now a greater incentive to maintain that position, with incalcu-
lable benefit to its economy and finances.’ Thecost of national defense
in Argentina amounts to only 10 to 15 per cent of the national and
provincial public expenditures.

“The number of unemployed in comparison with the working
population is smaller in our country than in Germany, England, the
United States, and other countries considered among the principal
world economic powers.” ‘‘The reason is simple,’ says Doctor
Bunge. ‘While those countries have had to reduce their production,
Argentina increased the volume of its agricultural products in 1931,
and by substituting its own products for those that were formerly
imported, is constantly increasing its manufacturing activities.” He
admits, however, that since agricultural products have been sold
during the last two years at prices very near or below cost, it will be
harder this winter for rural occupations to absorb the unemployed.
As an emergency relief measure he advocates the building of roads
financed through a bond issue secured by the gasoline tax.

6. “‘Argentina is one of the few exporting countries so far able to
export all its surplus production; even in 1931, when national agri-
cultural production reached a new record, exports were 70 per cent
greater than in 1930.”

7. “Argentina is one of the few countries which in the midst of the
world depression has been able to change in one year an unfavorable
trade balance of 125,000,000 gold pesos into a favorable balance of
123,000,000 gold pesos.”

8. ‘Argentina is one of the few countries in the world capable of
diversifying production in a few years and capturing a near-by and
important market: its own.’ Doctor Bunge estimates that until
recently only about 60 per cent of what Argentina consumed was
produced in the country, the remaining 40 per cent being purchased
abroad. During 1931, he says, this ratio was changed to 85 and 15
per cent, respectively, and during 1932 it will probably be 90 and 10.

9. “Argentina is one of the few countries whose internal resources
for financing the national and provincial governments and national

524 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

industries are practically untouched.” Up to 1910, the economic
development of the country was so rapid that people invested their
money chiefly in the expansion of their own business. The period that
followed was one of relative stagnation coupled with large profits, a
combination which encouraged saving. By 1921 saving deposits had
reached 1,000,000,000 paper pesos and a like sum was invested in bonds.
In the 10-year period from 1921 to 1931 saving deposits doubled and
the money invested in bonds reached 3,000,000,000 pesos. These
savings were first used mainly to develop the import trade, the oldest
and best organized branch of commerce in the Republic; now, Doctor
Bunge believes, they are beginning to be available for the promotion
of agriculture and industry and the purchase of national and provincial
bonds. [In this connection it is interesting to note that an unofficial
announcement from Buenos Aires dated June 12 says that the first
series, amounting to one-fifth of the 500,000,000-peso patriotic loan,
has been oversubscribed.]

10. ‘Finally, Argentina is a well-organized country which has suf-
fered comparatively little curtailment in its exceptionally high per
capita production; it shows one of the highest population increases,
and, therefore, has one of the largest annual increases in consumption
capacity.”

Commenting upon Doctor Bunge’s lecture The Review of the River
Plate, a Buenos Aires English weekly says:

The vital point made by Ing. Bunge was the inevitably beneficial outcome of
Argentina’s relative financial self-reliance—an enforced self-reliance, if you will,
in consequence of which a country with the backing of this country’s resources
must and will find a way out. The manner in which the country has reduced its
imports without having to suffer unbearable privation is too significant to be
overlooked. ...On broad-minded analysis of the situation of many countries,
great and small, Argentina is striving as well as the best of them in its endeavor

to pull through. If, as we believe, that was the final conclusion which Ing. Bunge
sought to uphold in his lecture, then we are of the opinion that he made his point

<i ooea—__—_-

LABOR

Exght-hour Day Regulations for Brazilian Workers—During May
Brazit joined the ranks of those countries which have made the
observance of the 8-hour day compulsory in all industrial establish-
ments.

The Brazilian decree, signed by Getulio Vargas, chief of the
Provisional Government, on May 4, 1932, provides that the working
day in industrial establishments may not commence before 5 a. m.
nor end later than 10 p. m. and shall normally be of eight hours
duration.

The working week, according to the decree, shall consist of 48 hours
so arranged that for each period of six working-days there shall be one

LABOR 525

day of obligatory rest. The weekly rest period shall have a minimum
length of 24 consecutive hours and shall be observed on Sunday, save
where in consideration of public interest or because of the peculiar
nature of the industry a different plan has been agreed upon by em-
ployer and employee. The weekly rest period may be suspended if
necessary to prevent accidents or to effect urgent repairs.

Exception to the regulations on the normal length of the working
day or week will be made in cases of members of the same family who
are engaged in manual labor and personnel occupying specialized
executive, administrative, or confidential positions.

The division of the working week is not necessarily arbitrary; it may
be made in any way provided that no working-day exceeds 10 hours
and the amount of the wages is not increased.

The normal length of the working-day may be increased to 10 hours
or 60 hours a week should an agreement or collective labor contract
between the employer and the employees to this end and provision
for the payment of additional wages be made. The working-day in
unhealthful industries or those carried on underground may not exceed
eight hours.

In exceptional instances the working-day may be extended to 12
hours. These include cases involving certain sections of industrial
establishments where overtime work is necessary for finishing the
work of other sections or vital because delay would result in the
impairment of raw materials or articles in process of manufacture.
Arrangements for an increase in wages for the extra time are to be
made by agreements between the employer and employees or by
collective labor contracts.

Any industrial establishment may be run continuously provided its
employees work on shifts.

Length of night work shall not exceed seven hours except in indus-
trial plants working both day and night and in those subject to special
regulations issued by the Minister of Labor, Industry, and Commerce.

In certain industries the normal length of the working-day may be
divided into two periods with an intervening rest period lasting at
least three hours, provided that the actual working time shall not
exceed 10 hours.

Night as well as day work shall be divided by an interval for rest or
lunch. This period shall not be computed in the normal length of
the working time and shall be at least half an hour.

Whenever there is a forced interruption of work resulting from an
accident or force majeur, the length of subsequent working-days may
be increased until the lost time has been made up. The length of no
working-day, however, shall be increased by more than two hours.

The decree states that its provisions shall not affect the working-day
in maritime trades, agricultural industries, general transportation

526 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

activities, mining, and the operation of Federal, State, or municipal
public utilities in charge of private corporations; working conditions
in these industries are subject to special regulations issued by the
Minister of Labor, Industry, and Commerce.

EDUCATION

Résumé of Government Educational Activities During 1931.—Meet-
ing a need whose importance is constantly gaining wider recognition
among the mass of the people of every land, educational authorities
throughout Latin America carried on an extensive work during the
year 1931 for the advancement of education, and their programs,
while relatively unspectacular, were, nevertheless, highly praiseworthy.
Unfavorable economic conditions necessitated the curtailment of a
few of the less vital activities and militated against the establish-
ment of others which had been authorized; however, former high
standards were generally maintained and many truly forward-
looking measures were adopted. Reports on the activities of the
Departments of Public Education of three of the Central American
Republics and Cuba, Paraguay, and Venezuela‘ as presented to the
legislative branch of the respective Governments either by the
Presidents in their annual messages or as a separate report of the
department, reflect a decidedly optimistic note.

In a message to the National Legislative Assembly on March 1,
1932, President Jorge Ubico, of GuaATEMALA, stated that perhaps the
most outstanding measures taken by his Government in the interest
of education during the year had been the creation of a museum of
archeology, ethnology, and history and the designation of various
pre-Colombian remains in different parts of the Republic as national
monuments. A board of censors to pass on theatrical performances
open to children was organized and a school dental service established.

Other laws, decrees, and regulations issued during the year included
the Organic Law of the National University, with a decree approving
its statutes, a regulation creating the degree of Expert Accountant,
and a decree providing for the presentation of a series of lectures on
subjects of scientific, artistic, or general educational interest to be
given in the university and other schools as well as broadcast for the
benefit of the public as a whole. In order to secure suitably trained
teachers, orders were issued making it necessary for all. persons not
having a teacher’s certificate to pass a special examination before
they may teach and giving the preference in the filling of high positions
to teachers trained in normal schools.

1 A report on educational activities of the Uruguayan Government is to be found in the June, 1932, issue
of the BULLETIN.

EDUCATION ST

The National University functioned regularly during the year;
714 students were enrolled in its various schools, and its graduates
numbered 16. The enrollment in the normal, secondary, and special
schools totaled 4,769; 368 students completed their courses during the
year. These last represented:

Primary teachers, 141; kindergarten teachers, 2; teachers of trades,
11; teachers of lower primary grades, 27; bookkeepers, 12; experi
accountants, 4; and others, 186.

The Division of Rural and Indigenous Education maintained 957
rural schools during the year. These had an enrollment of 25,693
and an average attendance of 24,179. The Division of Educational
Extension and the Division of Preparatory and Urban Primary
Education functioned as usual. Among other duties, the Division of
Educational Extension had charge of 36 Government libraries located
at different places throughout the Republic.

The primary schools of the Republic, which numbered 2,410 and
were staffed by 3,396 teachers, had an enrollment of 110,890 pupils
and an average attendance of 102,029.

Government primary schools to a total of 1,281 were opened at the
beginning of the 1931 school year in Honpuras, according to a state-
ment made by President Mejia Colindres in January, 1932. The
secondary, normal, and vocational schools functioned regularly. So
successful has been the work of the kindergartens in the capital and
Comayagtiela that it has been decided to establish others in each of
the principal cities of the Republic. At the end of October, separate
accounts were established for the funds of the University, the National
Institute, and the School of Commerce. This is expected to give
these institutions greater economic independence and consequently a
greater amount of self-government.

According to the annual report of the Secretary of Justice and
Public Instruction of Et Satvapor there were 924 official, 85 munici-
pal, and 119 private schools, with a total average attendance of
40,078 students, functioning in the Republic during the 1931 school
year. These schools were staffed by 1,698 teachers, and their
enrollment and attendance by class of school were as follows:

Average
Eaton attend-
ance

UPls@im lOOWE? SOOO. 2 Se ee te Eee en ee ee 17, 208 11,177
Urban girls’ schools____________- SSS oy ERS 8 ee eee eee eS oe ee ees 19, 310 14, 231
VTA OVSASCHOO Sas eee Ue ee ee Be ee Pee 8, 699 | 5, 875
INGoell RIE? SelM O 2s Ms SE se ne ees ne ee ek eee 11, 609 8, 795
1h. bell een Raed pee Meee nee Set SR ee re re ne eR ES 56, 826 40, 078

The number of school buildings occupied by the official schools at
the present time is 886. The majority of these have a reading room

528 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

and a library containing recreational reading material and reference
works for both teachers and pupils.

A fund of 50,000 colones has been appropriated for the establish-
ment of a trade school, but as yet the unfavorable economic conditions
have prevented any definite action being taken toward its organization.

During the year normal courses were offered in the Boys’ Normal
School, the Girls’ Normal School, and the Maria Auxiliadora School
in San Salvador, and the Santa Inés School in Santa Tecla. A greater
interest manifest in the need for especially trained teachers has also
made possible the opening of teaching courses in Santiago de Maria
and in Santa Ana, and classes in pedagogy are now also being given in
a number of the secondary schools.

Courses in arts, sciences, and business have been continued regu-
larly in the 52 different secondary schools. The National Institute,
the most important secondary school in the Republic, had an enroll-
ment of 363 pupils during the past year. The total number of students
in all the secondary schools was 1,119. The girls’ vocational school
reported an enrollment of 123 pupils for the year; its average atten-
dance was 109. Other schools whose work during the year deserved
special mention were the Froebel School, the National School of Fine
Arts, the National Music School, and the School of Dramatics.

Under the direction of the National Commission of Physical Cul-
ture, physical education is being widely developed throughout the
Republic, and as a result it is now difficult to find a town, no matter
how small, where there is not some athletic or club organization.

During the year, 10,440 readers used the National Library, while
the reading rooms in San Salvador and other places throughout the
Republic reported having been visited by 23,956 persons.

There were 3,767 public primary schools in Cusa during the year
1930-31, according to a statement made by the President of the Repub-
lic in his message to Congress on April 4, 1932. The total enrollment
of the primary schools, which were staffed by 7,572 teachers, was
434,219 and the average attendance was 249,199. The enrollment
by grades in the regular primary schools was as follows:

Grade: Number pupils
Kandergarten 2.22.22 = 95-) =. 2. we ae 28, 274
Rirsteovades Sie. eo. Sa a se 171, 842
secondsorades co 2 ssi eu ine Ue i ee ee 95, 222
(hindierdd@.c i ah sae Sy Ss ee ka ee 66, 729
Hourthvoradeso) 22.255 SiS fa ee ee ee 42, 083
Fifthigrade.20 5.22220 2 oe

Sixthrenrad @2 1x sey es. © i ele ee ee ee ee 9, 312

EDUCATION 529

Sixty-seven teachers spent their whole time in itinerant teaching
during the year, serving schools where it was thought inadvisable to
maintain a permanent instructor. This was true of 145 communities;
through the work: of: the: itinerant teacher the population’ of school
age was given an opportunity to obtain educational advantages.
The enrollment in the schools thus taught totaled 3,089 and their
average attendance was 2,376.

Night schools throughout the Republic numbered 94, with an en-
rollment of 7,393 and an average attendance of 3,113. Classes were
also held in various penal institutions to afford the prisoners an ele-
mentary education. The enrollment in the prison schools totaled
2,277. While as a rule the prison school was called upon to serve
persons of all ages, the majority of the pupils were adults.

Special teachers totaled 834; included among them were 711 regu-
lar and assistant kindergarten teachers, 36 English teachers, 15 in-
structors in sloyd, 50 sewing teachers, and 18 regular and assistant
domestic science teachers.

Upper primary schools, of which there were 31 in the Republic,
had an enrollment of 7,236 and an average attendance of 4,744.
Their teaching staff numbered 363.

A total of 457 private schools submitted statistical reports to the
Department of Public Instruction during the year. According to the
information thus received, these schools have an enrollment of
26,622 pupils and an average attendance of 22,793. They were
staffed by 1,483 teachers.

Much is being done at the present time in educational circles for
the encouragement of agriculture and thrift. A large number of
the schools have gardens and experimental fields where the pupils
are taught the principles of agriculture, and many have also estab-
lished savings banks. The school library and museum are likewise
coming to be considered necessary adjuncts to every modern teaching
center, and the number of parent-teachers’ associations is constantly
growing. At present there are over 61,000 volumes in the school
libraries in the provinces of Habana, Matanzas, Santa Clara, Cama-
giiey, and Oriente; figures for those in Pinar del Rio were not given.
The selection of books for these libraries calls for careful planning
on the part of those in charge; that they shall afford entertaining as
well as wholesome and instructive reading material has become one of
the outstanding considerations in the choice of books for their shelves.
In some cities the school authorities have had the libraries thrown
open to the general public also, in order that the facilities may be
enjoyed by the adult population as well.

530 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The number of school gardens, libraries, museums, and parent-
teachers’ associations by provinces is as follows:

Parent-

a F Bae ty teachers’

Province Gardens | Libraries | Museums aaaniiee

tions

LEAMA ONOUSIN SAKO)S sees 5 see eee eee a ot ee ee Se See ee 37 27 322 161
TEVA ei es a a he ee eI ee ee 267 430 459 377
Via CAN Z aS Oo: 2 as oe a Seek ane Se eee eee eae ee 276 309 402 245
Santa: @larae = Sede te 2 8 so ie SU Oe eae eee eee 569 562 600 522
@amac ti eyc eee es 2 SESS 5 oe ae ee Aa eS oe es Seen See 112 99 102 125
OnTiente sos ae Fe sae ere ee Be LE ee se SS 125 117 215 238
HINGHAM SRN Mie ee a ny ee en er ate Ee | 1,888 1, 544 2, 100 1, 668

According to the message of President Guggiari on the occasion
ef the opening of Congress on April 1, 1932, there are 108,741 chil-
dren enrolled in the primary schools of Paraguay at the present
time; 20,000 of this number are in attendance in the schools of
Asuncion and the remainder attend the rural schools.

Besides the normal, trade, and agricultural schools, of which
mention is made below, the secondary and special schools of the
Republic include the National University and the secondary schools
in Asuncion and Villarrica.

There are six normal schools in Paraguay, with an enrollment of
736, engaged in training teachers for the primary schools. One of
these, the National Teachers College located in Asuncion, offers
classes particularly adapted for those who have taught before finish-
ing their training, and another, the normal school at Barrero Grande,
carries on interesting work in connection with its experimental farm.
An important activity of normal schools at present is the adoption
of new systems of child psychology and the application of the Dalton
plan and the Winnetka method in the practice schools.

Trade schools for women now number 23 and have an enrollment
of 659 students. While they are generally known as private insti-
tutions, they receive Government support and are more or less under
the supervision of the Government.

The agricultural schools, maintained in Trinidad and Concepcion,
offer three general courses. The first, an elementary course, covers
two years and provides a theoretical and practical background for
persons wishing to engage in farming along scientific principles.
Students are taught the use of various farming implements, methods
of selecting seed, crop rotation, horticulture, stock raising, and other
related industries. The secondary and upper classes treat the sub-
ject from a viewpoint of greater specialization and provide an ade-
quate training for the agricultural expert or teacher of the subject.

The statistical information on public education in VENEZUELA
during the year 1931, submitted to Congress by the Director of the

SUBJECT MATTER OF CONSULAR REPORTS 531

Bureau of Primary, Secondary and Normal Instruction of the Ministry
of Public Instruction, was as follows:

Average | Number
attend- of
ance teachers

Number | Enroll-
of schools} ment

Primary schools:

ihederalterad edischoolSeees snes e na ena eee eae 170 27, 200 19, 248 839
Federal schools with 1 teacher___--------------------------- 1, 230 52, 734 36, 293 1, 230
SiatelschoolSe-ea- =a aoa ows oe a a. Sanaa ese aaeee 329 10, 985 7, 945 349
ViIMICI Pals Ch QO] Sse sencacossssescssssss 194 8, 611 6, 296 286
Schools maintained by private funds giving free instruc-
i OMMe eer a See Ss ee ea Sac ee tae eee 107 8, 865 7, 800 425
IPT ELHD SOOO) oe 5 es See eee eee 124 5, 386 4, 626 187
IR (ell es eee Seve a Set dea Wr ee aS Fa Me oe a 2,154 | 113,781 | 82,208 3, 316
Secondary instruction:
Federal secondary schools-_--------------------------------- 18 1, 029 908 215
PTV AbeIsecondanysSCHOO] Sees eae ae ee 18 624 582 92
M1 teller eee ee ee ee ne ek See es Se 36 1, 653 1, 490 307
Normal instruction: Normal schools for primary teachers----_-- 2 152 146 35
Higher instruction: —
SChoolslofppoliticaliscien'cewess ae ee eee ee re 3 21 19 9
LWMTVErSITIESo een ESE Nt a a a one ele ee ® 976 696 139
yIk@ (alleen neta a So es Se Ee ee Ee I 5 997 715 148

Special instruction:

Wommlercialischools=s=s--4=- 5225-2 ee 3 441 344 25
piinadesischoolSmae eae as ee ea ae we ee ee ee 2 1, 249 553 82
SChHOOMOMG OMICS hi Clan eee ee ae eee 1 15 8 1
Schoollofplasticiantse sess = ee ene ne een eee Ee 1 158 80 4
School of music and public speaking_______________________- 1 866 282 26

BRO Calera ate nae ae ee Coe ek ees eS he 8 2, 729 1, 267 138

SUBJECT MATTER OF CONSULAR REPORTS

REPORTS RECEIVED TO MAY 16, 1932

Subject Date Author

ARGENTINA

1932

Excerpt from report on general conditions prevailing in Argen- | May - 6 Embassy, Buenos Aires.
tina from April 19 to May 2,1932. (Funds for the Olympic
Games. Andine eruptions.)

Tradein Argentine grapes. (Article published in La Nacion and | May 24 Do.
dated New York, May 17.)

BRAZIL

Excerpt from report on general conditions prevailing in Brazil | Apr. 6 | Embassy, Rio de Janeiro.
from March 11 to April 6, 1932. (American Rotary Club of Rio
de Janeiro gives library of juvenile books to the ‘‘ United States

School.’’)
CHILE
Internal communications in the Valparaiso district______________ Apr. 18 | Frank A. Henry, consul at
Valparaiso.
COLOMBIA

Highway construction—Department of Narifio-_-----___________ Feb. 8 | H. D. Myers, vice consul at
Buenaventura.
Cartagena Harbor improvements and port works__-_____________ May 7 | Stephen C. Worster, vice con

sul at Cartagena.

D932

THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Reports received to May 16, 1932—Continued

Subject Date Author
COSTA RICA
1932
Establishment of school of science in Costa Rica -__-____________- May 3/ Legation.
CUBA
Decrease in Cuban postage rates________________________________ May 25| F. T. F. Dumont, consul
general at Habana.
ADaheiat EVO GENS Thal Ibe VATA = ee June 3 | Embassy.
ECUADOR
Decree of Ecuadorean Government establishing control of ex- ; May 2 | Legation.
change.
EL SALVADOR
Appointment of a commercial agent for El Salvador in the | May 27 Do.
United States. (Reports received to June 15, 1932.)
GUATEMALA
Charges increased for international postal money orders _______-- Apr. 28 | G. K. Donald, consul general
: at Guatemala City.
Decree re tuition in secondary schools__________________________- Apr. 28 | Legation.
Government to charge for secondary education_________________- Apr. 28 Do.
Free entry granted to certain products of Salvadorean origin ______ May 9 Do.
Miia ON? Ol CURTIN). <3 eee Sask May 19} Wm. E. Flourney, Jr., vice
consul at Guatemala City.
HAITI
Report by Dr. N. D. Barker on the progress of experiment to | Apr. 27 | Donald R. Heath, consul at
develop a long-staple cotton and prospective market value Port-au-Prince.
thereof.
Excerpt from report on general conditions in Haiti for the period | May 9) Legation.
from April 1 to April 30, 1932. (General financial and economic
conditions.)
PERU
l2@rUhnn GunloOyadernt NON = esses eset Apr. 23 | Wm. C. Burdett, consul gen-
eral at Callao—Lima.
URUGUAY
Excerpt from report on general conditions prevailingin Uruguay | May 4 | Legation.
for April, 1932. (Pan American Day Celebration. Dr. John
D. Long in Montevideo.)
VENEZUELA
Excerpt from report on general conditions in Venezuela for April, | Apr. 4 | Legation.
1932. (Pan American Day.)
Annual message of Venezuelan President to Congress____________ | May 2 Do.
Public works in the State of Sucré__-.-______________________-__.- May 11 Do.
Annual report of the Minister of the Interior___-________________ May 18 Do.
Annual report of the Minister of Finance for the year 1931_______ May 18 Do.
Election of officials for the second period of the National Congress_| May 19 Do.
Report of National Frontier Inspector for Venezuela along the | May 24 Do.

Brazilian-British Guiana frontier.

TTI gemciee tama HR MOON ONAIIN:

ee ans
boxe’ Ler iG GF \eu
S= BULLETIN

OF THE

PAN AMERICAN
UNION

LAKE AMATITLAN, GUATEMALA

OUVAINS TC SOON TT aL ORO RON CIN IAOO WET OA AVIS OD)

AUGUST | Baa A

Pace nC UUEIMA NON

Poce

ORS :

emer uN
CUUU ue UUU NU UU, CCU OS

GOVERNING:-BOARD-OF-THE

PAN-AMERICAN
UNION

Mr. Henry L. Stimson, Chairman

Argentina______---- Sefior Don Feurpr A. Espin,
1806 Corcoran Street, Washington, D. C.

Holiviasssees ieee Sefior Don Luis O. ABELI,
2830 Forty-fourth Street, Washington, D. C.

Bravilin steers Snohr. Dr. R. pe Lima & Sinva,
Mitchell Cottage, Magnolia Avenue, Manchester, Mass.

Chilestnceotettsieiee: Sefior Dr. Miaunnt CrucHaga

TOCORNAL,

2154 Florida Avenue, Washington, D. C.

Colombia__.--.---- Sefior Dr. Fasro Lozano,
Hill Building, Washington, D. C.

Costa Rica_.-.--_-- Sefior Don Manvurt GonzALeEz,

. 3451 Newark Street, Washington, D.C.
ene eee ets Sefior Dr. José T. Barén,

2630 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. O.

Dominican Republic. Sefior Dr. Roprrto DESPRADEL,
Woodward Building, Washington, D. C.

Heviadorsg22eiu 28s 2 Sefior Don GonzaLo ZALDUMBIDE,
2633 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
El Salvador____---- Sefior Don Rosrerto D. MELENDEZ,
National Press Building, Washington, D. C.
Guatemala_.___.._- Sefior Dr. Apri4n RECINOS,
1614 Eighteenth Street, Washington, D.C.
Haitiesverssacoeus M. Dant&s BELLEGARDE,
1703 Q Street, Washington, D. C.
Hondurasiceien sos Sefior Dr. Cttsro DAvita,
1100 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C. :
IMexiG@oss. 2 tay ow Sefior Don Panto HERRERA DE HUERTA,
2829 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
Nicaragua.$...---..- Sefior Dr. Luis M. Drsayun,
1711 New Hampshire Avenues, Washington, D. C.
Panama oe Sefior Dr. Horacio F. ALFARO,
1535 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C.
Paracnayn oe Sefior Don Pasto Max. YNSFRAN,
1726 Irving Street, Washington, D. C.
PONE ccc esa ares Sefior Don M. pz FrEYRE y SANTANDER,
1300 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
United States__.__. Mr. Henry L. Stimson,
Department of State, Washington, D. C.
TURNS yc Sefior Don Jos& RicH1ina,
17 Battery Place, New York City.
Venezuela_________- Sefior Dr. Pepro Manvurt Arcaya,

1628 Twenty-first Street, Washington, D. C.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

The President of Costa Rica, Sefior Don Ricardo Jiménez_____ ==

Inter-American Financial and Economic Stability._______________________
By William Manger, Ph. D., Chief, Division of Financial Information, Pan American
Union.

Marke tin gains a eee ary a cs 2 Resi LOS We elie ee ae a ok Sod

MHeIGOldsRiviersvor Hondurasee- ees = ee ee ee eee
By A. Hooton Blackiston.

Hemi smeinvAreentinave. 822. oo os Dee ye eees foe eS ee
By Ada Strozzi.

Argentine Ports and Industries (Photographs)________________________
RaneAmencansDay, L932. 2220 ue aes es Le ee en kk

By Enrique Coronado Suarez, Assistant Editor BOLETIN de la Union Panamericana.
Columbus Memorial Library Notes___________________________________
Pan American Progress:

PARC TCU GUT e eee erie sera oper Re Agee abc Enc aes Me een ee, sad) ae) Soe ee
The Department of Agriculture of Ecuador—Brazilian coffee developments.

hinancevand Commerce 2.228) ee ee
Brazil abolishes internal tariff barriers—Guatemala modifies its subsidiary currency.

IBY CUT ex Gi C1 epee tio eee ne es a ey ad EDU I, Se Rw NAS ee Se
New schools and courses—Centenary of girls’ school.

Brazilian regulations on work of women in industry.
The Argentine Red Cross and its Work____________________________-
INE CIO ll 2a Parmer eea eae trees tay or tee One See On a ee a
Subject Matter of Consular Reports________________________----------

Page
533

534

553

599

565

568
572

579

582

588

591

595

596
602
604

HIS EXCELLENCY SENOR DON RICARDO JIMENEZ -
Inaugurated President of Costa Rica May 8, 1932.

4a STP =,
S's eten 1000? MD OSC ZS Ama

Vou. LXVI AUGUST, 1932 No. 8

RICARDO JIMENEZ OREAMUNO,
PRESIDENT OF COSTA RICA

N MAY 8, 1932, Dr. Ricardo Jiménez Oreamuno was for the

third time inaugurated President of Costa Rica. In 1910 and
again in 1924 he had been the people’s choice, and this year, in the
midst of the difficulties with which Costa Rica, like every nation, is
confronted, his fellow citizens once more elected ‘‘Don Ricardo,” as
he is affectionately called, to be their leader for the next four years.
This third term is an unprecedented distinction to a citizen of Costa
Rica. President Jiménez is also the only man ever to have held the
three highest offices in the country’s gift—those of President of the
Congress, Chief Justice, and President of the Republic.

To understand why these marks of confidence have been bestowed
on President Jiménez one has only to glance back over his long and
fruitful career, which began in 1885 with his appointment as Minister
to Mexico. Later he was Minister to Nicaragua and El Salvador and
delegate with the rank of Minister Plenipotentiary to the Central
American Congress in 1888. First called to the cabinet in 1889 as
Minister of Foreign Affairs, he has likewise held the portfolios of the
Interior, Public Works, Public Instruction, and the Treasury. As a
lawyer he won deep respect and esteem, both in private practice and
as the head of the National School of Law. Now, at the age of 73,
he places at the command of the country his ripened experience, fine
intelligence, and high civic ideals.

From colonial days public service has been a tradition in the family
of President Jiménez; one of his ancestors, the famous explorer Juan
Vazquez de Coronado, was Alcalde Mayor of Costa Rica in 1563,
dying in 1565 as he returned to be governor; a maternal grandfather,
Sefior Francisco Maria Oreamuno, was President of the Republic, and
Don Jestis Jiménez twice occupied the office which his son now holds.

533

INTER-AMERICAN FINANCIAL AND
ECONOMIC STABILITY

By Wiutiram Mancer, Pu. D.

Chief, Division of Financial Information, Pan American Union

HE past few years have witnessed a severe disruption of the

economic and financial structure of the nations of the world.
Nowhere have the effects of such changes been more severely felt than
in the Republics of Latin America. To a degree greater than most
countries, these nations are influenced by forces operating in the
world at large, and fundamental changes in finance, industry, and
commerce in other regions are strongly reflected in the economic
situation of each nation of the American Continent.

The Republics of Latin America are primarily producers of raw
materials, which are disposed of in the industrialized nations of
HKurope and in the United States. Manufacturing is still in its early
stages in most of the countries, and in the sale of the products of their
fields, their mines, and their forests, they are subject to the many
varying influences governing prices in world markets. Over most of
these influences they exercise little or no control, and in this respect
they are unfortunate. For countries whose national income is so
largely dependent on the production of raw materials are subject to
a greater extent than are industrialized nations to fluctuations in
economic activity. The entire economic life of the nation revolves
around the income derived from the disposal of these raw materials
in the markets of the world, and an inability to make such disposal,
or a marked diminution in the proceeds derived from the sale of these
products, caused by either lack of demand or severe drop in prices,
has its repercussions in every phase of national economic activity.

In the Republics of Latin America, therefore, exports are not merely
intended to meet the cost of imports. The revenues required to
administer the government are derived principally from the duties
levied on goods entering and leaving the country; and when, as in
recent years, the value of the foreign trade suffers a shrinkage in
value of anywhere from 40 to 50 per cent, many governments find
themselves in financial embarrassment, unable to meet the expenses
of administering the country. Being economically new, only a few
of the countries have achieved a basis of economic development
sufficiently broad so that when one source of income declines others
may be tapped.

Closely related to the drop in foreign trade has been the virtually
complete stoppage in the flow of international credit. Like all nations

534

INTER-AMERICAN ECONOMIC STABILITY 535

with relatively undeveloped natural resources, the countries of Latin
America have been for years past, and will continue to be for many
years to come, the market for the investment of large amounts of
capital. Because of their comparative newness and lack of economic
development these funds must come from abroad; and the cessation
in this flow of credit during recent years, at the very time when it was
most urgently needed, has had consequences but little less disastrous
to the countries of Latin America than the shrinkage in exports and
imports.
DECLINE IN FOREIGN TRADE

The foreign trade figures of the Republics of Latin America afford
eloquent testimony of the effect on the national economy of the general
stagnation that has come upon world trade during the last three years,
and of the severe drop in commodity prices which has but served to
ageravate this condition. Taking 1929 as a point of departure, and
glving a value of 100 to the import and export trade of that year, the
changes in the foreign commerce of these countries during the two
subsequent years are graphically set forth in the accompanying table.

An examination of these statistics reveals that the foreign trade of
all the countries has suffered a terrific decline in value. In a number

LATIN AMERICAN FOREIGN TRADE
1929 - 1930 = 1931

TRADE INDICES - 1929 = 100
(Values in U. S.~ Gold)

Exports:
1929: $925, 131,601
1930: 595,681,055
1931 621,341,697

Inports:
1929: $836,137,434
1930: 717,007,261
1931: 500,989,923

70 80 90 100

Cee ese ser ores osseous

Exports:

1931; 22,123,973

Imports:
1929: $ 26,067,305
1930: 21,219,134
1951: 10,884,672

Exports:
1929: $455, 352, 913
1930: 314,070,865
1931; 237,875,540

Imports:
1929; $416,104,977
1930: 253,181,916
1931; 131,665,380). .ccecheuee

ee HH TT oO
ee
ee
e
e

wr
5

1929: 879,146,471
1930: 161,611,929
1931; 112,742,800

Imports:
1929: $196, 857,513
1930: 170,090,500
1931; 86,260,960}.

536 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

LATIN AMERICAN FOREIGN TRADE INDICES - 1929 = 100

COLOMBIA

Renontae 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80° 90 100
1929: os aon o opin nnn npnn enn pian pon nnn nnn penn =p ------p -----

1930: 109,327,293+------ | a | pecceeLsacsssponsscebessees | us See i aaa c | ae

ALE RLB 95,977,620
Imports:
1929: $122,585, 680
1930: 60,955,859
LI Sas 40,397,590

COSTA RICA
1930: 16,330, 604¢------}------} ------P------P ------} ------ - ~~~ --F = - = --
1931: No Data.
Imports:
G2 DmGmeO MUO 595.6 breve ere! bielclelololelelelstelelorelbvelalefelelalslotelolelelel stekerenelelal sreyetolelere | ofeleterehere| steteteretere ketetetets
1930: 10, 846,590
LOSE: No Data.

orts:
1929: 572,159,762 OE ROBO DASA RRIF POS RAGE POROSITY RARE OAC ROSS 9S FSS SSO SS PES SSS

Cece ce pes ccoepossecceposecsepesccsrepesecespsescsscileccscccbpececcclecesce
See eceeporeecoepresececepecrceccpececeecepoerssccepessevcpeoe
eeceeeboorsceebesesecccbesece

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

Exports:
1929: 23-736,497 PER BS PERSE BS BOR ORG BS ORS SG RO SRS FBS SIO OS ROR OSS POSS SOT PSSST SET SSS

1930: 18,551, 841 ------------=----- ~~~ -F ~~~
TOS: 13, 851, 500P-- - ---f—--- --==- ---- = ----- p= =~ -F -
Imports: :
1929: 3 eR RU; Gn SSSI) SSSSnnn Sensing SCiinininin Geninininn Scninnicig Hminnininn Dieinnininn Gininininn
1930: 15,229, 219p ors cecperccccpecrcccporeecclasecscspecsceclecce

1931: 10,151,762

ececsebecceoeccbsocesceobseeseckeccecec

1930: 167,410,669
1931: 117,008,655
Imports:
1929: $216,215,113
1930: 162,452,268
1931: 80,052,504

ecorcceccbeocseccb cos soeopoeccscccleee

ECUADOR

orts:
1929: B 17,207,364 SESE POSS RIERA ESSER HOSES
1930: 16,129, 308}------}------F------f------F------
UQBUS | UW, S52 OS
Imports:
1929: F 16,967,053 ood edo|\ocooodlboccoodboooondbacacne

1930: 12,796,22
Exports:
1929:-# 18,215,497 ------ | ------

cece ccpeseeecleccccecs

eocccepoescccolsecscces

1931: 8,815, 22 |
EL SALVADOR

1930:_ 13,656,500¢------+------}------}------P-~----b------} ------F--
1931:2 12,060,744+------}------}------}------b------P------F---

Imports:
1929: § 17,340,286 soocdalbooocodbooooodboona0dboudoodboo0006
1930: 12,436,000 soo0colbooocedboon0ddsco00odbooooddbos
1931:2 8,267,636 soGonooooaodbocad

eeseccepoeseose

st
°
e
°
°

erceocceberereoce

orts:
1929: $24,528,229 I I I II IIS PRE SSE
1930: | 23,577, 818p------4----- p= = Pa nn nnn nnn
NBG WANG SSIES See 8 4 pS RE BESS RSS
1929: BUR (SEI I RO ROI SSSR RO RES SES
1930: 14,144,567F------ i OResed paeSeos | a a ' |

Imports:
1929: 30,399,067
1930: 16,473,970
1931: 10,461,223

eeceecleeceseec

1931: 8, 963,41 9------—-

Imports:
1929: FF 17,237,922) eee

1930: 2,841, 626b...+00
1931: 9,576, 318bereeee

eee eesleneccececciecesecoe

Qeeeecsiecescce oeecccleccsereclece

@ecsecscleccsece

ae-Fiscal yeer ended June 30.

INTER-AMERICAN ECONOMIC STABILITY 5ai7/

LATIN AMERICAN FOREIGN TRADE INDICES - 1929 = 100

HONDURAS
orts:
1929: 24, 69,168 ------p------p------p-----
1930: 26,171,2
1931: 20 Seereecy won ep -- - a- - -- - - P- - - - - -- - - - = -- - - -- ------
In orts:
1929: $ 14,860,931
1930: 15, 946, 128 hodc nao
1931: 10; 291,422 .
MEXICO
Exports
1929: $295, 316, 628, ------ --- nnn nnn reper pp
USADS BRD Ba RB pS S60 SEBS S 55 BSS BIE ESI BESS BERR BSCS po
LOSE: 199,855,657 ann pn Pann fan ab
Imports:
1929: S191, F21, 490 scaodolbaccoodlbooooodbooacodbooocadhooccodbooaccdboccoadbodoaodboocon
1930: 175,089, 208p-ccccepoccvecpescsccposscccporcccsicesseslecesccclecorsrcleceres ale
1931: 108,292, 708bee-.ccbecesvebsccsscbosescseboreeces
NICARAGUA
aa
1929: OY By
1930: 8,345, 550] nnn nnn nn nn nn fan npn --
1931: No Data.
Imports:
1929: $ SE Ter ao| elolelelalelpiclelelelalelbyslelelelele bp elelelelale|clelololelelelalelelcleleleleleleleielslelelelelelelele|olel=\e) ele
1930: 8,172, SOO bea cecbocesecbecrcrsbovesvebersssobccerccleccsecs
1931: No Data. ~
ILSRIIg EF
1930:
1931: No Date.
Imports:
1929: e T9527, IBBY er ercaperccecpocsecaporcccupecsccalecccaccleccesccbecssecelecssseclscsece
1930: 17,757,920 ecccceberecccbecsscsbesseccpesescoeccccscciesessomereresicerecels

USISALE No Data.

orts: :
1929: 815-055, a a EF

1930: 13,751,159
igbnls 12,470, 887
Imports:
1929: $ 13,434,592
1930: 14,685,178
iskenls 9,778,310

Exports
1929; S134 ,052,584

1930: 96,453,300
1931: 2 60,21, 488

Imports:
1929:"3 75,940,984
1930: 53,307,217
1931: & 27,158,952

at
.
6
°
a

= = SESE
oe
aa
|

apap eee tient

orts:

192937 HEB BST SSeS Se (PSS H OSS FE SESS REESE REESE RECS R ES RE SESE BOE SSS SRR SSS SSeS
1930: “104; 898, 170+------} ------} ------} ----- =p --- --4--- fe pn pn on
ie eb IIASA a eS

ore
1929: A “3 98,509, HUG 7M oleh enorerellsrelotelclelel brollelelalslollaloielalelel|slefolelclale| sKelelelelole|(aleleleloleselolel olelelelel slelelelelslol(elslelelece
1930: 925 873, GBilibicleccceboccccieh cccicis cfs clcecclele cvlciecclocceciesdeic cs seceliciccceclece covicece
1931: 85, 341, ADA] ce ccccheccccckeccce ctor cccleccecccleccscedecsccsewsss ccclesce

VENEZUEIA
a Dd

1929; == 49, 8807 ------p------p---- pon penn nnn nnn gen npnnnpn
1930: 143,366,727+------|------}------| ------} -----4 -----4-------L------} -----+}----- =
1931: 139,419, 236}------}------}------} ------} -----} __--- ff ft

Be, b
1929: B €8, 269,374)... cccpececccbereccclecscresecces Ea forerelene \ileterevotere |eereleistere|eictetetets
1930: 77,455,414 Michele cletolclelelel bicletelslals|clelelsielelolclelelelelelel eels elofeloleiele slalelolelalal sieleioie
1931: 56,068 vane saddassabooslsocacoe Sesiele Sdlooeo

Estimates for full year based on actual figures for nine months,

> Fiscal years ended June 30.

538 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

of them the drop in the value of exports has been so much greater
than the drop in imports that the favorable balance of trade which
must prevail if these nations are to maintain the equilibrium of their
international balance sheets has been completely wiped out. Instead
of a favorable balance of trade several of the countries found them-
selves with an excess of imports over exports. Such was the case in
Argentina and Chile in 1930; in Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Nica-
ragua in 1929; in Haiti in 1929 and 1931; in Paraguay in 1930; and in
Uruguay in 1929 and 1931. And in other nations still enjoying a
favorable balance, the excess of exports over Imports was so small as
frequently to be insufficient to cover the invisible charges running
against the nation. It must be remembered that these are all debtor
states, and are required annually to make large remittances abroad
on account of their external debt, foreign capital investments, ete.
The excess of exports over imports should normally be sufficient to
equal the charges running against the country by virtue of these
so-called ‘‘invisible”’ items. And when, instead of a favorable balance
of trade there is actually an excess of imports over exports, the burden
becomes an exceedingly heavy one.

What these invisible debits are is not easily determinable, as but few
countries have developed statistical facilities to a point where such
data are ascertainable. That they are enormous goes without saying
when one reflects the interest and sinking fund charges that must be
met on the billions of dollars of government securities held abroad,
plus the direct investments in mines, railroads, electric light and power
companies, and other public utilities. In Argentina, an annual bal-
ance of international payments is prepared by Senor Don Carlos
Tornquist, and in his estimate for the two economic years October 1,
1929-September 30, 1930, and October 1, 1930—September 30, 1931,
the following picture is presented:

Argentine Balance of Payments

Millions of gold |) Millions of gold
pesos ! pesos !

{ t

1929-30 | 1930-31 1929-30 |1930-31
ASSETS | LIABILITIES
IE OR LSM e Nee meee eae ee ta re G61S2 76 COGS 05m |lin ports seen 778.92 | 586.59
Goldlexports as et Lee 64.00 | 171.17 || Service of public debt_____----__-- 68.00 | 70.00
ING wAGADtalleiss esteem 80800) | F505 008||Giol aim or tse eae | ne . 20
Interest on loan to France_______- . 50 . 50 || Service of mortgage cedulas___--_- 7. 50 7. 50
Repayment loan to Spain_________ 65307 sean Railway dividends_--_---____--__- 70.00 | 56.00
Travelers’ expenditure____________ 12.00 | 10.00 || Return on other capital_____--__-- 35.00 | 30.00
IPMS WRG ae 112.46 | 5.00 || Remittances of foreign residents__| 30.00 20.00
BOnGSTexXPORtCC seen anne 5. 04 4.00 || Public loans repaid__-------- 32264 |Seseeeee 64. 00
IBankscred ts =aesee eee enna | 10.50} 650.18 || Travelers’ expenditure_ 25.00 | 20.00
Unspecified balance__-_-----__-__- S557 5) | eee | Bonds imported__-_----- 3. 40 3.10
Losses on foreign capital through Transfers of capital_-__- 20.00 | 40.00
farlures et cies seen ees nen wi ——— | 40.00 || Unspecified balance--------------|--------- 39. 46
Ota lee eet ee eres 1, 037.82 | 936.85 | Total. 1, 037. 82 | 936.85
| |

1 The par value of the Argentine gold peso is $0.9648 United States currency.

INTER-AMERICAN ECONOMIC STABILITY 539

Tn his comments, Sefior Tornquist points out that on foreign invest-
ments alone Argentina is required to pay annually approximately
180,000,000 to 200,000,000 gold pesos for the service and amortization
of this borrowed capital. Other liabilities, such as remittances of
foreign residents and expenditures by Argentine travelers abroad,
increase this total anywhere from 50,000,000 gold pesos upward.
Instead of an excess of exports over imports to cover these invisible
debit items, Argentina for the 2-year period under consideration
actually had an unfavorable trade balance of approximately
100,000,000 gold pesos. The flotation of new capital issues, public
loans, and bank credits to the amount of 200,000,000 pesos contrib-
uted to a balancing of the account in 1930, so that only 64,000,000
pesos in gold had to be exported from the country; but in 1931 inroads
on the gold reserves to the extent of 171,000,000 gold pesos had to be
made, owing to the virtual disappearance of new public loans and a
decrease in new capital issues to only 50,000,000 gold pesos.

In Brazil Senhor Valerio Coelho Rodrigues, of the Department of
Commercial Statistics, has compiled statistics on the financial situa-
tion of the nation, in which he estimates that in 1931 the obligations
devolving upon the country as a result of foreign capital invested in
the country and of services rendered by foreign corporations amounted
to approximately £36,000,000 sterling. On the other hand, on the
visible side of the balance of payments Brazil had an excess of exports
over imports of only £20,948,000, leaving an unfavorable balance for
the year of about £15,052,000. Similar adverse balances are estimated
for previous years, and were made up by the introduction into Brazil
of foreign capital, either in the form of direct investments or public
loans. But when the market for foreign financing was all but closed
in 1930 and 1931, resort had to be had to the disposal of the gold
reserves of the nation and eventually to suspension of interest and
service charges on the foreign debt.

As set forth elsewhere in this article, in Chile it was estimated that
during the second half of 1931 remittances of 187,000,000 pesos ' had
to be made on the foreign debt, while interest remittances on foreign
capital investments were estimated at an additional 100,000,000 or
150,000,000 pesos. This would place the obligations of Chile on the
invisible items alone at from 575,000,000 to 675,000,000 pesos annually.
On the basis of its visible trade with foreign countries, Chile was far
from being in a position to meet these invisible labilities. In fact,
in 1930, Chile actually had an unfavorable balance in its export and
import trade, and in 1931 the favorable balance was not sufficient by
half to meet these invisible charges.

In Peru, although no detailed study of the international balance of
payments has been made, the service charges on the foreign debt of

1 The par value of the Chilean peso is $0.1217 United States currency.

540 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

the nation amount to about 30,000,000 soles,? to which must be added
other sums of an undeterminable amount covering services by foreign
maritime, mining, insurance, and other corporations. To meet these
invisible charges, Peru has continued to enjoy an excess of exports
over imports, which for 1931 was estimated at approximately
100,000,000 soles, or a balance equal to that of 1930, 1929, and 1928.
Ordinarily, this should be sufficient to meet the invisible liabilities in
the balance of payments, but during the recent period of economic and
political stress there has no doubt been a movement toward the with-
drawal of foreign capital from the country. This would explain the
depreciation in the value of the unit of currency.

A similar picture would be revealed by every other country were
statistics available.

INTERNATIONAL CREDIT OPERATIONS

An unfavorable balance of trade, even in normal times, has not
been unknown. But in such cases, the credits accruing to a country
by other means have been sufficient to offset the excess of imports
over exports, until economic conditions have had an opportunity to
right themselves. These ‘‘other means” have been the credits accru-
ing to the nation as a result of the introduction of foreign capital,
either in the form of direct investments or by the sale of government
securities abroad. Of course, as a factor in balancing the international
balance sheet, such credits can be considered as credits only at the
time they are made—a temporary form of relief, for they create
additional obligations, on which interest and sinking fund charges
must be met, and in the case of all Latin America these charges can
be met only by the exportation of merchandise. It is axiomatic,
therefore, that foreign loans should be utilized only for productive
purposes, to develop the national wealth, and the country thereby
placed in a position to repay the obligations arising out of the
loan. At the time it is made, however, the loan constitutes a credit
in favor of the debtor state, and might well serve to offset what would
otherwise be an unfavorable balance in the nation’s international
transactions.

Now, during the last two years these ‘‘other means”’ of temporary
relief have not been available to Latin America in anywhere near
the sum required to offset the drop in export values. In fact, foreign
capital markets have been all but closed to these countries, and since
1930 Latin American financing, both governmental and private, has
declined to relatively insignificant sums.

The argument might well be advanced that when exports decline,
imports should be curtailed, and the relative position of the two re-
tained. This is logical, but more easily said than done. In so far

? The par value of the Peruvian sol is $0.28 United States currency.

INTER-AMERICAN ECONOMIC STABILITY 041

as the Latin American countries are concerned, the raw materials
which constitute the major portion of their export trade are governed
by world prices, and experience has demonstrated that the price of raw
products tends to decline far more rapidly than that of manufactured
articles, which Latin America imports. Furthermore, it is also a fact
that imports tend to decline much more slowly than exports, partly
because of the difference in degree of price recession, and partly be-
cause commitments for imports are made on the basis of expected
returns from exports before the price decline on the latter begins.
In time, of course, and through the operation of natural economic
laws, the normal ratio of exports to imports is reestablished. This
is now being demonstrated in a number of countries which have
recently experienced unfavorable balances of trade; by the accumula-
tion of an excess of exports over imports, economic equilibrium should
in time be reestablished, and the value of the currency again return
to a point around par.

Another consequence of the shrinkage in foreign trade has been the
effect on national revenues. Customs duties are a major source of
income of all the Latin American countries, and a sharp falling off in
exports and imports, such as has been experienced during the last
few years, can not but have a deleterious effect on the national
finances. Many governments have seen their income shrink 50 per
cent or more during the past few years.

Strenuous efforts have been made to readjust the national expendi-
tures to the reduced income, and the extraordinary measures taken
by nearly all governments to limit expenses can not but command
admiration and respect. But as is universally the case—no less in
Latin America than in the United States—it has not been possible
immediately to alter the operations of the government to the basis
of the reduced volume of income. Budgets are prepared well in
advance of the beginning of the fiscal year and are drawn up on the
basis of anticipated revenues. In a period of declining prices the
expected receipts are not realized, but when this becomes evident the
expenditures have already been made, so that even though a country
continues to have an excess of exports over imports, the sharp de-
crease in revenues resulting from the decline in value of foreign trade
places the government in a position where it is unable to meet
its obligations. Neither is it possible to obtain relief in the foreign
capital markets in the form of loans to tide the government over,
nor are other sources of income available within the respective coun-
tries. In such a dilemma, and confronted by a situation in which the
national income was insufficient to meet the minimum requirements
of the administrative operation of the government, many countries
felt themselves obliged to suspend payment of interest and sinking
fund charges on their public debt.

542 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

UTILIZATION OF GOLD RESERVES

As a result of the operation of these economic forces, many of the
countries of Latin America found themselves faced by:

1. A reduction in the value of their export trade, to a point where
it was actually less than the value of their imports; or, in the case of -
some countries which continued to have a favorable balance on the
visible items of their international transactions, this balance was so
small as to be insufficient to offset the unfavorable balance among
the invisible items.

2. An inability to obtain credit relief, either short-term or long-
term, to tide them over this period of economic readjustment, owing
to the virtual complete stoppage of international credit operations.

Confronted by such a situation, the only recourse available to these
countries to maintain the stability of their currencies was the expor-
tation of gold reserves or the disposal of their gold deposits held
abroad. Under the conditions prevailing since 1929 many of the
countries of Latin America have been compelled to make severe in-
roads into their gold stocks. The following table indicates the extent
to which these gold holdings have diminished:

ARGENTINA

(Conversion Office)
In gold pesos,
par value $0.9648
United States

December 1929.0. 00% eee Ee ee a 419, 643, 387

December 930s 52 2522 GS sos Sa taal a 425, 773, 917

December s1O3N) oka cue eee Aalto epee ee 260, 876, 000
BOLIVIA

(Central Bank of Bolivia)
In bolivianos, par
value $0.365
United States

Decembers1'929 wea os Lo Oe Rk Oar ga ae ane ea ee ae 55, 625, 000

December, TOS Ose 5 < fe Pi cd ee oe a aly ie en 40, 172, 000

December, VO SMe eae 2S 2 Oe St ET Rage) SOMES aera ae See an ee 26, 618, 000

Mebruary cl032- 22 bes eu to ht Re ee ane 27, 272, 000
CHILE

(Central Bank of Chile)

In pesos, par value
$0.1217 United

States
December 1929 rE ee heh reek ee 447, 700, 000
December; 1980220 = oh ca Ss alee SE a aire 340, 800, 000
December, 1031s enue ill. s yur eae Bin Une sail rtp cle ae 194, 500, 000

Papor il QS Die a mic es a Soe a re 165, 600, 000

INTER-AMERICAN ECONOMIC STABILITY 543

COLOMBIA

(Bank of the Republic of Colombia)

In pesos, par value
$0.9733 United

States
IDigye@mal Se, WPA a ea eee 37, 748, 000
JD eeepepieailovere, LCBO) pep Be ae a tre a 27, 417, 000
Wereermlo er, WG be pe Ess ae os Or cat ee ee et en es ee ee 13, 778, 000
ASGOUP,. CSI as ees Se eae an i = eg mE er ee 14, 412, 000

ECUADOR

(Central Bank of Ecuador)

In sucres, par

value $0.20
United States
IDWCECI Crm 2 Omeee att ay ee tae er eR Sem ys oe oe 35, 063, 646
Weenie mel 5 0 maser: ONE e nae et ay B Coal ee Site el ea 28, 915, 152
Decemnloe rape ieee 2 Seager ee Se Se ee ey tel 15, 567, 234
WMT EEO, TGS ah ee a eS ae ie ope pees oe 14, 666, 841

GUATEMALA

(Central Bank of Guatemala)

In quetzales, par
value $1 United

States
ISCem ne ame SS () Eset ee ee es ee eee ee pe a eee 3, 582, 000
Deere ramet ail erate Mea See ster ae Ae eh er yA a Sees onl aera 2, 745, 000
TENSE WRT Ta es aaa tat a iD ey et yc ae 2, 597, 000

PERU

In soles, par value

$0.28 United
States
RUGS DDSI = pe ae al SN et ech Aa ae Bl etl SN ny Scot 70, 551, 000
JD VSO ean Ove Te, - NCIS I be ae a a a as SS Sc ee a De 60, 073, 391
Agari 932 2 fone Se EN a esk Pas Mie So one PN nce ae alle a ci eS 42, 138, 031

URUGUAY

(Bank of the Republic of Uruguay)

In pesos, par value
$1.034 United

States
WECeMtbetnw lO? Skene seks vay eek ae eo. <r da coh te mye MOE tS 65, 949, 372
DecemtberwIG5 iene. ree ere ep ers ee ee CE a 59, 506, 055
WWECeMm Deel O sleeper ee ee ee Loe Uae ree 50, 924, 011
IVI ieee © 3) Bermereee = eis aicenews Rie pe Ne Py a a SRO SL ee eis 50, 215, 281

Despite the utilization of their gold reserves to meet their inter-
national obligations, many countries found continued pressure
bearing upon their currencies. Under normal conditions, the expor-
tation of gold or the utilization of gold reserve funds abroad sets up

544. THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

counteracting influences which tend to restore the equilibrium of the
exchange; but when countries, like those of Latin America, are so
dependent upon economic factors beyond their control—such as the
prices of their major commodities of export—this does not always
result, and exchange continues to run against them. The reduction
of the gold reserve has the effect of reducing the outstanding note
circulation which it supports, and while in countries maintaining a
high legal reserve the reserve ratio may be reduced and outstanding
note circulation maintained, there is an irreducible minimum below
which it is felt the gold reserve can not fall, except at the risk of
crippling internal economic activity or completely wiping out the
gold reserve. Furthermore, there is a natural desire on the part of
all countries to conserve their gold holdings. Even in the United
States, recent gold withdrawals engendered fear as to the possible
consequences, notwithstanding that approximately one-third of the
total world supply still remains in the country.

The situation of Chile as set forth in the last annual report of the
Banco Central will serve to illustrate the difficulties confronting
many of the countries of Latin America. After the very heavy
inroads that had been made on the nation’s gold reserves from June 30,
1929, to June 30, 1931, reducing these reserves by 50 per cent, Chile,
on June 30, 1931, found itself confronted by heavy foreign commit-
ments falling due during the latter part of the year. On the foreign
debt alone remittances of 187,000,000 pesos remained to be paid, to
which it was necessary to add advances contracted abroad and
treasury bills in foreign currencies maturing in the course of the year,
which brought the total payments to be effected abroad in the second
half of 1931 to 590,000,000 pesos. This did not include interest on
foreign capital investments in Chile, which interest was estimated at
between 100,000,000 and 150,000,000 pesos for the second half of 1931.

The foreign trade of the country had produced only a small favor-
able balance up to the end of the first half of 1931, and it was realized
that any improvement that might occur during the second half
would not be sufficient to cover these invisible items. Neither, it
was felt, could the gold reserves of the nation be further diminished
by disposing of more of its gold holdings. Accordingly payment of
service charges on the public debt was suspended, and when diffi-
culties in the balance of payments continued to manifest themselves
and the gold stocks of the Banco Central continued to drop, extraor-
dinary measures were resorted to.

CONTROL OF FOREIGN EXCHANGE

By law of July 30, 1931, the Government of Chile instituted an
exchange control commission. Many other countries felt the necessity
of resorting to similar measures to protect their currency and the gold

INTER-AMERICAN ECONOMIC STABILITY 545

stocks supporting the outstanding note circulation. Some 23 nations
throughout the world have instituted restrictive regulations covering
trading in foreign exchange, among which are included about 10
Latin-American countries. The nature of the restrictions varies in
different countries, but all have for their object the protection of the
national currencies and the preservation of the supporting gold
reserves and all are predicated on the belief that the prevailing course
of international transactions makes such measures ‘essential.

By early instituting control measures of this character and by
placing rigid restrictions upon the transfer of funds, several nations
have sought to maintain the parity of their currencies. In others,
they have been permitted, at least to a certain extent, to find their
own level in relation to foreign currencies, and as a consequence their
value has sadly declined. In Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, and
Chile the value of the national currencies has declined to 50 per cent
-or less of their par value; and in Peru, the value of the sol was
restabilized at a figure 30 per cent below its previous value. In
these nations, in remitting funds to foreign countries, if exchange is
obtainable at all, remittances can be made only at a premium of 100
per cent or more, or by utilizing 2 pesos where 1 should suffice. It is
this circumstance that prompted the Government of Uruguay at the
end of 1931 to suspend payment of sinking fund charges on its external
debt, and made it necessary for the Government of Argentina to
insert a sum of 50,000,000 pesos in its 1932 budget to cover foreign
exchange depreciation.

It must not be supposed that the influences above described affect
merely the Republics in which they immediately operate. Severe as
have been the consequences of these unfavorable factors during the
past few years, their ramifications extend far beyond the borders of
the Latin American States. They are felt throughout the world,
and have contributed in no small measure to the economic stagnation
that has fallen upon the United States. For some years Latin Amer-
ica has been accustomed to purchase a greater quantity of goods from
the United States than from any other country; but whereas in 1929
American exports to all of Latin America amounted to the sizable
sum of $911,749,000, in 1931 this had fallen to $313,539,000, a decrease
of 66 per cent. Not only in the field of trade have we in the United
States felt the effects of Latin America’s inability to buy, but the
returns on American capital invested in Latin America have shriveled
to relatively insignificant sums, and the present market value of
Latin American securities held by American investors is but a small
fraction of the price at which they were sold and purchased.

The position in which the Republics of Latin America to-day find
themselves is not altogether of their own making. To say that the

129792—32—Bull, 8 —2

546 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

depreciation in their currencies, suspension of interest and sinking-
fund charges on the foreign debt, and the imposition of control regu-
lations on foreign exchange are due to unsound governmental admin-
istration and to imperfect financial and banking organization in the
Latin American countries themselves is to ignore completely the
causes which gave rise to present-day conditions—causes over which
the Republics of Latin America have had little or no control. Far
from being the cause, they are the unfortunate victims of an imperfect
economic system; a system which permits the wiping out of values
without thought of intrinsic worth and which allows those forces of
relief to become stifled and incapable of functioning at the very
moment they are most needed.

Disastrous as have been the developments of the last few years,
they have not been entirely without value. They have demonstrated
as was never before realized, the international economic interde-
pendence of nations, and have shown that the welfare of each nation
is closely intertwined with that of every other country. The theory
of national economic self-sufficiency, even for a country as large and
powerful as the United States, with all its resources, is a thing of the
past. No country can hope to avoid the effects of a long-sustained
period of economic depression affecting any considerable number of
states. Some nations, like those of Latin America, are subject to the
interplay of these economic forces because of their dependence to so
large an extent on foreign trade and on foreign capital for their
economic development; and others, like the United States and certain
countries of Europe, because of the world-wide ramifications of
their economic interests.

It is not sufficient, therefore, that a solution to these problems be
sought from a purely nationalistic point of view; but they must be
approached on the broad basis of international cooperation and with
a full realization that the progress of one nation is closely related to
the welfare and prosperity of every other state. This having been
demonstrated in adversity, it now remains to find the form of inter-
national cooperative action to overcome the forces of adversity.

Two of the major problems which confront the Republics of Latin
America and which have contributed so greatly to the present un-
fortunate position of those countries revolve around the decline in
prices and the breakdown of international credit facilities. The two
are probably closely related, the latter being a corollary to the
former, and aggravating the conditions growing out of the first-
mentioned phenomenon. We have observed how the decline in
prices affects the volume of exports and imports of the respective
countries, upsetting the normal balance of trade, diminishing the
revenues of the government, adversely affecting the rate of exchange,
and causing demands to be made upon the gold holdings of the

INTER-AMERICAN HCONOMIC STABILITY 547

nation. Were these conditions to operate alone, and were it possible
for these countries to obtain an extension of short-term credit, it
would in the majority of cases still be possible for them to adjust them-
selves to fluctuations in the commercial situation. But the unfavor-
able consequences of a decline in export and import trade invariably
tend to cause a contraction of credit, with its resulting evil effects,
and the vicious circle is complete.

The importance of price stabilization is appreciated by all, but
there is not the same unanimity of opinion as to the feasibility of
such action, or the steps whereby it may be achieved.

In the report of the MacMillan Committee on Finance and
Industry, which was appointed in England in 1929 and concluded its
work in 1931, it was recommended that the international value of
gold should be lowered and that, after prices have been raised
sufficiently, the aim should be to maintain a stability of prices at the
higher level thus reached. These objects of maintaining the stability
of international prices both over long periods and over short periods
are, in the opinion of the committee, to be achieved through co-
operative action of the central banks in regulating the volume and
terms of bank credit so as to maintain as much stability as possible
in the rate of new investment and new enterprise generally, both at
home and abroad. By these means alternate excesses of enthusiasm
and depression might be avoided, and the demand for the new output
of the instruments of production and other forms of capital in the
world at large kept in better equilibrium with the proportion of
income which is currently available for such purposes.

On this point of price stabilization, the final report of the gold
delegation of the League of Nations does not agree with the conclusions
of the MacMillan Committee. Regarding the suggestion that action
be taken to raise prices, the League of Nations delegation deems a
rise desirable but does not expect ‘‘monetary policy alone to adjust
the price level, which is influenced by many” nonmonetary factors.
Where credit contraction has gone to extremes it declares it ‘‘impera-
tive’’ for central banks to do what they can to check it ‘and sometimes
to take the initiative in encouraging the freer use of credit.” But
it concludes that ‘‘it will be difficult to restore prices and standard
of living” until “there is some clearing of the atmosphere of inter-
national distrust’’ and world trade is freer. Regarding the future,
it declares it impossible to stabilize prices, and that what relative
stability is possible is not achievable by monetary policy alone.

The plan of the MacMillan Committee is directed to more or less
permanent methods for preserving international economic and
financial equilibrium. With respect to the steps to be taken for the
relief of the existing situation, the report states that the first measure
“‘must necessarily be taken on the initiative of the creditor countries,”

548 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

and that “the desirability of foreign loans being made by the leading
creditor countries on a greater scale than in the past two years
should be generally accepted.”? The report recognizes, however, the
difficulty of finding creditors willing to lend, owing to the low state
to which the credit of many countries has fallen, and concludes that
‘“‘some form of guaranteed credit may be required. ... A govern-
ment guaranty scheme is only one alternative, perhaps the simplest.”’

This closure of foreign capital markets—or this breakdown in the
international credit system—is the crux of the problem in so far as
concerns the Republics of Latin America. Fluctuations in the level
of prices—it is probably safe to assume that such fluctuations will
continue and that no completely successful plan of price stabilization
will be evolved at any time in the near future—undoubtedly have an
adverse effect on the nations of Latin America, as they do in other
countries and as the foregoing statistics have indicated. With the
consequences resulting from price fluctuations alone to contend with,
the majority of the nations of Latin America could no doubt adjust
themselves to the altered conditions of lower price levels. But when
to this problem there is added the further difficulty of inability to
obtain an extension of credit during the period of readjustment, the
problem becomes altogether too difficult, and there ensue those condi-
tions which have been witnessed during the past two years—unfavor-
able rates of exchange, exportation of gold or disposal of gold deposits
held abroad, inability to meet interest and sinking fund charges on
the foreign debt, suspension of the operation of the gold standard,
and the imposition of stringent regulations on operations in foreign
exchange.

It is indeed unfortunate for the countries of Latin America that at
the very time it was most needed, they were unable to obtain even
temporary credit relief in foreign capital markets, pending the time
that they could readjust themselves to altered economic conditions,
and the normal relationship of outgo to income could be reestablished.
Had such temporary relief been available, it is certain that many of
the economic ills and the political difficulties resulting therefrom
would have been avoided, and further, foreign holders of Latin Ameri-
can government bonds would not to-day find themselves with securities
on which interest or sinking fund is not being paid, nor would exporters
to Latin America find it necessary, as is now the case, to wait as long
as two years for remittances on the merchandise which they have
shipped.

The fact that credit was not available at this crucial moment
denotes a weakness in the existing international credit organization,
and raises a question as to the measures to be taken to remedy the
defect. It has been clearly demonstrated that private credit can
not be relied upon in such emergencies. Even countries enjoying

INTER-AMERICAN ECONOMIC STABILITY 549

the highest standing in foreign financial centers find sources of private
eredit closed to them; nor is it surprising that creditors should
hesitate to lend to governments whose existing securities are quoted
at such a heavy discount. It must be remembered, of course, that
this drop in security value develops only after adverse factors have
been in operation some time. What is required, then, is an arrange-
ment that will meet these adverse factors before they have had a
chance to develop, and obviate their evil effects.

In view of this inability of private credit to function, the question
presents itself as to whether some form of international cooperative
action can not be devised to preserve the economic equilibrium of those
states which are obliged to rely upon foreign credit but which find
such sources of relief closed to them. In the report of the Mac-
Millan Committee it was suggested that to make credit available,
“some form of guaranteed credit may be required,’ and that a
Government guaranty scheme was one alternative, perhaps the sim-
plest. Similarly, in the report of the gold delegation of the League of
Nations, it was declared that where credit contraction has gone to
extremes it was “imperative” for central banks to do what they can
to check it ‘“‘and sometimes to take the initiative in encouraging the
freer use of credit.”’

At the Conference of Central Bank Directors, held at Lima, Peru,
in December, 1931, it was recognized that service on external debts
is not only an expense affecting public finance but is also an obligation
which affects international exchanges; and that ‘‘the situation brought
about by the diminution of fiscal receipts as a consequence of the
present crisis and, on the other hand, the lack of equilibrium in the
balance of international payments produced by the decline in the
value of exports explains in large part the difficulty of meeting the
service on the external public debt, in so far as those countries are
concerned which can not pay these services without compromising
the stability of their exchanges.’’ The conference, however, con-
fined itself to placing the foregoing facts on record, and did not at-
tempt to prescribe a remedy.

In another conclusion, however, the conference did express recog-
nition of the need of the countries of Latin America for foreign credits
with maturities which fall between those of short-term credits,
granted by commercial banks, and those credits with longer maturities,
provided by world capital markets. The conference recommended
that the central banks cooperate in the study of ‘‘new mechanisms
for providing intermediate credits, for productive purposes, with
maturities of from one to three years.”’

Were such intermediate credits available to the countries of Latin
America at times such as these of which we speak, they would be of
tremendous assistance in maintaining the integrity of their currencies

550 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

without the necessity of disposing of their gold reserves. In three
years, or even less, most countries would be able to adjust themselves
to the new conditions growing out of a lowering of the level of prices
and a diminution in the volume of exports and imports. The equilib-
rium in the balance of payments would be maintained, there would
be no necessity to dispose of the gold reserves of the nation to a point
where the parity of the currency would be impaired, and above all
public confidence in the credit of the nation would be preserved.
After all, the present low state to which the credit of so many of the
countries of Latin America has fallen is due largely to lack of con-
fidence. There is undoubtedly a considerable measure of justifica-
tion in this attitude, in view of the existing situation. But that the
conditions prevailing to-day are but temporary and that the enor-
mous resources of the nations of Latin America afford adequate assur-
ance of their future revival and prosperity, even the most pessimistic
will admit.

That three years are adequate in which to enable most countries to
adjust themselves to altered economic conditions is revealed in the
statistics on the economic situation of these nations. In many of
them, in 1929 and in 1930, the excess of exports over imports was
exceedingly slight, if, in fact, imports did not actually exceed exports;
but in 1931, with but one or two exceptions, the normal ratio of exports
to imports had been reestablished, and returns thus far available indi-
cate that in 1932 the foreign trade of most countries will show an
even more favorable balance. Similarly, government expenditures
have been reduced, so that they are more in line with anticipated
revenue.

It is true the Conference of Central Bank Directors recommended
that these intermediate credits should be made for ‘productive
purposes.””’ What could be more productive than a loan that would
preserve the balance or equilibrium of a nation’s economic life; that
would preserve its national credit, the parity of its currency, and the
integrity of its gold reserves; and that would not only perform that
service for the recipient of the credit, but also assure to foreign exporters
reasonable freedom in the flow of international trade, and to foreign
bondholders the receipt at regular intervals of interest on the nation’s
outstanding bonds?

But no plan of intermediate credit relief has been advanced, and in
view of this apparent breakdown in the system of private credit, the
question presents itself as to what measures, if any, can be taken.
It would be a real contribution to the stabilization of economic and
financial relations if a plan of international cooperative action could
be evolved, whereby a country, finding itself in the position in which
so many of the Republics of Latin America found themselves in
1930—with an unfavorable balance of international payments, unable

INTER-AMERICAN ECONOMIC STABILITY 5al

to secure sufficient foreign exchange to meet their obligations abroad,
and confronted with the necessity of exporting gold or disposing of
their gold holdings abroad, going off the gold standard, and resorting
to the numerous expediencies which are to-day manifest to control
exchange and regulate imports and exports—could be assured of
obtaining short-term credits in those countries which have the
necessary resources to extend this relief.

It might be contended that, where the adverse balances are so
great as they have been in the case of some of the Latin American
countries during the past two years, the obligation devolving upon
the creditor nations would be altogether too heavy. This plan of
cooperative action, however, might well be restricted to transactions
affecting the governments of the respective nations, and involving
remittances which the governments are required to make for interest
and sinking-fund purposes on their obligations held abroad. These
remittances would not involve any extraordinary sums, and would
serve the double purpose of enabling the governments to meet their
obligations and making available an equivalent amount of foreign
exchange to be used in commercial transactions.

Conferences and cooperative action between banking institutions of
different countries have been repeatedly recommended as a means of
maintaining international economic and financial stability. Such
cooperative action is especially necessary during periods such as those
which the world is now experiencing. What is required is a plan
whereby under certain conditions a government unable to obtain
foreign exchange in the open market and not in a position to dispose
of its gold holdings except at the risk of jeopardizing its economic and
financial equilibrium would be able to draw a bill of exchange to cover
the remittances which that government is required to make on account
of its obligations held in a particular foreign country. Could not the
banking institutions of the respective countries be an instrumentality
for carrying such a plan of international cooperative action into
effect? Could not they be the channel through which such intermedi-
ate credits would be made available? Such a draft would be for a
relatively long period, say for one year as mentioned in the resolution
adopted at the Lima conference, and subject to renewal for an addi-
tional period of a year if basic economic conditions had not improved.
The bill of exchange would carry the full faith and credit of the debtor
state, and would be covered by an equivalent sum in local currency
deposited in a selected bank in the country of origin. Before such a
plan of cooperative action could become operative it would, of course,
have to be demonstrated that sufficient exchange was not available on
the open market, and that the gold stocks of the country in question
were not sufficient to enable it to export gold except at the risk of
jeopardizing its financial and economic structure. It would also be

Ho THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

necessary that certain commitments be entered into, whereby the
government availing itself of the provisions of such a plan would
undertake to effect the necessary economies in governmental adminis-
tration and to take such other steps as might be required to bring
about an equilibrium in its international balance of payments.

It has been well observed that the obligation of keeping the gold
standard in force and maintaining the financial equilibrium of the
world devolves upon the creditor nations. The events which have
taken place during the last few years are not peculiar to this day and
age. ‘They have occurred in the past and will recur in the future
unless plans are formulated to meet such conditions and to avoid
their consequences before they have had an opportunity to take
root. The existing system has proved impotent in the past, and it
becomes increasingly evident that if a repetition of these unfortu-
nate events is to be avoided, they shall be avoided only through a
plan of international cooperative action, either continental in scope
or world-wide in character. Such a plan would prove beneficial to
the debtor as well as to the creditor. In the debtor country, it
would contribute immeasurably to the maintenance of the nation’s
economic equilibrium, the preservation of national credit and the
parity of the currency, and the maintenance of the nation’s credit
in the eyes of the world. In the creditor country, its nationals who
might hold the securities of the debtor government would be assured
of the receipt of the interest payments due thereon; and its exporters
might confidently expect a continuation of a free market for the dis-
posal of their merchandise.

MARKETING IN LIMA?

I. THE CENTRAL MARKET

HE Far East and the Sons of the Sun; Buddha, Confucius,

Viracocha, Jehovah, and Mahomet; a hundred creeds and a
hundred races, rub elbows daily in the Central Market. It is the
food emporium of Lima and the crossroads of the world in one. It
is the Lima of a hundred years ago selling to the Lima of the twentieth
century the foodstuffs and the fabrics of all the nations. ... You
can not claim to know Lima or what a bargain is, unless you have
gone shopping in the Central Market. And, incidentally, you don’t
know what are Lima’s favorite foods, unless you have sampled some
of the strange dishes offered in the dozens of little restaurants which
open out from all sides of this Tower of Babel.

Food is the principal raison d’étre of the Central Market. It is a
meat, fish, vegetable, butter and eggs, poultry, and flower market
combined; and it is all too small for its many activities. In fact,
the market itself begins a block or more away in all directions from
the main building. If you approach it from the Plateros de San
Pedro, it begins with a literary flavor. Along the curbstones and
overlapping into the road are piles of second and third and tenth
hand books and magazines. A few yards farther on the first wave-
lets of the inflowing tide of food are encountered—timid little heaps
of peppers and Indian corn, bananas, and potatoes, presided over by
Indian women. Presently you are wading up to your knees in a sea
of vegetables and fruits which, as the market building itself is reached,
have long since overflowed from the sidewalks into the fairway until
only the narrowest and most perilous passage is left for the traffic
of carts and lorries and taxicabs. From whatever direction the
approach is made, the same experience is obtained. One street may
be devoted mainly to turkeys and poultry, another to potatoes and
camotes (sweetpotatoes), a third to mammoth watermelons and
pawpaws. But there is no hard-and-fast uniformity. The house-
keeper is liable to encounter all she needs for the evening meal, from
the hors d’oeuvres and the soup to the savory and sweet (ab ovo usque
ad mala, as we learned to say at school), upon the same sidewalk.
And incidentally, if she is a linguist, she may talk in Spanish, Que-
chua, Aymara, Chinese, Japanese, or Arabic, and probably find some
one to understand her wants.

1 From ‘‘West Coast Leader,’’ Lima, May 3, 1932.
558}

3 en \. ty if 2 ee wa q
¥ SEY Lt ye f: : am]

ARROZ | CEREALES CAFE-PAPAS- GANADOS

CEREALES FRUTAS~— AZUCAR | CACAO DE JAEN
GANADO CABRIO GANADO CABRIO. | GANADO VACUNO.

PIURA petite) YEQUE os MARCA

VINOS

BLANCOS Y TINTOS
FRUTAS- MENESTRAS.

RIO-AM4 ,
0) IQUITOS. oF

***| GANADO VACUNO
AYACUCHO
PASTA DE CACAO
CAFE -CARNE SECA -MAIZ-
TRIGO—QUEZO_MATEQUILLA

9 CUZCO
AGUAS MINERALES /§

CARNE SECA -FRUTAS ia
VINOS _OLIVOS — AJi_
CAFE DE CARABAYA-ETC.

10 AREQUIPA -PUNO

CEREALES _ FRUTAS DIVERSAS
11 MOQUEGUA

Dib. Luis Hoyos Salazar.

From the West Coast Leader.
PRINCIPAL CENTERS OF FOOD PRODUCTION IN PERU

The panels above and at right of map show the chief food products of Peru, by Departments, as follows:
1. Piura: Cacao, cereals, goats. 2. Lambayeque: Rice, fruit, sugar, goats. 3. Cajamarca: Cereals,
cacao, cattle. 4. Libertad: Sugar, rice, cereals, cattle. 5. Ancash: Poultry, cereals, eggs, hogs. 6.
Junin, Huanuco, and Huancavelica: Coffee, potatoes, cattle, sheep, cheese, butter, poultry, cereals,
fruit. 7. Ica: Red and white wine, fruit, dried vegetables. 8. Ayacucho: Cattle. 9. Cuzco: Cacao,
coffee, dried meat, corn, wheat, cheese, butter. 10. Arequipa and Puno: Mineral waters, dried meat,
fen, yung olives, red peppers, coffee. 11. Moquegua: Olives, wine, cereals, fruit. 12. Tacna: Vege-
ables and fruit.

MARKETING IN LIMA 555

The Central Market may be heard long before it is reached or
smelled, .. . From all sides hundreds of voices proclaim, in differ-
ent pitches but full-lunged, the price and the merits of some article
of food. From the same vantage point it may also be noticed that,
in the midst of all this apparent confusion, there is a sort of orderly
disorder which guides the purchaser and controls the vendors. The
butchers’ stalls, with the prime meats segregated from those of third
quality, have their allotted place. The fishwives are separate from,
though near to, the purveyors of live rabbits and pigeons and guinea
pigs. The vegetables may overlap into the fruits, but flowers and
artificial wreaths suffer no interlopers. ‘There is one place in which
to buy bread, and another tea or coffee, and a third where you may
purchase a wicker basket or a paper bag from a selection of sizes in
which to carry away the morning’s marketing. And here, there,
and everywhere are tables at which you may sit and rest and eat a
plate of conchitas (clams) or drink a glass of chicha. Marketing is
hungry and thirsty work. But wherever you go, whether you are
buying meat or fruit or fish, always at your elbow is some itinerant
child seeking to sell you something—it may be a paper bag, a comb,
a pair of earrings, a looking glass. If you want none of these things,
he has other equally attractive articles at equally attractive prices
which lead to the delusion that Lima is a cheap place in which to
live. ‘The delusion is heightened by the yards upon yards of cheap
cotton goods from Manchester and Tokio, by the hundreds of pairs
of shoes from Argentina and Chile, overalls from Massachusetts,
cutlery from Solingen, tinware from Birmingham, jewelry from Ger-
many, all the shoddy from all the markets of the world, hung out
for sale upon the stalls which line the inner walls of the building.

Every other market place in Lima or the suburbs is a replica in
miniature of the Central Market... . The municipality maintains
a strict vigilance over all meats and vegetables; its uniformed inspec-
tors are on the alert from the opening to the closing hour.

There is another impression which the stranger visiting Lima for
the first time can not fail to carry away with him. Peru imports
certain articles of prime necessity which, with proper organization,
might well be grown within her borders. Nevertheless, if war
should close the world’s granaries, Peru would not starve. She
could feed herself, and feed herself well, on the harvests of her own
fields and the cattle of her own hills.

Il. ITINERANT VENDORS AND STREET CRIES

Although much that is picturesque is passing away, the street cries
of Lima, unlike those of old London, still survive. Some of those
cries are common to all cities. At certain hours of the day, for in-
stance, a great surge of sound sweeps through the streets in a steady

‘TeIdeo URIANISg OY} JO SMOT}I0S JOMOT OY} JO DUC

HTOUIO ISANDOTOER

MARKETING IN LIMA 557

crescendo until it seems to drown all other noises. It is the shrill
voices of the newsboys crying the late morning or evening edition of
some newspaper. Other cries, like the para hoy, para hoy-y, ultimo
gauchito para hoy-y-y-y (for to-day, for to-day, last ticket for
to-day) will exist as long as lotteries are the mild gamble of our lives.

But if you he awake in some by-street in the early hours of the
morning, you may hear another variety of cries. They continue
throughout the day, but as the city wakes to life, they become
absorbed in other noises and pass almost unremarked. It is the voice
of the itinerant vendors of food, hawking their wares in phrases often
unintelligible to foreign ears, but which have been traditional for a
hundred years or more. Many of these vendors are of Indian blood
and look as if they had walked straight out of some hut in a remote
Sierra village. Although not encouraged by the municipality, which
likes to see the street merchant clad in spotless blouse and peaked
cap, they still persist. They are a tradition in Lima, a tradition
which many would regret to see swept entirely away by the incoming
tide of hygiene.

Some of these itinerant vendors come into their own only at certain
seasons of the year. Others are a daily feature of our lives. Among
the most prominent of the latter class is the bizcochero, or seller of
cakes, with his inviting ery of pan de dulce, pan de dulce, empana-
ditas, pasteles. Severe municipal regulations compel him to-day to sell
his cookies in fly-screened cases, but he is recalcitrant when he dares
to be. His most profitable sphere of commerce appears to be the
entrances of cinemas and schools.

A strong competitor during the summer is the heladero, very modern
to-day with his barrow and hygienic metal containers. He was not
always so. From accounts of Lima written 70 or 80 years ago, we
may read how, as a means of refreshing the blood, the eating of an
ice was considered to be one of the first duties of the day. From the
earliest hours of the morning, the vendors of ices paraded the streets
and had an established clientéle to whom they brought the matutinal
refresher. So important was the trade that those vendors had formed
an Unién de Heladeros which was almost entirely composed of
Indians, who in dialect shouted their passage through the streets
with the cry of el riqui pifia y de leit (delicious pimeapple and milk).
They have long since been swept out of existence by the commercially
organized heladerias and the ice creams of D’Onofrio to-day. Nor
do people any longer take a morning ice to cool the blood.

The tamalero is still with us. He is that exotic-looking individual,
generally shod with rope-soled canvas sandals and often poncho clad,
who sells mysterious little oblong packages wrapped in banana leaves
and slung at the end of a short bamboo stick. He makes his wares
known by the staccato cry of Tamales! a medio, a medio, a medio!

558 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Tamales serranos bien calientes! The tamal has come down to us
from the times of the Incas, and is still a national dish. Made of a
mixture of crushed Indian corn, meat, and peppers, it is wrapped in
leaves to maintain the heat and to preserve the flavor. Liking for
tamales may be said to be an acquired taste. Those who wish to
experiment are recommended to make their first essay in some res-
taurant which specializes in criollo dishes. The glorified tamal which
is served there, usually has, in addition to the essential maize, young
pigeons and eggs as the principal ingredients. So served they are
delicious.

More numerous than the foregoing, and with wares more wholesome,
are the fruteros and fruteras. Some of them wend their patient way
through the motor-driven traffic of the streets mounted upon burros
and bring to the doors of the houses fruits often fresher, cheaper, and
more varied than those which are offered for sale in the markets.
Others station themselves and their baskets on the street curbs or
in the portales of the Plaza de Armas.... A very patient tribe this,
Indians many of them, who own or rent the hundreds of little farms
which run right up to the gates of Lima. Melons, avocados, cherries,
oranges, mangos, and grapes are offered in their season at prices
(subject to barter) which are tempting... .

Changing times have eliminated the majority of the old-time
itinerant food merchants from the every-day life of the principal
streets. But many of them still survive in the poorer parts of the
city, especially across the river and in the neighborhood of the mar-
ket places. One and all come to life again at the season of the great
religious feasts. Walk through the arcades of the Plaza de Armas on
Christmas Eve, at Mi-caréme, at Eastertide, and you shall see their
descendants selling much the same delicacies in much the same man-
ner as 80 years ago. Or even better still, make your way as best you
can to the Church of Las Nazarenas at the time of the annual proces-
sions of El Sefior de los Milagros when every adjoining street is one
long open-air restaurant and where all the traditional dishes which
have come down from the days of the Incas are once more offered for
sale. Here may be seen the tisaneras, or sellers of tisanes, whose
stock-in-trade consists of an earthenware pot filled with dubious
water in which float slices of pineapple, lemon, or other fruits. Here
are also to be seen their first cousins, the vendors of cold beverages,
whose habitat used to be the Portal de Escribanos in winter and the
Portal de Botoneros in summer. Here, too, come in force the bufue-
leras, or sellers of bufiwelas—tfritters of all sorts, some of them the
ancestor of the American waffle. The chichera is also present, selling
chicha in all its variations, from the classic sora made from maize
(but no longer from teeth-chewed maize) to chicha made from chick-
peas and even from pineapples.

THE GOLD RIVERS OF HONDURAS

By A. Hooton BuLackiston

HE source of the great treasures of the Aztecs and other Indian

nations, as well as of the fabulous amounts of gold obtained by
the Spaniards after the discovery of America, has been the subject
of much speculation.

The “‘lost”’ mines of early days have often been cited as an expla-
nation. To a limited extent this is correct, as it is doubtlessly true
that rich deposits were worked then and later lost to the world, being
either hidden from the Spaniards or, if known to them, closed upon
their expulsion from the New World when the colonies achieved their
independence. Since the natives would not work them and the
colonists could not, gradually cave-ins covered the mouths of shafts
and tunnels, and trees grew over bonanza mines that had made the
Spanish Main famous and furnished untold millions to the mother
country.

However, the more easily operated and satisfactory placers, known
to the Indians hundreds of years before the coming of Columbus, were
the lodestones of attraction for both natives and Spaniards. It was
the gold from their sands that gladdened the eyes of the conquistadores,
and started the greatest gold rush in all history that made Spain the
mistress of Europe and lifted the world from the slough of the Middle
Ages.

The California stampede was a feeble thing in comparison, and
that of the Klondike but an ameebic struggle of small consequence.
Ancient civilizations were extinguished overnight, empires upset,
whole nations stamped out and a continent enslaved in the mad rush
that ensued.

Spain was fortunate in early realizing the value of her new posses-
sions and in obtaining those regions where the precious metal was
most abundant. Indeed, it was the desire for gold that dominated
her early conquests and influenced her colonial policy, leaving its
impress on history even to-day.

Among the most famous of the alluvial deposits from which untold
riches were gathered were those of the gold rivers of Honduras,
where Indian women, working in the sunshine of the highlands, had
been washing the sands for uncounted years to obtain the bright
metal which was prized only for its use in the fashioning of images
for the gods and ornaments for men. An extensive traffic was carried
on far into Mexico on the north and to the Isthmus of Darien on the

5909

Photograph by A. Hooton Blackiston.
A TYPICAL RIVER OF HONDURAS

The sands and alluvial deposits along the banks of the upper reaches of many rivers of Honduras continue
to yield gold in small quantities despite the fact that they have been worked for centuries.

Photograph by A. Hooton Blackiston.

A VISITING LADY WATCHES THE “LAVANDERAS” AT WORK

The Indian ‘‘wash women” are shown using large wooden bow!s to wash gold, a primitive method that has
been employed through the ages.

“y

THE GOLD RIVERS OF HONDURAS 561

south. So plentiful was this golden stream and other lesser ones that
the Spaniards called the entire coast Costa Rica—the Rich Coast.
It can readily be understood that the conquistadores lost no time in
tracing the precious flood to its source. Such was their avarice
that they not only seized all the gold they could obtain from the
natives and forced them to toil for more, but in addition, as iron was
lacking, they tore the shoes from their horses and fashioned them
into implements with which to dig, shoeing their mounts with gold

so
B
£2. #

Photographs by A. Hooton Blackiston.
HYDRAULIC MINING IN HONDURAS
Modern equipment is employed in but few instances in the country. Upper: An isolated example of

hydraulic mining in the western part of the Republic, near the Guatemalan border. Lower: When
the giant hydraulic has finished, the bed of the stream, with its gold, lies bare.

instead, as it was the commoner though more valuable metal. It is
reported that one such poorly equipped expedition alone sent out
from Olancho more than $120,000 in bullion. There is hardly a
small stream but carries its quota of gold, and on the headwaters of
the Almandares nuggets as large as 100 ounces have been found.
Because of the unusually rich stringers or small veins that permeate
the river banks, and because of the heavy rainfall and the ensuing
erosion characteristic of the tropics, especially in the mountainous

129792—32— Bull. 8——3

562 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

sections, gold is continually being added to the available supply, not
only by the rivers themselves but also by many of the small creeks
and arroyos opening into them. .
For generations the banks and bars of these streams have been
washed by Indian women, known to the Spaniards as lavanderas
(wash women), among whom the occupation seems to be more or less
hereditary, and quite a patrimony it is that has come down to them
through the ages. In the morning hours or in the late afternoon
they may be seen standing in the streams or sitting on the banks
gayly chatting while working with their bateas, or wooden bowls.
In these they wash the sands for the golden particles, which at night
they carefully store in quills or wrap in leaves. It is especially on
Sunday morning that many of the favorable spots ring with animated
laughter and splashing that echo along the banks and from the canyon
walls, clearly notifying one long before one comes within sight that
the lavanderas are at work. At nightfall they throw their personal
belongings into the large bowls, and placing the bowls on their heads
they stroll home looking like huge mushrooms in the gathering dusk.
Indeed, the entire affair seems to be somewhat three-cornered, as
gossiping, washing of clothes, and washing of gold are more or less
indiscriminately intermingled, a good time being had by all present
irrespective of the more material results of the gathering. However,
they seldom give that feature any undue worry, as the returns are
fairly satisfactory despite the crude methods employed and the limited
time devoted to the work. Usually the women go home with enough
to meet their simple needs, and the so-called gold villages are largely
supported by them. The output is purchased by the local store-
keepers, or traded for goods, and credit is often extended the lavandera
against her next season’s crop, as it were, with far more willingness
than our own agriculturists encounter under similar circumstances.
The men, while not lazy, consider it beneath their dignity to wash
gold as it is too much like working with the women in the domestic
affairs of the home. Consequently it is an occupation to be strictly
avoided by all males conscious of their more exalted sphere, though the
inhibition naturally does not extend to spending the proceeds. It is
sometimes amusing to note the shamefaced actions of some rash
youth who has stolen off surreptitiously to wash a little gold on his own
account. One such was throwing a number of good sized nuggets on
the gaming table when a mining engineer who happened to be present
asked him where he had obtained them, and offered to buy any more
that he might have left. The boy seemed very much embarrassed, but
after taking the engineer to one side in order that his friends might not
hear the damaging confession, he stated that the nuggests had been
washed from a certain near-by stream where he occasionally went for
gold when he was hard up. He added apologetically, ‘“‘But, Sefior, it

THE GOLD RIVERS OF HONDURAS 563

is not work for a man!”’ Indeed I sometimes suspect that the wise
lavanderas purposely confuse the family washing with the washing of
gold in order to keep the latter monopoly in their own hands, and thus
to control the output—at least during the preliminary stages.
Sometimes a few hours of leisurely work with the bowl nets the
gold washers up to a dollar or a dollar and a half, and occasionally
that much is taken from one pan. They seldom wash over 15 or 20
bowlfuls of sand, and as there are 104 bowlfuls in 1 cubic yard, the
result is not at all bad. Fortune at times selects certain individuals

THE MINING TOWN OF SAN JUANCITO

This village lies just below the famous mine of Rosario, which has been the chief contributor to the coun-
try’s production of gold and silver.

as recipients of her special smiles, or ambition or necessity spurs the
lavandera to unusual efforts—then the results are often spectacular.
One old woman complacently ensconced on the bank of a small
stream washed out $140 worth in one day, while in another location a
group began operations far up a bank 20 feet above mean water,
where any old mining man would tell you that nothing could be found.
In six days they took out several pounds of gold. For many nights
there were not quills enough in the community to hold the yellow
grains, and leaves had to be drawn on liberally instead. Another

564 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

group of 16 women and girls are said to have washed out about
$21,000 worth of gold in less than three weeks’ work. The total
taken from the rivers and streams of Honduras by the lavanderas
alone is reported to amount to as much as $125,000 a year. This may
be considered a good showing, when it is remembered that the work
is carried on as part of the family régime and by the crudest of methods
only. At this rate approximately $50,000,000 would have been
recovered by the Indian women since the Conquest, irrespective of
more intensive operations by the Spaniards. And as yet the true
stores of treasure locked within the auriferous sands and gravels may
be said to be practically untouched!

Strange as it may seem, the placers have never been worked on an
extensive scale along modern lines, although engineers have often
pronounced them to be among the world’s great alluvial fields. The
unknown state of the country, the lack of transportation and the
control of vast tracts by a few persons account for this. Likewise it
never has been a poor man’s country in the mining sense, however
much it may have proved to be a poor woman’s as far as the lavanderas
are concerned.

And so it is that while the rest of the world is worrying about the
gold standard and striving to stave starvation from its door, nature
has given the natives of Honduras an unlimited credit in a bank of her
own to be drawn upon as necessity dictates. Thus did their ancestors
when they washed the golden sands for the glory of ancient dynasties
long before the first floating houses appeared off their coasts or the
tread of the Spaniard was heard in the land.

FEMINISM IN ARGENTINA *

By Apa Strozzi

T WAS in 1906 that the first steps were taken toward a complete

program of Argentine women’s rights, for that year witnessed the
organization in Buenos Aires of the Centro Feminista, under the presi-
dency of Dr. Elvira Rawson de Dellepiane. Twenty years later the
efforts of this society and of other feminist bodies bore fruit in the
civil rights act based on a petition which Dr. Alfredo L. Palacios had
long since presented to Congress on behalf of the Centro.

By this act of 1926 the unmarried
woman, widow, and divorced wo-
man were given, with slight excep-
tions, all the civil rights of men.
A married woman gained many
rights which she had hitherto not
enjoyed: she was permitted to be
the guardian of her children by a
former marriage, to engage in a
profession, trade, employment, com-
merce, or industry without the
necessity of authorization from her
husband, to dispose freely of her own
property, inherited or earned, and
to exercise other analogous rights.

Now that the Argentine woman’s
civil position has been assured for
six years, the feminist movement
is directed with renewed energy to- BUMPING OF THE MEN COUN
ward securing the suffrage. Sefiora Here this society of prominent women houses
Carmela Horne de Burmeister is de raLy and allied departments in Buenos
president of the newest society, the
Argentine Associationfor Woman Suffrage, organized only last Decem-
ber. Additional strength has recently been given to the movement
by the support of the important National Council of Women (well
known for its educational work), which finds the time ripe for
demanding the vote.

Since 1823, when Bernardino Rivadavia intrusted to a group of
prominent women, organized as the Sociedad de Beneficencia, the offi-
cial protection and education of girls, the members of this society,
with ever increasing prestige, have performed valuable services in

1 Translated and adapted from ‘‘ Caras y Caretas,’’ Buenos Aires, May 28, 1932.

565

566 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

conducting numerous hospitals and schools. It is needless to say,
however, that the pioneer feminists met with many difficulties in
breaking down the traditional concept that women should not inter-
vene in political matters. There were women as well as men in
disagreement with them, but the movement gradually gained in
strength. The Centro changed its name to the Association for
Women’s Rights and for years continued its work to secure not only
civil rights but the suffrage.

The feminists did not confine themselves, however, merely to seek-
ing their “‘rights’’; they were active in social welfare work for women

vszcorey |* | severe {
sy sea / / cms fe (emees|'T

ey wees |)
j

MATERNITY INSTITUTE, BUENOS AIRES

This institute is but one of the social welfare projects maintained in Argentina by the ‘‘Sociedad de
Beneficencia,’’ an organization of women, more than 100 years old.

and children. Among the projects which they advocated were:
Higher salaries for teachers; workers’ housing; reduced prices for
articles of prime necessity; seaside camps for sickly children the year
round, instead of during vacations only; branch libraries; maternity
homes and benefits; newsboys’ dormitories; school lunches; and day
nurseries for the children of employed mothers.

Notable among suffragists was the late Dr. Julieta Lanteri, who in
1912 founded the League for Women’s and Children’s Rights, and in
1918 the National Feminist Party. In 1919 Doctor Lanteri offered
herself as a candidate for deputy to the Federal Congress and some
months later ran for the office of city councilor in Buenos Aires.

FEMINISM IN ARGENTINA 567

For years she continued thus to educate the public. Bravely con-
fronting the scarecrow of ridicule so feared by the poor spirited, she
was an indefatigable worker for feminist ideals. Unmoved by
mockery or insult, she gave herself no rest during campaigns, but
spoke in every section of Buenos Aires, making use indifferently of a
balcony, a park bench, a theater stage—all rostrums from which to
spread her ideas. Her platforms, be it said in passing, would have
done honor to any party.

It should also be recalled that to Doctor Lanteri was due the organ-
ization of the first Pan American Child Congress, held in Buenos
Aires in 1916. Other congresses of this nature have assembled with
erowing importance and usefulness, the sixth having taken place in
Lima in 1930. This is but one of many monuments to a life recently
closed.

Another feminist organization besides those already named was
started in 1930 by Dr. Alicia Moreau de Justo under the name of the
Women’s Suffrage Committee, to succeed an earlier society also
founded by her. This committee carried on active propaganda for
suffrage through its review, Nuestra Causa (Our Cause), and by
lectures, motion pictures, pamphlets, and handbills. Doctor Justo,
it may be added, has been an interested observer of what women in
the United States are doing in politics and public life.

In the long list of Argentine feminists mention must be made of
Gabriela L. de Coni, their early inspiration and guide; Cecilia Grier-
son, the first woman physician; Carmen Barreda, the first woman
lawyer; Ernestina and Elvira Lopez, doctors of philosophy; Sara
Justo, dentist; Adelia Di Carlo, who 25 years ago opened the profession
of journalism to women; and the Argentine Association of University
Women, which in 1910 sponsored the International Women’s Con-
eress, held with great success in Buenos Aires.

ARGENTINA PORTS

Courtesy of International Telephone & Telegraph Corporation;
THE PORT OF BUENOS AIRES

In the section known as the New Port, the Government is effecting port improvements on more than
600 acres of made land; when these are finished, 11 trans-Atlantic vessels may be docked at once.

Courtesy of International Telephone & Telegraph Corporation

THE PORT OF ROSARIO

Rosario is second only to Buenos Aires in the amount of commerce that passes through her port.

AND INDUSTRIES

Somat os : * aes

Courtesy of International Telephone & Telegraph Corporation

THE PORT OF SANTA FE

During the past year 291 vessels of 677,615 tonnage entered Santa Fe, on the Parana River, fifth in im-
portance among Argentine ports.

RSI

Courtesy of International Telephone & Telegraph Corporation

PACKING PLANT ON THE PARANA RIVER

Argentina is one of the sources of the world’s meat supply; in 1931 her exports of meats and meat products
were valued at $218,705,673.

ARGENTINA PORTS

Courtesy of International Telephone & Telegraph Corporation

GRAIN ELEVATORS AT GALVAN

The port of Galvan, 5 miles from the city of Bahia Blanca, on the Atlantic coast, is the property of the
Bahia Blanca and Northwestern Railway, leased to the Great Southern Railway.

OIL FIELDS, COMODORO RIVADAVIA

Argentine petroleum requirements are partially filled by the production of three oil regions, of which
Comodoro Rivadavia is the largest.

AND INDUSTRIES

(3:

Courtesy of International Telephone & Telegraph Corporation.

SUGAR REFINERY AT TUCUMAN

In the northern Provinces Argentina grows much sugarcane. During 1931 there were exported 4,041 tons
of sugar, valued at 690,114 pesos.

: : ; ws gsc. © Be ci
Courtesy of International Telephone & Telegraph Corporation.

A JUTE FACTORY

Argentina imported jute fiber, jute bagging, and sewing twine valued at $17,154,523 during 1930,

PAN AMERICAN DAY, 1932

By Enrique CoRONADO SUAREZ
Assistant Editor, Boterin de la Unién Panamericana

On April 14, 1932, the capitals of all the 21 Republics of the Western
Hemisphere were gay with flags announcing the second continental
celebration of Pan American Day. This date was suggested by the
Governing Board of the Pan American Union and set apart by the
Governments of the 21 American Republics to recall the community
of interests, the unity of sentiments and aspirations, the ties of history,
and the intimate relationships between the members of this group of
free peoples. The 14th of April was chosen as the day for the annual
commemoration of American solidarity because it was on that date
in 1890 that the First International Conference of American States
passed the resolution creating the International Bureau of American
Republics, which has since developed into the Pan American Union.

As in 1931, the Presidents of the American Republics issued decrees
exhorting their fellow citizens to observe Pan American Day with due
ceremony. Accordingly, city councils, public and private schools,
civic and cultural organizations arranged to commemorate the day
with ceremonies expressing sentiments of friendship and mutual
understanding between the peoples of America. In these ceremonies
the noble ideals of Pan Americanism were once more emphasized,
ideals which nowadays have to do with the development and growth
of commercial relations; the promotion of intellectual interchange,
both of students and professors, and of scientific and literary produc-
tion; the adoption of sanitary measures for the protection of public
health and maritime trade; homage to the great heroes of the New
World; the holding of conferences and congresses covering almost all
fields of human activity; the codification of international law; and
the promotion of the American principles of the pacific settlement of
international disputes—in short, all the means conducive to closer
material and intangible relationships between these sister nations,
recalling that true friendship and harmony between peoples is
attained only by strengthening those ties which tend to human wel-
fare and happiness, and following the well-known phrase of William
Jennings Bryan who said, ‘‘God has made us neighbors; let justice
make us friends.”’

Pan Americanism must adapt itself to present conditions, and in its
practical manifestations endeavor to solve the problems which con-
tribute to closer relationships and fuller mutual knowledge between
the American nations, and also set up useful standards for the conduct
of practical activities of general interest. Since the celebration of

572

PAN AMERICAN DAY CELEBRATION le

Pan American Day has to do especially with students in schools and
universities, that is, with the rising generation, it offers a valuable
opportunity for deepening imterest in, and respect for, our sister
Republics through a more thorough knowledge of their culture, ideals,
institutions, customs, sources of wealth, and natural beauty.

In Washington, D. C., the second celebration of Pan American Day
took on special significance since this was the year when the bicen-
tenary of the birth of George Washington was being celebrated
throughout the land. As described in the Butter for July of this
year, on April 14 the ambassadors, ministers, and chargés d’affaires of
the Latin American Republics made a solemn pilgrimage to Mount

PAN AMERICAN DAY CELEBRATION IN WASHINGTON

The program of the official celebration of the second Pan American Day in Washington included a colorful
ceremony on the Ellipse. After the flags of the American Republics had been raised to the strains of their
national anthems and saluted by artillery fire, an address was made by Vice President Curtis to the
assemblage of students.

Vernon, and before Washington’s tomb read special messages sent
for the occasion by their respective Chiefs of Government. This is
considered one of the most notable tributes paid this year to Wash-
ington.
At half past 2 that same day, in the beautiful park opposite the
Pan American Union, a colorful ceremony took place in which
representatives of schools and universities in the capital took part
under the direction of the Hon. L. H. Reichelderfer, president of the
Board of Commissioners of the District of Columbia. The guest of
honor on that occasion was the Hon. Charles Curtis, Vice President
of the United States. At the opening of the ceremonies the Army

574 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Band played the national hymn of each American Republic and the
national flag of that nation was slowly unfurled. After the 21 flags
were fluttering in the April breezes, Mr. Reichelderfer spoke for the
District of Columbia of the importance of the anniversary, saying:
“Pan American Day and its observance throughout the American
Continent is destined to become the outward symbol of that great
spirit of friendship and mutual understanding of which the Western
World is to-day the outstanding example.” He then introduced the
Vice President, who gave a brilliant address dealing with the relations
between the nations of the New World during more than a century,
in which he said:

The message which I bring to you is intended for the younger generation
throughout the Western World. It is to you that we must look for the fulfill-
ment of those purposes and ideals for which the founders of our Republies
struggled and for which subsequent generations have been called to make unend-
ing sacrifices. .. .

Every student of the history of the New World is impressed with the fact that
the founders of the American Republics, almost without exception, saw clearly
the importance of unity of purpose and action among the nations of America
and, what is even more important, that such unity can only rest upon mutual
confidence and constructive cooperation. Each of the Liberators of America
contributed his share to this great purpose. .. .

As I review the relations between the United States and our sister Republics,
I am more and more impressed with the importance of having governmental
action supplemented by private effort in the development of closer inter-American
understanding. Upon the youth of the Americas rests the major responsibility of
fostering an atmosphere of good will in which the possibility of inter-American
misunderstanding will be reduced to a minimum.

The outdoor ceremonies closed with a program of selected pieces of
Latin-American music, many of which were based on themes indige-
nous to the New World. The ceremony was transmitted by radio not
only throughout the United States, but also to the nations of Latin
America through the short-wave channels of the National Broad-
casting Co. and the Columbia circuit, as well as to 72 stations in Ger-
many, Austria, and Switzerland over a special connection from
Schenectady. In the evening a gala concert of Latin-American
music was given in the ballroom of the Pan American Union by the
United Service Orchestra. The well-known Guatemalan soprano,
Aida Doninelli, of the Metropolitan Opera Co., was the soloist; her
gracious manner and delightful voice captivated the distinguished
audience.

At the Pan American Union there was also an interesting exhibit of
six paintings by Mexican school children; these were sent especially
for this occasion and later were distributed among other American
nations.

The Hon. Hiram Bingham opened the session of the Senate on
April 14 with an address in honor of the occasion. The senator em-

PAN AMERICAN DAY CELEBRATION 575

phasized especially the spiritual and moral significance of the day,
and after calling attention to the notable record made in the peaceful
settlement of inter-American disputes, closed with this expression of
the importance of continental understanding, “By giving to the world
the inspiring example of an international system resting on the idea
of cooperation and mutual service, the American republics will best
be able to fulfill the high mission which they are called upon to
perform.”

In the House of Representatives the Hon. Charles Linthicum,
chairman of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, delivered an eloquent
address dealing with Pan American Day, indicating the great progress
which has been made in the relations between the nations of the
Western Hemisphere since the meeting of the First International
Conference of American States in 1890, as well as stressing the impor-
tant services of the Pan American Union in promoting these relations
of friendship and good will.

But the celebration of Pan American Day in the United States was
not limited to the capital alone. In all the large cities, as well as in
many of the smaller towns, impressive ceremonies took place.

In New York the Pan American Society held a special meeting in the
Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. The guests of honor were the consuls general
and consulate staffs of all the American Republics. More than 1,800
students from the universities, public schools, and other educational
institutions of New York were also present. The guests of honor were
His Excellency Dr. Orestes Ferrara, the ambassador of Cuba and then
vice chairman of the Governing Board of the Pan American Union,
who spoke upon ‘‘The Influence of American ideas;”’ Dr. Stephen P.
Duggan, director of the International Institute of Education, whose
subject was “Cultural Cooperation with Latin America,” and Senior
Alejandro T. Bollini, consul general of Argentina, whose address
dealt with ‘“‘Pan Americanism and Pan American Day.”’ Mr. John
L. Merrill, president of the society, presided at the luncheon and the
entire program was broadcast throughout the Nation. In many of
the more important schools of the city commemorative exercises were
held at which eminent Pan Americanists addressed the students.

At the beginning of the spring term of 1932, the Board of Education
of New York City announced that a prize to be known as the Bolivar-
San Martin Medal would be awarded this June at commencement time
and in future years on Pan American Day to the student of each public
school having a Pan American club who, in the opinion of the prin-
cipal, had contributed most to promoting the Pan American ideal in
the school. This medal is offered by the Pan American Society of the
United States under the auspices of the Pan American Student
League of New York. At the same time, the San Francisco chapter
of that society offered two prizes, one of $40 and the other of $20, to

576 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

the students of a Hispano-American university who present the best
essays on the subject “Towards Inter-American Friendship.”

The Pan American Student League of New York, which at present
has 34 chapters, took part for the first time in this celebration under
the auspices of the Pan American Society, and at the same time
organized a series of exercises in the different schools belonging to
the league. As a contribution to the celebration one of the chapters
organized a Pan American exhibition in which were represented the
principal commercial and artistic organizations interested in Latin
America. The exhibition remained open for a month and showed
models of telegraph systems, maps, pictures by American artists,
samples of mineral and agricultural products, books, magazines,
flags, and other objects of special interest.

At the University of Miami, the celebration of Pan American Day
began with a general gathering of the students at which guests and
professors of the Latin American department spoke on the ideal of
brotherhood which this day commemorates. The speakers included
Mr. Arthur E. Curtis, representative of the Pan American Airways, and
the consul of Guatemala, whose subject was ‘‘International Aviation
as a Factor of Pan-Americanism,”’ and Dr. Rafael Belatinde, a mem-
ber of the faculty, who discussed ‘“‘ Youth and Pan-Americanism.”’

At noon a banquet with 400 guests was held at which Dr. Rafael
Belatinde, sr., professor of the economic geography of South America
at the University, explained briefly the significance of the date and
the bases and ideals of Pan-Americanism, explaining the origin of
the day and the efforts so far made to convert these ideals into reality.
He especially mentioned the important labors of the Pan American
Union, whose almost half-century of development he summarized
briefly. Mr. Edward Tomlinson, a well-known journalist, pictured
to his audience the culture, beauty, and high future of Brazil, Argen-
tina, Uruguay, and Peru. Dr. Gonzalo J. Gallegos, consul of Costa
Rica, spoke appreciatively in the name of his Latin American col-
leagues. An exposition of Latin American products was opened to
show the varied geographic characteristics and the manifold wealth
of our neighbors to the south.

At the University of Washington, in Seattle, students of history,
foreign trade, languages, and similar subjects met to hear addresses
delivered by Dr. David Thomson, vice president of the university,
and Sefiores Carlos Garcia Prada and Ulpiano Borja, consuls of
Columbia and Ecuador respectively. During the ceremony, at which
a special orchestra played several selections of Pan American
music, a portrait of the Liberator, Simén Bolivar, was presented to
the university by the consul of Columbia. The occasion was also

PAN AMERICAN DAY CELEBRATION S77

notable because of the presence of the consular representatives of 13
American republics.

Many other schools and universities in the United States celebrated
the day of Pan American brotherhood with great enthusiasm. Among
these were Tulane and George Washington Universities and the
Universities of Arizona, Missouri, Illinois, and California, as well as
other educational institutions whose ceremonies were dignified and
impressive.

The Pan American Society chapters in San Francisco and Los
Angeles also observed Pan American Day with fitting ceremonies at
which, as in New York, the guests of honor were the consular repre-
sentatives of the Latin American nations. Another expression of
Pan American friendship was the ceremony in New Orleans where
Sefior Diego Matute Ruiz, consul general of Venezuela, presented a
portrait of Sim6én Bolivar to the city.

From this account of the celebration of Pan American Day in the
United States, itis evident that there exists a strong feeling of inter-
American cooperation which was especially pronounced in the cele-
bration this year. Diplomatic and consular representatives parti-
cipated wherever possible in celebrations. Speakers were chosen
from outstanding figures in the field of international relations. The
concerts and literary and artistic gatherings dealt with all the nations
of the Western Hemisphere, and the exhibitions which were held
included native products of these nations and material relating to the
progress and varied activities of the New World of Columbus.

From the vast amount of correspondence received at the Pan
American Union, as well as from comments in the press throughout
the Americas, it is evident that the commemoration of Pan American
Day in the nations of Central and South America and the Antilles,
was more than a gesture. Especially in the schools and educational
institutions emphasis was placed upon the true significance of the day
and of the importance to the nations of this continent that the bonds
of friendship and brotherhood with which the nations are united in
the spheres of education, commerce, industry, and good will, should
be increasingly closer.

The celebrations included many addresses appropriate to the occa-
sion by eminent educators and internationalists; the exchange be-
tween students of one country and their colleagues in other nations
of correspondence and albums containing information as to the physi-
cal, economic, and historical aspects of their respective countries;
and the class-room preparation of such material as historical sketches
of the American nations or information about their most notable
heroes. In one of the nations of South America, schools bearing the
names of sister republics or of their heroes prepared special studies

129792—32— Bull. 84

578 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

on the progress and attractions of those countries. These were sent
to the Ministry of Education to be forwarded to other school children
through the same department in the countries concerned. In another
nation a message of friendship was broadcast by one student in each
school named for another American Republic, to the students of that
nation. In other schools literary gatherings were held and exhibits
arranged of native American products as well as of scientific and edu-
cational works to instruct the coming generations in the progress,
culture, and customs of these sister nations. In every case musical
programs were prepared and the national hymns of the American
republics played.

PUBLIC SCHOOL CHILDREN IN MEXICO ON PAN AMERICAN DAY

Special mention should be made of the valuable cooperation of the
city governments to make the occasion a success, for all of them passed
resolutions calling upon school authorities to awaken in the students
enthusiasm for the celebration of Pan American Day and ordered that
on the public buildings the national flag should be flown.

In view of the interest which the celebration of this day has aroused,
it is only natural to hope that in the years to come these relations may
become increasingly closer, especially now that the great advances in
aviation, telegraphy, broadcasting, and other means of communication
have contributed not only to shorten distance and to awaken a spirit
of closer union between neighboring countries, but also to diminish
the sense of frontiers between sister nations.

COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY NOTES

Argentine literary awards.—The awards for 1928 of the annual liter-
ary competition in Argentina have recently been made. The first
prize of 30,000 pesos went to Dr. Arturo Capdevila for his book Babel
y el Castellano. The second and third prizes, of 20,000 and 10,000
pesos, were awarded respectively to B. Ferndndez Moreno for his
Poestas and Décimas and to Dr. Alejandro M. Unséin, author of
Legislacién del Trabajo. Los Gauchos and Los Buscadores de Oro,
written by Juan Davalos, were recommended by one judge for the
second prize. The judges for the contest were Dr. Clodomiro
Zavalia, Dr. Gastén F. Tobal, Dr. Alfredo Franceschi, Sr.
Coriolano Alberini and Sr. Alfonso Lafferrére.

Research in the Columbus Memorial Library.—Instead of the usual
reduction in demands on the library during the summer vacation
period the demands have increased this season, largely because of
the several seminars on Latin American affairs now in session through-
out the country, but particularly because of that held at George
Washington University. Each student taking the course is required
to present a paper on some Latin American subject. Many of these
papers are being prepared with the use of sources in the library,
whose staff is glad to offer all possible assistance to students.

Accessions.—In the course of the past month the library received
341 volumes and pamphlets, among which the following are to be
specially noted:

Segundo Congreso Nacional de Alcaldes. Celebrado en Santiago en enero del
afio 1931. Recopilacién de sus antecedentes, trabajos presentados, conclusiones

aprobadas y demds documentos de su desarrollo. Santiago de Chile, Imprenta
Lagunas & Quevedo Ltda., 1931. 526 p. 8°.

579

580 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Antolegia de narradores del Uruguay. Reyes, Vavala Muniz, Espinola, Cione,
Viana, Acosta y Lara, Acevedo Diaz, Garcia Saiz, Giordano, de Castro, con
anotaciones de Juan M. Filartigas. Montevideo, Editorial Albatros, 1930.
144 p. 12°,

Historia de la esclavitud de los indios en el Nuevo Mundo, seguida de la historia
de los repartimientos y encomiendas. Por José Antonio Saco. Tomo 2. Habana,
Cultural, S. A., 1932. 356 p. 12°. (Coleccidén de libros cubanos, Vol. 29.)

Labor universitaria. Serie de conferencias cientificas dictadas en el paraninfo,
del 10 de Septiembre al 10 de Octubre de 1931. [San Salvador], Publicaciones del
Ministerio de instruccién ptiblica, 1931. 226 p. 8°.

Catdélogo de la Biblioteca Nacional, arreglado por materias, segin el sistema
“Dewey decimal.’? Por Rafael Garcia Escobar. Tomo 2. San Salvador,
Imprenta ‘‘La Salvadorefia’’, [1932]. 479 p. 8°.

El Libertador Simén Bolivar y la independencia de América. Tomo 1. [Por]
Camilo Jiménez y Ricardo Portocarrero. Biblioteca Bolivariana. Caracas,
Editorial “Elite,” 1931. 298 p. illus. 4°.

Forgotten frontiers; a study of the Spanish Indian policy of Don Juan Bautista
de Anza, Governor of New Mexico 1777-1787. From the original documents in
the archives of Spain, Mexico, and New Mexico. Translated into English,
edited and annotated by Alfred Barnaby Thomas. Norman, University of
Oklahoma Press, 1932. 420 p. maps. 8°.

Gobernadores de Antioquia, 1571-1819. [Por] José Maria Restrepo Sdenz.
Bogota, Imprenta Nacional, 1931. ° 378 p. 8°.

El el congreso admirable de 1930 a 1931. (Otras Labores) [Por] J. R. Lanao
Loaiza. Bogota, Imprenta Nacional, 1931. 116 p. 8°.

Judrez: una interpretacién humana. [Por] J. M. Puig Casaurane. Mexico,
1928. 58 p. illus. 42.

Derecho constitucional ecuatoriano. [Por] Rodrigo Jacome Moscoso. Quito,
Imprenta de la Universidad Central, 1931. 603 p. 8°.

Les sauvages américains devant le droit. Par Rodrigo Octavio. Paris, Librairie
du Recueil Sirey, 1931. 116 p. 8°. (Académie de Droit International établie
avec le concours de la dotation Carnegie pour la paix internationale.)

The national system of education in Mexico. By Cameron Duncan Ebaugh.
Baltimore, 1931. 149 p. (The Johns Hopkins University studies in education,
No. 16. Edited by Florence E. Bamberger.)

Bosquejo histérico de la agregacién a México de Chiapas y Soconusco y de las
negociaciones sobre limites entabladas por México con Centro América y Guate-
mala. Por Andrés Clemente Vdsquez. México, Publicaciones de la Secretaria
de Relaciones Exteriores, 1932. 661 p. 8°. (Archivo histérico diplomatico
mexicano, Nim. 36.)

Aztatlan, prehistoric Mexican frontier on the Pacific coast. By Carl Sauer
and Donald Brand. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1982. 92 p.
maps. plates. 8°. (Ibero-Americana: 1.)

The comparative ethnology of northern Mexico before 1750. By Ralph L. Beals.
Berkeley, University of California Press, 1932. 93-225 p. maps. 8°. (Ibero-
Americana: 2.)

Churubusco-Huitzilopochco. Texto de los profesores Lic. Ramén Mena y
Nicolas Rangel . . . México, Departamento Universitario y de Bellas Artes,
19Siee eel eplatessm So:

Diccionario histérico y biografico de Chile. Por Virgilio Figueroa, Tomo 1,
1800-1925. Tomo 2-8, 1800-1928. Santiago de Chile, Establecimientos graficos
Balcells & Co., 1925-1929. 8°. 8 vols.

COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY NOTES 581

New periodicals reaching the library during the past month for the
first time are as follows:

Information Bulletin on Intellectual Corporation (League of Nations’ Interna-
tional Institute of Intellectual Cooperation). Paris (M), Vol. 1, No. 1, April,
1932. 32p. 6% by 9% inches.

Revista Parlamentaria (Legislacién nesonal provincial y extranjera, adminis-
tracién publica, asuntos municipales, vialidad, economia y finanzas). Calle
Corrientes 435, Buenos Aires. Afio 1, No. 1, Abril de 1932. 160 p. 6% by
9 inches.

Revista Pro-Turismo y de Accién Economica del Estado de Hidalgo. Pachuca,
Estado de Hidalgo, Mexico. (M), Vol. 1, No. 3, Junio de 1932. 16p. 9 by
11 inches. illus.

Quipus (Publicado por la Direccién de Educacién Indigena del Ministerio de
Instruccién Piblica del Pert). Lima (M), Afiol, No. 1, Octubre de 1931. 16
p- 9 by 13 inches. illus.

Aguas e Irrigacién (Organo de la Direccidn de Aguas e Irrigacién). Lima.
(M), Afio 1, No. 1, May 15, 1982. 8 by 1l inches. 104 p. illus.

O Cafe (Revista mensal dedicada a layvoura, commercio e industria do cafe).
Rua Direita, 6, 1° andar, Sao Paulo, Brasil. (M), Anno 2, Vol. 6, No. 5, Maio,
1932. 62p. 74 by 10% inches. illus.

PAN AMERICAN PROGRESS

AGRICULTURE

The Department of Agriculture of Ecuador.—The field organization
of the Department of Agriculture of Ecuapor is described in a recently
received issue of the magazine Nariz del Diablo. The functions of
this branch of the department may be classified, so the article says,
under three general headings—protection, experimentation, and pub-
licity and promotion.

In the first group come the establishment of quarantine services,
supervision over the importation of animals, plants, and seeds, the
waging of sanitary campaigns, and the guardianship (as the name
indicates) over agriculture in the fullest sense of the word. The
second division, experimentation, includes activities of the greatest
importance carried on especially to secure data, which may be used
commercially, on all the field or laboratory agricultural operations.
This is considered indispensable for establishing a sound national
agrarian policy. Under the third and last heading come what might
be called the finishing touches, since their aim is to disseminate the
best methods, the most economical and profitable procedure, and, in
fine, any helpful information gathered by trained experience in other
branches of the department.

All these activities are done under the supervision of the General
Bureau of Agriculture at Quito and the littoral and Azuay offices
at Guayaquil and Cuenca, respectively, together with their allied
institutions.

Under the classification of protection and defense come the following
establishments: The animal quarantine station at Eloy Alfaro (1927);
the plant quarantine field at Isla de Silva (1930); three tick-eradication
dipping vats at Conocoto (1928), Songolqui (1929), and Uyumbicho
(1930); and the Bureau of Plant and Animal Sanitary Inspection of
Guayaquil, which has control over exports. At present the construc-
tion of other dipping vats in various Provinces of the Republic is
being considered. Final touches are being given, also, to a bill whose
provisions include the regulation of the national veterinary service,
the combating of cryptogamic diseases of plants, and the establish-
ment of a committee to study appropriate legislation.

The difficult and complicated problem of cacao may be used as
illustration. Two diseases of the plant, Monilia and witchbroom,
have been causing great damage to plantations, and the department

582

AGRICULTURE 583

is attacking the task with vigor. It is depending upon the research
of agronomists working under contract, especially that of Sefior Vignes,
a specialist in plant genetics. At Isla de Silva and at least one experi-
mental farm in the Province of Los Rios, experiments in cultivation as
well as in disease prevention are to be undertaken, without losing sight
of the possibility of obtaining resistant, if not immune varieties—an
object of great and practical consequence. ‘The initial steps in this
direction have already been taken and the successful outcome of the
experiments is now only a question of time. The department has
promised facilities to all those engaged in serious efforts to solve the
problem effectively and inexpensively.

The heading experimentation includes the Veterinary Clinic at
Quito and several demonstration farms. Under the clinic, opened
in February, 1929, function the nurseries for forest trees and useful
and ornamental plants; in addition, model chicken houses are to be
established this year. The department is doing everything possible
to increase the usefulness of the clinic, which is already supplied with
the necessary staff and equipment, including operating rooms, labora-
tories, compartments for sick animals, and a crematory. During the
past year approximately 600,000 plants were distributed from its
nurseries and it is hoped that the same policy in regard to reforestation
will be continued.

The chicken houses, now in process of construction, will fill a
double purpose: They will show amateur and professional poultrymen
three standard types of chicken houses with the necessary yard
attached to each one, and they will provide breeding stock of various
strains of purebred fowls for distribution at prices within the reach of
everyone.

The establishment of a series of agricultural centers called demon-
stration farms, to dispense service and information to the surrounding
regions, is a project which has been especially fostered by the depart-
ment. On each farm attention will be given to the most important
agricultural problems in that particular area, with special considera-
tion for the crops and activities that stand out for their adaptability,
commercial value, and consequent demand in local or foreign markets.
Nor will the industrial uses be neglected, for studies in that field will
be undertaken. On these farms special emphasis will be given to
the selection and distribution of seeds, the treatment of various plant
pests and diseases, comparative studies of different systems of culti-
vation, experiments in the use of fertilizers, tests of plant acclimati-
zation, determination of the most suitable crops and methods, the
care and breeding of domestic animals, and, in short, everything nec-
essary for obtaining exact data of benefit to future farm activities
throughout the nation. To repeat a well-known axiom, agricultural
problems must be worked out in the field.

584 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The success of the farms, the majority of which will be compara-
tively small, will unquestionably depend on three main factors. The
first is strategic location; sites must be as typical as possible of the
agricultural conditions in the region, in order that the results obtained
may be applicable throughout the area. Care must be taken to place
them, if possible, in the center of important and populous agricultural
communities, in the neighborhood of a town, and preferably near one
or more rural schools.

Liberal expenditure in the initial outlay is the second requirement
to assure good equipment, model buildings, and ample plant and
animal breeding arrangements.

Both these precautions will be in vain, however, unless the directors
of the farms are carefully chosen agronomists, enthusiastic, active,
congenial, and capable. On the direction their energies take the
future of the farms will in large part depend. Although the director
is supposed to reside at the farm, he will have to entrust much respon-
sibility to his assistants, for one of his principal duties is to serve as
extension worker. In this capacity he must make frequent visits to
the principal agricultural centers of the region; distribute seeds and
plants; establish first experimental and then demonstration fields
with the close cooperation of willing farmers; give lectures in towns
and rural schools; and, finally, learn at first hand the conditions of
crops and livestock in his district, so as to be able to report to the
General Bureau of Agriculture. These agronomists will constitute a
bond of real and effective union between rural communities and the
Government.

The Department of Agriculture has established provisional demon-
stration farms at Pichincha, Isla de Silva, and Milagro, and is making
preliminary studies and plans for similar establishments at Azuay
and Manabi.

The experimental farm at Pichincha combines a systematic and
practical study of the cultivation of cereal crops, potatoes, and forage
plants with the breeding of livestock in general; these activities, which
complement each other admirably, are closely related to the principal
products of the mountain region. The main emphasis will be upon
the systematic study of wheat cultivation; the breeding of pedigreed
livestock, both cattle and hogs, with the special aim of distributing
breeding stock to smaller Government offices of the department in the
interior and to private individuals; the establishment of free breeding
stables for the improvement of livestock in the vicinity; the founding
of a veterinary clinic equipped to serve the important ’and well-
developed livestock industry of the region; the study of soil erosion,
the vast importance of which in the agriculture of mountainous
regions has not yet been properly appreciated; and the methodical
study of rendering lard and dressing meats.

AGRICULTURE 585

At present the farm contains about 300 acres, 5 water mills, offices
and residence for the director, 90 head of cattle (including some
imported Holstein-Freisian and Guernsey stock, horses and mules, 2
male and 4 female pedigreed Berkshire hogs for breeding purposes),
and an adequate supply of tools and equipment. A model sty and a
modern stable, with a capacity of 50 cows, are being built.

Among the activities of the Isla de Silva farm, the land for which
was acquired in 1928, are the careful study of the complicated and
difficult cacao problem, with special reference to experiments in
genetics to discover immune or resistant varieties; experiments in
inexpensive rice cultivation by means of artificial irrigation; studies,
in the plant quarantine field, of tropical plants imported by the depart-
ment, as a necessary preliminary to their distribution to the rest of
the country; the breeding of pedigreed domestic animals for distribu-
tion to the other stations and to farms of the coastal region; efforts to
acclimatize and cultivate new forage plants; and the development of
rice growing as a commercial proposition.

The farm at Milagro was to be established under the direction of
Sefior Rumeau soon after the article referred to was written. A site
had been selected at a spot where all the crops in the coastal region
might be grown, a fact of material advantage in studying as inten-
sively as possible all manifestations of tropical agriculture. On this
farm special attention will be paid to the installation of nurseries for
propagating tropical plants, especially fruit trees, on a large scale, for
distribution at cost to farmers of the district; the study of irrigation
and fertilizers in sugar-cane cultivation; the establishment of an
animal breeding station similar to those at Ambato, Cuenca, and
Manabi; and the possibility of growing fruit, especially pineapples, on
a commercial scale.

The farm at Azuay will be under the direction of Sefior Cattoni,
who is studying the appropriate location and organization. The
principal activities there will include the growing of fruit, ornamental,
and forest trees; the establishment of an animal breeding and service
station; experimentation with forage plants, and perhaps apiculture
and sericulture.

A large part of the Province of Manabi has been examined by
Sefior M4rquez, the director of the proposed farm in that section, in
his search for the most favorable location. While members of the
staff will include in their studies the ordinary crops of that region,
they will specialize in the study of textile fibers and other vegetable
products useful in industry.

The forest and range substation at Tiupullo, in Cotopaxi, was
established to investigate the most profitable uses for the paramos.
Begun in 1929, it now boasts a fine residence and large fields for the
experimental planting of conifers and forage plants. Its flocks of

586 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

sheep and llamas—including three male alpacas—are in splendid
condition. At present work is being continued in the planting of
trees and the increasing of flocks and herds. A project is on foot for
experimenting with the use of oca (a South American tuberous wood
sorrell) as a basis for hog feed.

The Normal School of Ambato comprises a school of agriculture, a
large nursery of fruit trees, an experiment station with fields and
laboratories, and a model stable, where a breeding service for cattle
and hogs will soon be established.

The maintenance of agricultural warehouses is one of the major
activities of the third division, publicity and promotion. Owing to
the lack of cooperative societies, through which farmers in other
countries may arrange to acquire tools and other necessary materials
at nominal prices free from the added expense of middlemen’s profits,
it was only natural that the Government should establish two agri-
cultural warehouses, one at Quito, the other at Guayaquil. There
tools, agricultural and livestock equipment, chemical and biological
products, remedies, and similar merchandise are distributed among
the farmers at cost.

The National Budget provides the relatively small rotating fund
of 40,000 sucres for both warehouses; this small grant not only makes
this service possible, but also permits the careful selection of useful and
essential articles which would be difficult, if not impossible, to pur-
chase in the national markets. The success of the warehouses, which
will eventually be patronized by an increasing number of farmers if
they continue to offer indispensable articles at low prices, depends in
large part upon the wisdom and care used in the original purchases.
There is an immediate and increasing demand for medicines, serums,
vaccines, insecticides, fungicides, pulverizers, and fertilizers, to men-
tion only the things most generally requested. Then, too, it should
not be difficult for the warehouses to secure the agencies of certain
manufacturing or construction firms with real advantage to both
parties.

For some time the task of imparting information has been carried
on by the Normal School at Ambato and its school of practical agri-
culture, and by the office at Guayaquil, with its important publica-
tions. This is to be furthered by the lectures which the department
proposes to encourage and which are to be given—some already have
been delivered—by professional men in the towns and rural schools,
and by the magazine which it publishes and which should develop
into an organ of real benefit to the farmers of the nation.

Brazilian coffee developments.—Confronted with large accumulated
stocks because of the failure of earlier valorization schemes, the Pro-
visional Government of Brazil, which assumed power on November 3,
1930, set out to eliminate this congestion of the market by purchasing

AGRICULTURE 587

and destroying the low-grade coffee which constituted the excess of pro-
duction over consumption requirements; this would permit the free
outflow of future crops and allow the market to revert to the time-
honored law of supply and demand. The latest development in the
present administration’s coffee program, it may be explained here, was
the creation last December of a National Coffee Council to take over
the whole coffee problem with no further intervention of the Federal
or State Government in the matter; the council was established to
protect the coffee industry in the transition period from absolute
artificiality to free production and trading. A 10-shilling tax has been
levied on each bag of coffee exported; the proceeds are used for buying
and eliminating the surplus production of low-grade coffees, the Bank
of Brazil providing the credits necessary for the purchase of the old
stocks still on hand. Surplus stocks are thus being eliminated and
new plantings practically prohibited; the National Coffee Council,
moreover, is making every effort to increase the consumption of
coffee.

In the spring of this year, the council appointed a technical bureau
headed by Dr. Fernando Costa, who organized the Federal Coffee
Bureau. According to a statement by Doctor Costa in The Spice
Mill for June, 1932, the new bureau will investigate and make recom-
mendations upon every phase of coffee production from the selection
of the variety for planting to the final steps in exporting. The wide
scope of the bureau is clearly indicated in a summary of its aims and
purposes, originally published in Brazil.

It will study all problems, practical and theoretical, dealing with
the growing and marketing of coffee; carry on research and experi-
ments in demonstration fields and special laboratories on all phases of
intensive cultivation and the production of superior types; encourage
all coffee-producing States to develop scientific procedures for culti-
vating, picking, drying, milling, preparing, and commercializing the
product, from the selection of the variety to the standardization by
types and quality; organize coffee museums, for educational and
advertising purposes; establish in coffee zones demonstration fields
and rooms for commercial and agricultural propaganda, where
growers may follow the development of scientific cultivation, treat-
ment, picking, and preparation of the product; submit all coffees to
the cup test; organize practical courses for fazenda superintendents
and for coffee graders; organize an efficient inspection service of
coffee for consumption; divulge, by means of appropriate publica-
tions, the results obtained from the research of experimental stations
and agricultural institutes; and establish relations with the agri-
cultural and scientific centers within the nation and abroad.

The directors of the Technical Bureau will install and maintain in
the States of Minas Geraes, Rio de Janeiro, Espirito Santo, Parana,

588 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Bahia, and Pernambuco a special service for the improvement of
coffee, in order to encourage and intensify the production of fine
varieties. In Sao Paulo the bureau will continue the present coffee
section in the Department of Agriculture.

The National Coffee Council, reviewing the coffee situation in
its annual report, stated that on June 30, 1931, there were 18,000,000
bags of coffee retained in the Sao Paulo regulating warehouses;
these, added to the 17,500,000 bags at which the 1931-82 crop was
then estimated, made a total of 35,500,000 bags of coffee available in
the State of Sao Paulo alone. As the average coffee exports through
Santos are calculated at 9,500,000 bags a year, this left a surplus of
26,000,000 to be disposed of, without taking into consideration the
coffee production of other Brazilian States. Of the 18,000,000 bags
stored on June 30, 1931, nearly 13,000,000 bags had been bought and paid
for by the council on April 30, leaving 5,083,462 bags which have
been purchased but not yet paid for. Of the 17,500,000 bags of the
1931-32 Sao Paulo crop, 9,500,000 bags have been accounted for by
export shipments to Santos or by purchases of the Coffee Council at
Sao Paulo.

FINANCE AND COMMERCE

Brazil abolishes internal tariff barriers —The Provisional Govern-
ment of Brazil has launched a new attack on interstate and inter-
municipal taxes. These taxes, levied by some States on products of
foreign origin which have already paid a Federal import tax as well
as on domestic merchandise originating in other units of the Federa-
tion, have been characterized by Dr. Getulio Vargas, head of the
Provisional Government, as amounting often to an interstate tariff
war and constituting one of the most serious obstacles to the economic
development of Brazil. As early as 1904 laws were passed forbidding
this method of taxation, but they were circumvented by many of the
States who created ‘‘consumption,” ‘‘transport,’ and other taxes,
violating the spirit if not the letter of the law. Early during his
administration Doctor Vargas denounced these taxes and on May 14,
1931, issued a decree by which the Brazilian States and municipalities
as well as the Federal District were ‘‘forbidden to create or maintain
in their respective territories any tax, fee, contribution, or privilege
which in any way creates inequality between the products of said
State, municipality, or Federal District and those originating in
another section of the national territory or abroad, after the products
are duly nationalized.” This decree became effective on January 1,

FINANCE AND COMMERCE 589

repeatedly forbidden by law, continue to be collected by an unjustified
fiscal policy in various States of the Federation” the Provisional
Government has issued a new decree (No. 21418 of May 17, 1932)
which it is believed will eradicate them definitely.

The decree provides that Brazilian States and municipalities are
expressly forbidden to create, for any reason and under any name or
form whatever, imposts, taxes, or duties whose incidence is on inter-
state or intermunicipal commerce. This term is defined as including
the persons engaged in this commerce as well as the goods which enter
into it and the vehicles which carry them, whether land, fluvial, or
maritime. Interstate and intermunicipal imposts, taxes, and duties
are defined as all those placed upon the operations necessary for the
interchange of domestic and foreign commodities when they are the
object of commerce between one State and another or between one
State and the Federal District or between municipalities, whether
located in the same or different States. Thus, the decree says, States
and municipalities are forbidden: (a) To tax, upon entrance to their
territory, domestic and foreign goods, the vehicles which carry them
and the persons engaged in their commerce, whether the said goods
are intended for consumption in the State or municipality of entry,
or for consumption in some other State or municipality; (b) to levy
imposts, taxes, or duties on the aforementioned goods, vehicles, and
persons when in transit through their territory.

The States and municipalities are allowed to tax foreign merchan-
dise or the commodities produced in other States or municipalities
only when they have already become the object of commerce within
that State or municipality and have therefore been incorporated into
the body of its wealth in circulation and are offered to the public for
consumption and when such a tax is also equally imposed upon
similar merchandise produced in the State or municipality.

Those in possession of foreign or national merchandise threatened
by State or municipal laws establishing taxes in violation of this
decree may request an order of maintenance against the fiscal agent
who violates the law. Against such an order, to be issued within
24 hours after the presentation of the petition, stays may be admitted
only on evidence of fraud; and once the order is confirmed by a
judge it can not be suspended by an appeal to a higher court or by
action brought by the State or municipality against the possessor of
the merchandise.

The decree also provides for the eventual elimination of the export
taxes now levied by the State. According to its terms, ‘‘within the
period of five years subsequent to January, 1933, State export taxes
shall be abolished or replaced by others, and the States shall be
obliged to provide annually in their budgets a reduction of 20 per
cent on the taxes in force, until they are totally abolished.”

590 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Guatemala modifies its subsidiary currency.—The quetzal, the mone-
tary unit of the Republic of GuatTeMaAta, representing 1.504665 grams
of fine gold, was adopted by a presidential decree issued on Novem-
ber 26, 1924, modified and approved by legislative decree No. 1379 of
May 7, 1925. Since its establishment it has been practically stable,
its par value in United States currency being $1. The establishment
of this currency, named after the national bird of Guatemala (emble-
matic of liberty, since it is said that not one has ever lived in captivity),
was one of the steps taken by the Guatemalan Government during
the administration of President José Maria Orellana to prevent a
continuation of the period of paper money inflation which had existed
from 1897 to 1923. The first step was the creation in 1923 of a
Caja Reguladora, or Exchange Regulation Bureau, to maintain the
stability of the exchange. When a central bank of issue was finally
established on July 6, 1926, the bureau was dissolved and its assets
and liabilities taken over by the bank, which assumed responsibility
for the existing paper pesos (revalued at the ratio of 60 to 1 quetzal)
and is gradually replacing them with its own notes issued against a
gold reserve of 40 per cent.

The monetary law of 1925 provided for the minting of gold coins
of 20, 10, and 5 quetzales. These gold coins are now in circulation as
well as the 1-quetzal and half-quetzal silver coins also provided for
by law; but many of the subsidiary coins, both silver and copper,
bear no relation to the quetzal which, like the dollar, is divided into 100
cents. The coins in circulation include pesos, reales, and cuartillos,
and in the Departments of Petén and Chiquimula transactions are
conducted daily in pieces-of-eight and other ancient coins, whose
circulation, restricted to those Departments, causes the inhabitants
some difficulties. Also the 1-quetzal and half-quetzal coins, because
of their bulkiness, have not proven very popular and the stock of
silver currency in the vaults of the Central Bank of Guatemala is
constantly increasing.

To remedy this situation the Legislative Assembly of Guatemala
issued a decree, signed by the President on May 12, 1932, which modi-
fies the provisions of the original monetary law relative to the subsidi-
ary currency. Within one year the 1-quetzal, half-quetzal, 1-cen-
tavo, 5-peso, l-peso, 4-real, 2-real, 1-real, half-real, and the cuartillo
coins will be demonetized; the period for the demonetization of the
old silver coins which still circulate in the Departments of Petén and
Chiquimula is, however, six months. This currency will be exchanged
by the Central Bank for the gold coins now in circulation, for its own
banknotes, or for the new silver and copper-aluminum subsidiary
coins, at the option of the bearer. The new subsidiary coins provided
for by the decree are 25-centavo, 10-centavo, and 5-centavo silver

EDUCATION 591

pieces and 2-centavo, l-centavo, and half-centavo copper-aluminum
pieces.

The total coinage of silver is limited, unless changed by law, to
2,000,000 quetzales and that of copper-aluminum coins to 500,000
quetzales. The silver and copper currency may be exchanged for
gold provided not less than 20 quetzales in silver or 5 quetzales in
copper are presented for conversion at one time; it is legal tender,
in payment of private debts, in sums not exceeding 10 and 1 quetzales,
respectively. The Government, however, will accept the silver and
copper coins in any amount in payment of all obligations.

Brazilian Coffee Developments —See p. 586.

40 0

EDUCATION

New schools and courses.—While new schools are constantly being
created and new courses added to the curricula of already established
educational institutions throughout Latin America, there are perhaps
but few that ever receive more than passing notice beyond the con-
fines of their own country. To the thoughtful student of education
in the Americas, however, even this meager information reveals
certain well-defined tendencies which indicate constant cultural
progress. Among recent trends are to be found such absorbing
movements as the extension of educational advantages to an ever-
increasing number of people through night schools; the raising of
trade and agricultural schools to a position of greater importance;
the cultivation of a spirit of international friendship by the promo-
tion of cultural exchange and by the naming of schools for sister
American Republics, with the fitting recognition of the national
holidays of one country by the pupils in the namesake schools of the
other; the adoption of modern pedagogical methods wherever possi-
ble; and the initiation of extensive programs for the establishment of
schools in more isolated sections for the indigenous population. The
scope of subjects taught in the schools has also been greatly widened
and there has been a noticeable increase in the number of special
courses and schools established. A short review of the special
courses and institutions opened in various Latin American countries
during the past few months may be of interest.

In Brazi_ a museum course and a university extension course in
music were recently organized. The creation of the museum course,
which is being given in the Historical Museum, was authorized by a
Government decree issued on March 7, 1932. Classes were to begin
on March 15, the regular academic year extending from that date to
November 30. The course covers two years and according to the

592 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

provisions of the decree every subject shall have at least one class
period of an hour each week. Enrollment in the school is open for
all those who have passed the fifth-year examinations in the Pedro II
Secondary School or in any similar institution under Government
supervision. Candidates with certificates that they have completed
required studies in Portuguese, French, English, Latin, arithmetic,
geography, general history, and Brazilian geography and history, and
employees of museums in other cities of the Republic may also enroll.
Students who have successfully completed the museum course will be
given preference in appointments or promotion to specified positions
in the National Historical Museum. The program of study arranged
for the course included the political and administrative history of
Brazil during the colonial period, numismatics, the history of art,
the history of Brazilian art, applied archeology in Brazil, Brazilian
numismatics, epigraphy, chronology, and museum science. The
National Museum will have charge of the course and the teaching
staff will be appointed from among the employees of that institution.

In this connection it is interesting to note that Miss Berta Lutz,
who for some time has been secretary of the National Museum, came
to the United States in April for three months of intensive study of
museum management and methods. Miss Lutz, who held a fellow-
ship from the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, carried
on her investigations under the auspices of the American Association
of Museums. On her trip through the central and eastern sections
of the United States, Miss Lutz visited more than 50 institutions,
including trail-side and other open-air museums, in which she is par-
ticularly interested.

The popular course in music opened by the University of Rio de
Janeiro on April 20, 1932, is the first of its kind to be established in
Brazil. The program as outlined in the press covers practically
every phase of the history of music besides presenting a detailed study
of Brazilian musical folklore. The various subjects scheduled for
treatment during the course include the origin of music, the music
of the ancients, Greek and oriental music, primitive Christian music,
the Gregorian chant, popular medieval music, the beginning of po-
lyphony, musical notation, counterpoint; the opera, oratorio, and
other musical forms of the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth
centuries; German musical drama of the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries; songs, and symphonic and chamber music of Germany,
Austria, France, the Scandinavian countries, Bohemia, and Russia
during the same period; contemporary music in different countries;
and Brazilian music during colonial times, the empire, the era of
Carlos Gomes, the latter part of the nineteenth century, and the
beginning of the present century. (Those who have listened in person
or by radio to the concerts of Latin American music given at the Pan

EDUCATION 593

American Union will remember Carlos Gomes as the gifted composer
of numbers often repeated by request. The two most popular selec-
tions from his many compositions that have figured on the programs
are the overture to J/ Guarani and the grand scenes from Salvador
Rosa.) The principles of musical esthetics, the musical folklore of
Brazil, and the general characteristics and tendencies in modern
music likewise form part of the studies. Classes are held once a week,
and the tuition is free. —

The scope of courses offered by the School of Medicine of the
University of Curie was broadened during the latter part of April
by the creation of a course in the history of medicine. The first
session was held on April 25, 1932; at that time brief remarks were
made by the dean of the School of Medicine, who stressed the impor-
tance of the new subject, and an introductory lecture was given by
the professor in charge.

Early in the year President Olaya Herrera of CoLomsta issued an
Executive decree providing for the creation of a teachers’ college to
offer a graduate course for normal school teachers. One of the
principal objects of the decree was to prepare for changes to be inau-
gurated in the educational system of the country during 1933. In
view of the establishment of the new institution, no other normal
schools will be opened for the present. Subsequent orders issued by
the Minister of Education provided that the college would open on
March 15, 1932, and to be eligible for the 1-year course, students
must be between 20 and 35 years old. The teachers attending the
school were chosen by the Departmental supervisors of public educa-
tion, three being sent from each Department. They were to be
selected on the basis of their ability and qualifications for assuming
later the responsibilities either of teaching or directing normal schools
or of general supervising. Students receive free tuition, traveling
expenses, room and board, and a monthly stipend while attending
the school.

In order to provide adequate preparation for science teachers in
secondary and normal schools in Costa Rica, President Gonzalez
Viquez, near the close of his term of office, issued a decree creating a
School of Sciences, where instruction will be offered in mathematics,
physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, geography, mineralogy, and
geology. Each course will cover two years. Enrollment in the
school is open to normal-school graduates and persons having a high
school diploma from some national institution or an equivalent
education in a foreign country.

12979232Bull. 85

594 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

In Mexico interesting innovations in the regular educational pro-
grams were the opening of a correspondence course in hygiene for
rural teachers and the adoption of new methods of music instruction.
The correspondence course in hygiene and the care of the sick espe-
cially adapted for rural teachers was opened by the educational divi-
sion of the Bureau of Public Health on May 18, 1932. By establish-
ing this course, the bureau will prepare the teacher to instruct not
only the school children but the adult members of the community as
well. The lessons will be arranged in simple and interesting form and
be essentially practical.

In order to coordinate the instruction of music and provide for a
larger number of pupils the advantages of musical instruction under
the best teachers, the Department of Public Education has decided
to broadcast a course in music from its station in Mexico City. Since
it is intended that the rural school in particular should benefit from
the plan, the department is endeavoring to equip all the rural schools
with receiving sets. Broadcasts are to be made daily.

Recently the Fine Arts Council of the Ministry of Public Education
approved the adoption of a new program of musical instruction in the
primary schools. As the students progress, they will be given an
opportunity to learn the regional music of the country and to become
familiar with the tunes and rhythms of the ancient indigenous tribes.
This not only will serve to broaden the pupils’ knowledge and heighten
their enjoyment and appreciation of local themes, but will be an
important factor in preserving some of the now fast disappearing
music of the native peoples.

Centenary of girls’ school—On May 30, 1932, the Merced School
for Girls in Bogota, which has the distinction of being the first educa-
tional institution for women established in Cotomsta after it became
independent, celebrated its centenary.

Occupying a spacious, well-equipped building in the center of
Bogota, the present school has little outward resemblance to the
institution which began life in an abandoned Capuchin Convent a
century ago; yet neither the changes in its curriculum nor the im-
provement of its quarters can alter the pride of students and alumni
in its early history and particularly in its estabhshment, one of the
cherished projects of the Liberator.

The old Colegio de la Ensefianza, which dated from colonial times,
had proved unequal to meeting the educational needs of the early
nineteenth century. With far-sighted vision Don Rufino Cuervo,
then Governor of Bogota and the preeminent philologist of his day,
succeeded in securing a modest annual income sufficient to establish
a school which should provide an adequate education for women.
At that time it was the intention that the new institution should

LABOR 595

extend its benefits solely to the daughters of veterans of the War for
Independence.

It was Vice President M4rquez, then acting president in the
absence of General Santander, who had the honor of issuing the decree
authorizing the establishment of the school. To him also are attrib-
uted the first regulations, grants of funds sufficient for its maintenance,
and the appointment of Dofia Marcelina Lagos as its first principal.

Strangely enough, while the school was not established until 1832,
over a year aiter the death of the Liberator and under entirelydiffer-
ent circumstances, both its founding and establishment in the Capuchin
convent were in accordance with a decree which he had issued more
than 10 years before. Bolivar, then as always keenly interested in
the education of women, wished to establish a school where impover-
ished daughters of men killed or wounded during the War of Indepen-
dence might receive an education. The decree provided that the
convent should be used for such an institution, and authorized that
a legacy of 25,000 pesos be used for that purpose exclusively. Al-
though the provisions of the decree were never carried out, in 1832,
when the problem of women’s education was again discussed, the
building selected by the Liberator was that chosen for the new
school.

SEE

LABOR

Brazilian regulations on work of women in industry—Detailed
regulations on the work of women in BraziLiAN industrial and com-
mercial establishments were issued by Getulio Vargas, Chief of the
Provisional Government, in a decree dated May 17, 1932.

Beginning with a declaration of the right of all workers to equal
compensation without distinction as to sex, the decree provides that
women shall not be employed in public or privately owned industrial
and commercial establishments between the hours of ten at night and
five in the morning, forbids their employment in specified industries,
and guarantees them safeguards during pregnancy and childbirth.

According to the regulations, women shall not be required to
handle articles above a given weight nor be employed in work carried
on underground, in subterranean mining operations, quarries, private
or public construction work, or in dangerous or unhealthful tasks
listed in a supplementary order. Restriction on any or all of these
last, however, may be lifted by order of the Minister of Labor,
Industry, and Commerce when it is proved that as a result of the
adoption of new methods of work or manufacture or the introduction
of preventive measures the danger or unhealthful condition has
been eliminated.

596 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

While the regulations provide that women shall not be employed
in night work, exception is made in cases where the members of the
family owning the establishment are the only persons employed, or
where night work is indispensable to avoid an interruption in the
normal operation of the establishment in case of unavoidable cir-
cumstances which do not recur periodically or to avoid the loss of
raw materials or perishable substances. Women employed on the
staffs of hospitals, clinics, sanatoriums, and insane asylums and directly
responsible for the care of the sick, those over 18 years of age work-
ing in telephone or radio companies, and those who occupy respon-
sible administrative positions and do not participate in the normal
continuous work of the establishment are also excepted.

Pregnancy alone shall not be considered a justifiable cause for the
dismissal of a woman from her position. Expectant mothers shal!
not be required to work during the four weeks prior to and following
childbirth. Upon recommendation by a physician these periods may
each be increased to six weeks should conditions so demand. Women
nursing their own children will be granted special rest periods of a
half hour each twice a day during the first six months following
childbirth.

Establishments which employ 30 or more women over 16 years
of age shall maintain a day nursery for the children of their employees.

During the period of from four to six weeks prior to or following
childbirth women shall have the right to compensation equal to
one-half of their average wages during the previous six months, and
shall not be demoted because of their absence from their regular
duties.

The amount of the compensation during the time it is impossible
for her to work will ordinarily be taken from the funds established
by the Institute of Social Insurance. If, however, money is not
available from this source, the amount must be paid by the employer.

THE ARGENTINE RED CROSS AND ITS WORK

An excellent summary of the history of the Red Cross in Argentina,
which in 1930 completed 50 years of work, was made by the Revista y
Boletin de Informacion de la Liga de Sociedades de la Cruz Roja, Paris,
in its June, 1932, issue, and from it the following review has been
taken.

On June 10, 1880, the National Red Cross Society of Argentina
was definitely organized, largely owing to the zeal of Dr. Guillermo
Rawson, and four days later its constitution was approved by the
Government, which the year before had signed the International Red
Cross Convention of Geneva.

THE ARGENTINE RED CROSS AND ITS WORK 597

In 1886 the society had its first opportunity to prove its worth
during the cholera epidemic in the Republic.

At the beginning of its second decade, the Argentine Red Cross was
in a flourishing condition. Housed in a spacious building, it had a
large stock of first-aid material, drugs, and surgical dressings, and
could show bank deposits of over 40,000 pesos. At the time of the
floods at Cordoba and Rio Negro and the earthquake at La Rioja the
society did much praiseworthy work; as a result, disaster relief
was accepted as one of its primary activities. The flood relief work
at Cordoba was directly responsible for establishing there a provin-
cial committee, which was the basis for the formation later of a local
organization. It was at Cordoba, too, that women first participated
in the direction of the society.

During this period the Red Cross cooperated in founding a society
to aid the indigenous peoples of the Republic, which society started
schools, instructed the indigenes in agriculture and other industries,
cared for orphaned minors, and urged the distribution of public lands.

Plans were made for a closer cooperation with the surgeon general’s
office and participation in the annual maneuvers of the army, and in
1887 an agreement was signed defining the services which the society
should lend the Government in time of war. The Red Cross parti-
cipated with much success in the Chicago World’s Fair of 1893 and
the National Exposition of 1898.

A proof of the spirit of international cooperation animating the
Argentine Red Cross was the work done by the society in connection
with the terrible earthquake which shook the city of Valparaiso, Chile,
on April 30, 1909. Six large shipments of food, clothing, medicine,
tents, furniture, and other articles representing a total value of 50,000
pesos were sent to the victims of the disaster.

During the World War the Argentine Red Cross assisted the Inter-
national Committee of the Red Cross in Geneva by raising funds and
maintaining of an information service. When the League of Red
Cross Societies was organized in 1919, the Argentine society was one
of the first to join.

The following year the women’s committee, under the chairmanship
of Sra. dofia Guillermina Oliveira César de Wilde, was authorized to
open nurses’ training schools, the first of which was duly founded on
June 18, 1920.

An important event in the last decade was the meeting, held in
1923 at Buenos Aires under the auspices of the League of Red Cross
Societies, of the First Pan American Red Cross Conference. <A
Hygiene Exposition, in which the Argentine Red Cross entered a fine
exhibit, was arranged as part of the conference.

One result of the conference was the opening of a membership
campaign in the following years; another was the amending of the

598 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Constitution to provide for a more centralized organization and
Government representation on its executive committee.

The relief work in which the Argentine Red Cross has had a part
has not been limited merely to the homeland. At the request of the
Nansen Commission in 1921, it sent to Russian famine victims a
shipment of more than 10,000 articles of food and clothing and a
donation of 200,000 pesos. In 1922 it hastened to the relief of earth-
quake sufferers in Chile with supplies and a donation of 5,000 pesos,
and in 1926, when Villa Encarnacién in Paraguay was destroyed by
a cyclone, it again responded with relief.

Among the activities of the Red Cross in the field of hygiene during
recent years may be pointed out the campaigns against venereal dis-
eases and trachoma, and the foundation of the Juan Girondo dis-
pensary. The first has done much excellent work among the working
class through its dispensary and other means. The campaign against
trachoma is largely localized in Santiago del Estero, where it was
begun in 1928. While the Juan Girondo Dispensary, opened the
same year in Buenos Aires, is engaged principally in the diagnosis of
cancer, the dispensary also maintains gynecological services and a
dental laboratory.

Another necessary and extremely important feature of the activi-
ties of the Argentine Red Cross has been its educational work. The
society has published the Revista de la Cruz Roja Argentina regularly
since May 25, 1923, and each year since 1927 it has distributed an
almanac. It is in its schools of nursing, however, that the most
effective work along these lines is done.

There are at present nurses’ training schools for men and for
women, schools for the practical nurses known in Argentina as
Samaritanas, and a school for social workers. The training school for
women nurses in Buenos Aires has graduated 430 since it began to
function in 1920. The original plan of study in this school, as in those
in Santiago del Estero, San Juan, and Corrientes and the school for
men in Buenos Aires, was modified with very satisfactory results to
allow a greater amount of practice work in the hospitals. The Train-
ing School for Men Nurses was established a year later. In 1925 a
course for practical nurses was created. One hundred trained nurses
and 50 practical nurses have graduated from the school.

The first school for women practical nurses was opened in Buenos
Aires in 1928 and in the following year similar schools were opened in
San Juan and Santiago del Estero; their graduates have filled a great
need. The School for Social Workers was established in the capital
in 1928 to train students for work in connection with families, schools,
and factories. Diplomas granted by this school are recognized by the
National Bureau of Hygiene, and the School Board of the Province of
Buenos Aires.

THE ARGENTINE RED CROSS AND ITS WORK 599

An excellent glimpse of the variety of activities in which the Red
Cross is engaged both in Buenos Aires and the Provinces, either
directly or through its various local committees, is to be obtained
from the biennial report for 1930-31 presented to the board of direc-
tors on May 28, 1932.

According to this report, the society has been endeavoring to
broaden the scope of studies in the schools for practical nurses. Ex-
perience had demonstrated that the three months’ course given
theretofore was insufficient to meet the needs for which the schools
had been founded and it was decided not only to extend the course of
study to a year, but also to change it to correspond to the first year
course given in the regular nurses’ training schools. Graduates are
now called Samaritanas instead of practical nurses. Upon the success-
ful completion of the course it is now possible for students to continue
their education and become trained nurses without duplicating any
studies.

Hundreds of young women, many socially prominent, now enroll
in these schools each year and while they may not take up nursing as
a profession, they form an important group whose preparation is not
only of incalculable value in the home, but also a bond of interest
between the Red Cross and large numbers who might never other-
wise be interested in its work. Furthermore it places a trained group
at the disposal of the society whenever need may arise.

The Samaritanas who attend the Central School have formed a
committee which devotes itself entirely to practical social work and
in this way they render an important service to the society even be-
fore completing their studies.

A nurses’ mutual aid society has been organized by the students at
the Training School for Men Nurses, and the Red Cross Nurses’
Home has secured more positions for those registered there than any
other similar institution in the capital. Requests for nurses are
reported to be sent the Red Cross even from the interior of the
country. Recently when the regional hospital at Concepcion del
Uruguay was inaugurated 16 Red Cross nurses from Buenos Aires
were employed. In certain cases where it is impossible for persons in
isolated sections of the country to receive adequate medical care the
Red Cross provides for their hospitalization in Buenos Aires.

The frequency of accidents at the beaches near the capital has
recently caused the executive committee to arrange for a corps of
lifeguards to patrol the most frequented bathing resorts. According
to the project, all service will be voluntary. The corps will be
formed of young men who not only are good swimmers but must
undergo special training and pass a special examination before they
may serve in this capacity.

600 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

First-aid stations have already been established at the Nunez, Los
Angeles, Olivos, Las Toscas, San Isidro, and San Fernando beaches.
These stations, which are in charge of graduate men and women
nurses, are open on Sundays and holidays. Coordinated ambulance
service gives assurance that serious cases may be removed to a hos-
pital as speedily as possible.

Much important work has also been done by the Red Cross through
its regular ambulance service in the capital. Although the charge
for this service has been small because the society does not wish to
operate purely on a business basis, receipts were sufficient to justify
the purchase of four new ambulances in 1930-31. It is expected
that similar services will soon be established by the Red Cross in
other cities of the Republic.

The Red Cross pharmacy in Buenos Aires has continued to render
a valuable service by supplying medicines for the first-aid stations.
A special feature is the preparation of first-aid kits for use in auto-
mobile travel. Although small, the kit contains everything needed
for first aid in case of accidents; it has been priced at 30 pesos and thus
far enjoyed a wide sale. The. renewal of medicines in the first-aid
chests of factories, shops, motion-picture theaters and business houses
is made regularly twice a month.

Notwithstanding the slow growth of the Junior Red Cross, its
work is steadily advancing and in several schools has been note-
worthy. One of the outstanding activities of the organization has
been the exchange of correspondence and albums with schools in
other countries. During the past two years children in schools in
10 different countries received letters from the children of Argentina
through the medium of the Junior Red Cross. One of the interesting
projects which was recently finished was the donation of funds for
reconstruction of the school building in Villa Encarnacion, Paraguay,
destroyed by cyclone several years ago.

Three courses in nursing for nuns were organized during the 2-
year period, one in the Open Door Hospital, a second in the Santa
Rosa School, and the third in the Institute of Household Economics
of the St. Vincent de Paul Society. In Barracas the recently organ-
ized chapter has established a school for Samaritanas, and training
schools for nurses have been opened in the Israelite Hospital and at
the sanatorium at Ascochinga. The Central School of Nursing for
Men, which is a night school, has now been made coeducational, to
prowide women who can not attend day classes an opportunity to
learn the profession.

During the years 1930-31 several new chapters were formed in
different parts of the Republic.

THE ARGENTINE RED CROSS AND ITS WORK 601

According to the report of the Santiago del Estero chapter, the
School of Nursing maintained by the committee has functioned reg-
ularly during the past two years. Courses were held for both trained
nurses and Samaritanas. In view of the importance of the campaign
against trachoma, a special course is now given in the school on
diseases of the eye. During 1930, 595 children were treated in the
Children’s Clinic. The following year the number of patients in-
creased to 794. In the Eye Clinic, 900 persons were treated for the
first time during 1930; 3,127 examinations were made and 2,046 treat-
ments given. Glasses were prescribed for 121 persons and 23 oper-
ations performed. In 1931, 1,073 persons visited the clinic for the
first time. Examinations numbered 3,954; treatments, 1,581; pre-
scriptions for glasses, 268; and operations, 32. The Ear, Nose, and
Throat Clinic, which was founded in October, 1930, reported having
treated 80 pupils from the schools during 1930 and 224 the following
year. ;

The campaign undertaken against trachoma by the Red Cross in
Santiago del Estero was the first in Argentina. It was started in
1928 among the school children. Well-equipped dispensaries were
installed in the principal schools of the city and in the suburbs
a visiting nurse service was established. Children suffering from
the disease are treated three times a week in their own school by
specialists.

The Corrientes Chapter maintains a school of nursing, and during
1930-31 provided medicine and nurses to certain schools in the city.

The Mendoza Chapter has opened a course for Samaritanas, the
first of its kind in the Province. Other features on its program were
a series of lectures given in the schools and recreation centers on the
treatment of diphtheria, typhoid, and eruptive fevers, the assistance
of the Samaritanas in the vaccination of school children, and the
inauguration of a course for trained nurses which was opened during
the latter part of 1931.

The Women’s Chapter in Saavedra, whose principal activities
center around the school of nursing, the Molina y Vedia Clinic, the
public library opened in November, 1929, and the distribution of
clothing, reported that 156 needy homes had been aided during the
2-year period as a result of its work. In extreme cases the chapter
arranged for children to be placed in institutions where they would
receive proper care. The work of providing mothers with clothing
for their children was continued as usual. A total of 750 readers
were reported to have used the Carmen Maria Casotto de Cantoni
Free Library during the period.

NECROLOGY

The spring of 1932 witnessed the passing of many outstanding figures
in Latin American affairs, men who had held positions of trust and
responsibility in their respective countries, and to whom, in many
cases, the nation had turned in times of crisis.

The Republic of Honpuras lost one of its most prominent citizens
by the demise on March 12 of Dr. Antonio R. Reina. At the time of
his death, Doctor Reina represented the Department of Tegucigalpa
as Deputy in the National Congress. During his long lifetime,
Doctor Reina had held high positions in the courts and in Congress,
having served as President of both the Supreme Court and the
National Congress.

A former representative of Cuspa on the Governing Board of the
Pan American Union, Sefior Rafael Sanchez Aballi, died suddenly at
his home in a suburb of Habana on April 4, 1932. Sefior Sanchez
Aballi, who had received part of his eduction in the United States,
held engineering degrees both from Lehigh University and the Univer-
sity of Habana. His education completed, he applied his professional
knowledge in the sugar industry and in stock raising, to the great
national benefit of both. During 1926, Sefior Sanchez Aballi repre-
sented his nation in Washington as ambassador and as member of
the Governing Board; before the year was out, however, a serious
accident obliged him to resign. For several years thereafter he was
Secretary of Communications in the Cuban Cabinet, and it was
largely owing to his initiative that air mail service was established
between Cuba, the United States, and Central and South America, and
domestic passenger and mail service inaugurated. At the time of his
death he had retired to private life and resumed his connections with
the sugar industry.

The death of Gen. José F. Uriburu, late Provisional President
of ARGENTINA, occurred in Paris on April 29 and was deeply felt
throughout his native country. Born at Salta on July 20, 1868, he
entered the Military College at the age of 17 and received his commis-
sion on December 26, 1888. That day marked the beginning of one
of the most brilliant careers in the Argentine Army, for the young
officer was destined to reach the highest posts in his chosen profession.
He served as member of the Argentine-Chilean boundary commission
and as military attaché at Madrid, London, and Berlin; shortly before
his retirement in 1929, he held the post of Inspector General of the

602

NECROLOGY 603

Army. General Uriburu emerged from his brief period of retirement
to pilot the ship of state during a critical period in Argentine history,
the trying days between September, 1930, and the return to consti-
tutional government in February, 1932—this was the only nonmilitary
position he held during his career. Immediately after the inaugu-
ration of President Justo, General Uriburu went abroad for medical
attention, but it was too late. He was buried with honors in Buenos
Aires on May 27.

On May 18, Sefior Juan Bautista Gaona, a former President of
Paraqcuay and an upholder of the finest national traditions, died at
Asuncion at the age of 87. During his long and active life, Sefior
Gaona played a prominent part in both the financial and the public
life of his nation. For over 25 years he was president of the Mercan-
tile Bank of Paraguay, and a director of the National Bank and
other important banking and commercial corporations.

As a statesman, Sefior Gaona’s first post was also his highest, that
of President of the nation, which he held in 1905. Later he entered
the Senate, where he served, with the exception of a single year when
he was Vice President, for 10 years. Sefior Gaona had identified him-
self with the Liberal Party, of which he was the head for a long time.

Gen. Serzedello Correa, who for many years occupied a distin-
guished position in the military and political life of Brazin, died in
Rio de Janeiro on June 6, 1932. Born in the State of Para, in
northern Brazil, he came to Rio de Janeiro at an early age. There
he entered the Military School, graduating with honors. When the
monarchy was overthrown in 1889 the young officer (he was then
a captain in the army) was elected to represent his native State at
the Constitutional Convention of 1891, where he took an active
part in the brilliant assembly which organized the new republican
régime. In 1892, already a lieutenant colonel, he was appointed
Minister of Foreign Affairs and later held the portfolios of Agri-
culture, Finance, and Justice. To his services as a member of
various cabinets must be added his many years as a parlamentarian,
General Serzedello having been elected on various occasions to the
Chamber of Deputies by his own State and by Matto Grosso.

SUBJECT MATTER OF CONSULAR REPORTS

REPORTS RECEIVED TO JULY 11, 1932

Subject Date Author
ARGENTINA 1932
Excerpt from report on general conditions in Argentina from | May 20 | Embassy, Buenos Aires.
May 3 to May 16, 1932. (Postponement of the Seventh Pan
American Conference.)
Excerpt from report on general conditions in Argentina from | June 3 Do.
May 17 to May 30, 1932. (April foreign trade figures. Tele-
phone communication between England and the Chaco.
Increase in Panagra service. Transandine railway.)
BRAZIL
Executive decree pertaining to taxation__________________- eed May 21 | Embassy, Rio de Janeiro.
COLOMBIA
SUBINGUIOS Tor BORO, NON. - - eens Se eeee Apr. 23 | Legation, Bogota.
Highway construction, Department of Narino__________________- June 22 | H. D. Myers, vice consul at
Buenaventura.
CUBA
Campaign for reduction of United States sugar tariff_.____________ June 6 | Embassy, Habana.
ECUADOR
Ecuadorean consular district and jurisdiction in the United | May 10} Legation, Quito.
States.
PANAMA
Clairicient leroyabaes, INN ee ete eee ee nee May 28 | Herbert O. Williams, consul
at Panama City.
PARAGUAY
Brazil willing to grant free ports on the Atlantic to Paraguay and | May 23 | Legation, Asuncion.
Bolivia if railway connection is opened up.
VENEZUELA
Excerpt from report on general conditions in Venezuela for May, | June 6 | Legation, Caracas.

1932. (Government finances and general economic situation in

Venzuela.)

604

TIANA RDO ROM AL CAUTION
: oo 1? oo Bee eb

Peat :
a we a ‘BULLETIN
23 OF THE

PAN AMERICAN
UNION

TONINCOI AOI CRIT TD &

0 ee ‘7 ck 5
™ oa at
Ss ae icra) Bae iS Ee
=< = % MIE

SACRISTY DOOR, CHURCH OF SANTIAGO
POMATA, PERU

SEPTEMBER 1932

CMU ECGaer tent iermsnrnren as

MOENIICO_ JSON AS JEAO0CGIUOUEMANCAI ES

Ww
wuVNy mY
*uvUvMUUUUD

GOVERNING - BOARD-OF-THE
PAN-AMERICAN
UNION

Mr. Henry L. Stimson, Chairman

Argentina Sefior Don Frtiez A. Esprit,
1806 Corcoran Street, Washington, D. C.

Bolivia Senor Don Luis O. ABELL,
2830 Forty-fourth Street, Washington, D. C.
Snhr. Dr. R. pe Lima £ Sitya,
2437 Fifteenth Street, Washington, D. OC.

Senor Dr. Miguet CRUCHAGA
TOcORNAL,
2154 Florida Avenue, Washington, D. C.

Colombia Sefior Dr. Fasro Lozano,
Hill Building, Washington, D. C.
Costa Rica Sefior Don ManueL GonzAueEz,
3451 Newark Street, Washington, D. C.
Sefior Dr. Jost T. Barén,
2630 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
Dominican Republic. Sefior Don RoBerto DESPRADEL,
Woodward Building, Washington, D. C.
Ecuador Sefior Don GonzaLto ZALDUMBIDE,
2633 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
El Salvador Sefior Don Roserto D. MELenveEz,
National Press Building, Washington, D. C.
Guatemala Sefor Dr. ApR1AN REcINOS,
1614 Eighteenth Street, Washington, D. C. :
M. Dantks BELLEGARDE,
1703 Q Street, Washington, D. C.
Honduras ... Sefior Dr. Citzo DAvina,
1100 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. O.
Sefior Don Panto HERRERA DE HUERTA,
2829 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
’ Sefior Dr. Luis M. Desay te,
1711 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C.
Sefior Dr. Horacio F. ALFARO,
1535 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C. :
Paraguay Sefior Don Panto Max. YNSFRAN,
1726 Irving Street, Washington, D. 0.
Sefior Don M. pz FREYRE y SANTANDER,
1300 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
United States Mr. Henry L. Stimson,
Department of State, Washington, D. C.
Sefior Don Jos& Ricuuina,
17 Battery Place, New York City.

Venezuela, Sefior Dr. Pepro Manurt Arcara,
1628 Twenty-first Street, Washington, D. C.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
Dr. Eusebio Ayala, President of Paraguay_____________________________ 605
Visit of Dr. Harmodio Arias, President-Elect of Panama, to the Pan Ameri-
CanmUnio ne CE WOLOSTAp hs sees wees ee ee ee ee 606
A Mexican Tribute to Dwight Whitney Morrow_________________________ 607
The Past and Present of Ocean Shipping in the Americas.______________ 610
By C. Keech Ludewig, Assistant Foreign Trade Adviser, Pan American Union.
BuenospAuressNew and (Olds. 22588 225 ee ee 621
By C. J. Videla-Rivero.
OversthevAndes:to the Amazone 2.822. 2 ee ee 630
By Graham M. Ker.
Cassava: An Economic Plant Native to Latin America.____ === 639
By Jose L. Colom, Chief, Division of Agricultural Cooperation, Pan American Union.
mHeRGuatemalanwindianss-- 22-20 es 651
By Lilly de Jongh Osborne, Member of the Society of Geography and History of Guatemala
and Corresponding Member of the Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando, Madrid.
Columbus Memorial Library Notes___________________________________ 663
Pan American Progress:
Piblieshecalthvand: socialeweltares---2-__--2_-. 2 22 222 2 ee 666
Maternity and child welfare work—Social-welfare activities of the Government of
FE] Salvador.
Subject MatterofConsularsReportsa.sse. ss se = 2 ee 672
Til

(The contents of previous issues of the BULLETIN OF THE PAN AMERICAN UNION can be found in the
READERS’ GUIDE in your library)

Photograph by Harris & Ewing

RAGUAY

EUSEBIO AYALA, PRESIDENT OF PA

BIS EXCELLENCY DR

year term.

gust 15, 1932, for a 4

Inaugurated

4 ap = SSE — —————————— joe
Se See Fa nt DSI Pee Qa 1

Vou. LXVI SEPTEMBER, 1932 No. 9

DR. EUSEBIO AYALA,
PRESIDENT OF PARAGUAY

N August 15, 1932, Dr. Eusebio Ayala was inaugurated President

of Paraguay for the 4-year term ending in 1936. It is the second
time that he has been Chief Executive of his Nation, for in 1921 he
was called from retirement to take office as Provisional President for
two years during a period of political readjustments.

Doctor Ayala was born in Barrera Grande, Paraguay, on August
14, 1875, and educated in Asuncion, where in 1900 he received the
degree of doctor of laws and social science. During the years imme-
diately following he taught, practiced law, and gained business experi-
ence in journalism and banking, an early training which gave him a
varied and well rounded preparation for his later achievements.
He entered politics as a member of the National Chamber of Depu-
ties, of which he was chosen president in 1910. later he represented
the Capital on three separate occasions in the Senate, being a senator
when elected to the high office he now holds. He has also been a
cabinet minister, holding the portfolios of the Treasury, Public In-
struction, and Foreign Relations, respectively, under different admin-
istrations.

Among the offices of international character which Doctor Ayala
has held are: Vice president of the Inter-American High Commission
(Paraguayan Section); member of the American Institute of Interna-
tional Law and of the International Commission of Jurists; delegate
to the Hague Conferences on Bills of Exchange (1910 and 1912),
to the Second and Third Pan American Scientific Congresses (1915—
16 and 1925), and to the Pan American Financial Congresses of 1916
and 1920; and Minister to the United States in 1925.

605

“WOru/)
UBITIOULY UBY VY} JO [Bleue 1OQDOIICG
‘AMOYy ST ‘AC pues ‘qoojs JUepIsaIg ot)
jo A1rvjoio0s oyeatid “esos “JL Oprenpoy
UOC, IOUBY ‘UOJSUTYSVAA Ul vuIvUe” jo
JaSIUlJ, ‘O1LBJTV ‘7 OlBIOE “Id *4oe]
quepIseld oy} ‘svity 10j00q ‘vureued
JO 9dIOUIUIOD JO WOTWeIOOSsy 94} JO yUEp
-Isolg ‘OULIvI[eA “VY OLAR{OO UO JOURS
ieodde ‘4yst1 04 4Jo~ wor ‘dnois oy}
Ul ‘“IvOA SIG) JO T 10qG0}00 UO vUIeUe
JO JUOepPISeId SB OIBJ[Y “f£ OpredIyY peed
-ons 0} ‘ZE6T ‘PUN UL pejosfe SBM SBIIVy
10j00q, “2% Ang ‘UoOIUy) UBoLIoULy ued
9} 18 Po[[Bo $9448 popu /) Oy OF JO4STUT TAT
Joul10J puv vurvued JO 4oo[a JUEpIseld
9} ‘UOJAULYSE MM 0} JISIA JOEL SIY SULTING:

NOIND NVOIWUINVY NVd GWA
LV ‘SVIUV OIGOWUVH ‘US ‘VINV
-NVd JO LOUTH LNYCGISHUd AHL

A MEXICAN TRIBUTE
TO DWIGHT WHITNEY MORROW

HE late Dwight W. Morrow, former Ambassador of the United

States to Mexico, won a world-wide reputation as a lawyer, a
financier, a statesman, and a diplomat. It was in the latter capacity
that he went to Mexico, where his preeminent quality of friendliness
endeared him to all with whom he came in contact. Of the increased
understanding between the two nations which came about during his
ambassadorship, it is superfluous to speak.

A group of Mr. Morrow’s Mexican friends, appreciating how great
a factor his personal attitude had been in bringing about the present
spirit of cooperation and mutual esteem, and desirous that future
generations should not be unmindful of their debt to him, offered to
the United States Embassy in Mexico City a bronze tablet which
would stand as a perpetual tribute to his memory.

The tablet, which has been affixed to the chancery wall facing the
embassy, was designed by the Mexican architect Carlos Contreras
and skillfully cast by the sculptor Luis Albarran. Below a likeness
of Mr. Morrow in bas-relief is the following inscription:

DWIGHT WHITNEY MORROW

EMBAJADOR DE LOS ESTADOS UNIDOS DE AMERICA EN MEXICO
DE OCTUBRE DE 1927 A SEPTIEMBRE DE 1929

CUMPLIO NOBLEMENTE SU MISION
AMO Y COMPRENDIO A MEXICO
SE GANO EL AFECTO DE LOS MEXICANOS

HOMENAJE DE SUS AMIGOS DE MEXICO 1932

The dedication took place on July 4, 1932, in the embassy gardens,
in a simple ceremony held during the Independence Day reception of
Ambassador J. Reuben Clark, jr. At the ceremony a telegram from
Mrs. Morrow, a letter from President Ortiz Rubio, and a message
from General Calles were read. Sefior Javier Sanchez Mejorada,
representing the President, pulled the cord that withdrew the flags of
the two nations and presented the tablet in an eloquent speech, in
which he said:

In a world torn by discord, in an epoch so agitated and full of unexpected events
as ours has been . . . the long-suffering nations are slowly awakening to the
conviction that it is impossible to settle disputes definitely through intimidation
or violence, that it is useless .. . to withdraw within their own boundaries
from the sufferings of the rest of an impoverished and ailing humanity. .. .

Against war, in all its forms, ... there is a powerful current of thought
eager to organize the world for peace, desirous of replacing by the fertile and
admirable power of persuasion and the forces dependent on common sense and

607

608 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

good will, the brutality of physical destruction and the moral deformation nec-
essary to tolerate the individual and collective crimes inevitable in warfare. .

The names of eminent sons of your country, Mr. Ambassador, are associated
with that longing of civilized peoples. Fame has borne their names to every
quarter of the globe, and they are admired and respected by everyone who
respects his fellow men, their rights, and their liberty. But among them all, no
one is dearer to us than your illustrious predecessor—Dwight Whitney Morrow.

He it was who, with President Calles, gave new life and vigor to the chilled
friendship between our two nations; who, eager to know and like Mexico, made us
know and like your country better. His culture, his genuine interest in our cus-
toms, and his unfailing friendliness attracted sympathy and regard wherever he

cineca ee MEMORIAL TABLET
cf : SR ae TO DWIGHT WHIT-
NEY MORROW

a As a tribute to the late Am-
es bassador Morrow from his
: friends in Mexico, this
bronze tablet on the out-
side wall of the chancery
of the United States Em-
bassy in Mexico City was
unveiled July 4, 1932. The
English translation of the
inscription is as follows:
“Dwight Whitney Mor-
row, Ambassador of the
United States of America
in Mexico, October, 1927,
to September, 1929. He
nobly fulfilled his mission,
loved and understood
Mexico, and won the affec-
tion of the Mexican people.
In tribute from his Mexi-
can friends, 1932.’

té6
41.03

¥.

oss Seiten Bed BeBe es SRT OS 8 eke ee ote Ra AA

Courtesy of J. Reuben Clark, jr., United States Ambassador in Mexico

went. He honored his country and served mankind at the same time. His
name, which history has already made her own, will always recall the new diplo-
macy which, in the case of Mexico and the United States, was a discovery of
major importance.

A group of us who had the privilege of knowing him and associating with him
in Mexico and who therefore appreciate how enthusiastically and wholeheartedly
he worked to make his mission one of rapprochement, common sense, and con-
ciliation, have wished to have his name engraved in bronze, so that in a material
more enduring than our perishable flesh may be read how surely our friend won
our hearts. We hope to make his memory the symbol of a frank and loyal
friendship between his country and our own... .

Mr. Ambassador, there is no one who could more fittingly receive the affec-
tionate tribute which this tablet represents than you, who were the valued coun-

A MEXICAN TRIBUTE TO DWIGHT WHITNEY MoRROW 609

selor, dear friend, and able and earnest collaborator of Ambassador Morrow in
the labors which endear his memory to us and who are continuing his work so
skilfully and nobly. ... We present it with the hope that between us there
may be an everlasting friendship of the kind so beautifully described by your own
Thoreau:

It ts the State that produces the commerce of the just with the just, of the magnant-
mous with the magnanimous, of the sincere with the sincere, of man with man.

In replying to the presentation speech, Ambassador Clark said:

By the express authorization of my Government, I have the honor of accepting
this tablet which you and your associates have placed here in commemoration of
the great work Ambassador Morrow did in Mexico and as a testimonial of the
esteem and affection in which his memory is held in this country and among this
people, which he loved so much... .

For your eloquent words in appreciation of Ambassador Morrow and his work,
I extend to you the sincere thanks of my Government. I convey to you also the
gratitude of Ambassador Morrow’s family and of his friends.

For the generous, and more than just, words with which you speak of myself,
I am deeply grateful. It was not only a privilege but a distinction to be associa-
ted, in however a humble a capacity, with Ambassador Morrow in his work in
Mexico.

Dwight Whitney Morrow will live as lawyer, financier, diplomat, and states-
man. The world so knew him, and will so know him. The world will so honor
him. What he did for his clients, his associates, and his country in domestic and
international affairs, will not be forgotten. In remembering him for his great-
ness in these, men will do mere justice. This will be history.

To-day we are remembering Ambassador Morrow’s humanities, the humanities
which God bestows upon his choice spirits, those humanities which history too
often forgets or ignores; we are to-day remembering Ambassador Morrow’s great
love for mankind, his broad sympathies, his all-embracing charity, his deep and
appreciative understanding.

By those qualities—not by those which history is likely to reeord—Ambas-
sador Morrow changed the course of two great streams of people, which, running
turbulently forward to threatening collision when he came, now, by his work,
flow peacefully side by side toward ever increasing friendliness, mutual growth,
and development, for a common welfare and cultural achievement.

To few men does God offer an opportunity for human service; to fewer men does
He vouchsafe the wisdom to seize the opportunity when it comes.

Out of his genuine tolerance, his deep desire and ability to comprehend the
other man’s point of view, his conviction that not in every instance did the cause
he represented command for its support all truth and all justice, came Ambassa-
dor Morrow’s recognition of the rights of others, a disposition to acknowledge
such rights, and a willingness to make yield thereto his own less strongly founded
claims.

Ambassador Morrow did love Mexico; he had a profound admiration for the
sterling qualities of her people; he had a deep sympathy for their past trials;
he joined in their aspirations for a fuller and constantly increasing richness of
life. .

I join you in the confident hope that the spirit of truth, justice, and right which
led him shall always be and abide in these premises; that this spirit may be felt
by all who sojourn herein; that his successors, to the last, may be guided by the
same lofty principles that urged him on—all to the end that peace, good will, and
fellowship, mutual understanding, and common welfare, may inspire onward our
two great nations to that high destiny which a wise Providence has decreed for us.

THE PAST AND PRESENT OF OCEAN
SHIPPING IN THE AMERICAS

By C. Ksrcu Lupewie,

Assistant Foreign Trade Adviser, Pan American Union

T is a far cry from the picturesque galleons of the days of the Spanish

Empire in the New World to the magnificent swift ships of the
twentieth century now employed in inter-American commerce. Not
only have the vessels changed in size and speed, but the fundamental
idea of international commerce has changed, not only in the Western
Hemisphere, but throughout the world, since the romantic days of
Spain’s colonial glory. The powerful rulers of Spain, in accordance
with the prevailing economic theory, had but one thought, to extract
from their new-found possessions as much gold, silver, other valuable
metals, and precious stones as could be done with profit, deliver them
to the mother country, and send as small an amount of goods in
return as was possible. ‘To-day the policy of extreme mercantilism
has been radically changed to one of cooperation for common benefit.
And though precious metals form part of the exports of many of the
American Republics, they are unimportant when compared with
coffee, the ‘‘green gold” of Brazil, with the exports of agricultural
and animal products from Argentina, and with the foreign trade of
Chile in nitrate, copper, and other minerals.

With over 120,000,000 people in the Latin American Republics—
the majority of which are essentially agricultural in character, so
that between them practically every known agricultural product
may be cultivated—and with the industries of the United States
and Canada and the manufactures of Europe practically equidistant
from these countries, it is not surprising that while only 104 ships
sailed to and from the Indies in 1529, 9,939 ships in maritime trade
entered the port of Buenos Aires alone, in 1929.

Eleven years after the discovery of America, the Casa de Contra-
tacion (the administrative body to superintend all trade with the
new possessions), was established by Spain. This had its head-
quarters at Seville, in the Lonja (Exchange), to-day the repository
of the Archives of the Indies. For two centuries all of Spain’s
trade with her colonies passed, either directly or indirectly, through
this port. Many other cities desired to have a share in the lucra-
tive trade with the Indies, and Cadiz did prosper, being the first
port of call for all ships returning from the Western Hemisphere,
but all trade eventually passed through Seville.

610

OCEAN SHIPPING IN THE AMERICAS 611

The various Provinces and separate colonies were not even allowed
to trade with each other; it was necessary to transport the goods to
Spain, to be forwarded to another part of America. This proved a
great hardship, as in the case of the Province of Buenos Aires. In
1599, it was reported by the governor that not a single ship had
arrived from Spain for years, and many of the settlers were practically
destitute. Probably because of this occurrence and many others of
a similar nature, the settlement of Buenos Aires was permitted
a limited amount of trade with the other colonies. However, this

THE LONJA, SEVILLE, SPAIN

This famous building, now housing the Archives of the Indies, was completed in 1598 for the Casa de
Contratacion, the administrative body established by Spain to superintend trade with her New World
possessions.

policy of free trade was reversed a few years later to the former one
of restriction, the influence of the merchants at Seville and the
powerful vice royalty of Peru being too great to allow the loss of
trade gained by the Province of Buenos Aires.

Water-borne commerce between North and South America did
not assume large proportions until the North American colonies
secured their independence from Great Britain. This was probably
due to the fact that the commerce of the possessions in both the
Northern and the Southern Hemispheres was subjected to serious
restrictions by the various countries, the idea prevalent at the time

612 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

being that colonies existed solely for the benefit and profit of the
mother nations. The commerce of the colonies was, therefore,
restricted to the respective empires, and serious penalties were invoked
against merchants who essayed to trade outside the royal realms.

Once the independence of the thirteen colonies of North America
was established, however, the yoke was released from at least one
section of the Continent, and the New England merchantmen set
about securing a share of the trade with the Spanish possessions in
the western world.

In the few years following the Declaration of Independence, trade
flourished between the Spanish West Indies and the North Atlantic
coast—flour and the produce of fisheries being taken southward and
exchanged for molasses, sugar, and rum, the last to be used by the
New England traders to warm themselves through the cold winters.

The settlers of the newly formed United States early established
themselves as important carriers by sea for other lands of the Western
Hemisphere. In 1798 a shipload of salt meat and other cattle prod-
ucts was transported from Buenos Aires to Habana, demonstrating
that Argentina, one of the greatest stock-raising countries to-day,
has long had experience in cattle industries. It has been estimated
that in 1795 exports of the United States to the Latin American
colonies amounted to $1,389,219, while imports from the colonies to
the United States amounted to $1,739,138.1 In 1821, according to
official figures of the United States Government, imports from Brazil
amounted to $585,626, while exports totaled $1,224,761.

According to a manuscript recently prepared by Enrique Gil,
Argentine writer and lecturer of prominence, in 1807 merchant ships
from 5 of the 13 States of the Union made regular voyages to the
River Plate, and the wool, hides, and tallow of the latter found an
excellent market in the republic to the north. The same author
cites many cases of business houses established in South America by
United States citizens, some over a century ago, to facilitate trade
between the republics of the River Plate and the United States. In
many instances, these names are now well known in Argentine life,
as for example the firm of Samuel B. Hale, Ltd., which at one time
had 46 ships engaged in inter-American commerce.

An extraordinary trade was that which was fostered between the
port of Boston, Cuba, and other islands of the West Indies—the export
of ice in sailing ships to the Tropics. In 1805 the first shipment was
delivered to the West Indies. A few years later a monopoly on the
sale of ice was secured in Habana and throughout Cuba, and some
time later ice from Boston was being sold in Rio de Janeiro and finally
in Calcutta, India

1 “Statistical View,’’ by Pitkin.

OCEAN SHIPPING IN THE AMERICAS 613

After investing over a quarter of a million dollars before realizing
any profit from enterprise, the ‘‘Ice King” wrote in his diary, with
more than a trace of humor, ‘“‘Drink . . . and be cool, that I who
have suffered so much in the cause may be able to go home and keep
myself warm.”

An event of considerable significance was the construction and
launching of the first steamship to be built in Latin America. Largely
through the unceasing efforts of Vicente Rocafuerte, at one time
President of Ecuador, the 8S. S. San Vicente, later rechristened the
Guayas, was constructed at Guayaquil, where many sailing ships
which played an important part in making history in Latin America

A GALLEON OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY

In such picturesque vessels were carried cargoes of great riches from the Americas to the Old World.

were built. Work was begun early in 1840, but it was not until the
middle of the following year that the propelling machinery, purchased
in the United States, was installed and the ship made ready for
launching.

A coincidence of interest occurred in October of the same year,
when the San Vicente and the first vessel of the newly formed Pacific
Steam Navigation Co. appeared on the horizon, and steamed into the
harbor of Guayaquil at the same time—the first steamship con-
structed in Latin America and the first one to travel on a fixed sched-
ule between Europe and South America.

The Pacific Steam Navigation Co. was the first to inaugurate a
service of steamships between Europe and South America, and from

614 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

1841 on ships of this line departed from Liverpool on the Ist and
15th of each month for the West Indies, Venezuela, Colombia, Mexico,
and the United States.

Regular communications between the countries of the Western
Hemisphere, or rather as regular as could be attained with sailing
vessels, had been established long before the advent of steamships.
In 1823 sailing ships of the Red D Line were plying between La
Guaira, Venezuela, and Philadelphia. In 1880 this company changed
to steamships, and at present maintains a 7-day service between
New York and Venezuelan ports.

Another early entrant in the maritime trade of the Western
Hemisphere was the Ward Line, which in 1840 managed a few small
schooners plying between Cuba and the United States. In the
fleet of this company are now included two 20-knot ships which
travel between New York, Cuban, and Mexican ports, carrying
both first class and tourist passengers.

The pioneer in trade between the east coast of the United States
and the west coast of South America was the W. R. Grace Co.
Seventy-five years ago sailing vessels of this company were following
their laborious course down the east coasts of the United States and
South America, around storm-ridden Cape Horn and up to Valparaiso
and Callao. Depositing their cargo, these vessels took on nitrates
and guano and returned by the same route to New York, the round
trip often taking more than six months.

The coming of steam power cut this time to about two and a half
months, and with the construction of the railroad across the Isthmus of
Panama in 1855, passenger traffic was greatly facilitated. As yet, how-
ever, freight traffic continued to be slow, for rates for the transporta-
tion of heavy goods on the Isthmian railway were very high. The com-
pletion of the Panama Canal was the accomplishment which allowed
the manifold products of the west coast of South America to flow
through a speedy and efficient channel. In 1918 the W. R. Grace
Co. established the first regular steamship service to the west coast
of South America from the United States; this served as additional
encouragement to the Pacific coast ports of South America, whose
trade had already increased tremendously during the four years
following the opening of the canal.

To-day the Grace Line has direct services from the east and the
south coasts of the United States to the west coast of South America,
and from the west coast of the United States to the west coast of
South America, as well as one from the east to the west coast of the
United States via Central American ports. The Grace fleet comprises
a total tonnage of 130,000, which is shortly to be augmented by four
large ships to be placed in service between the Atlantic coast of the

OCEAN SHIPPING IN THE AMERICAS 615

United States, Central America, and the Pacific coast of the United
States.

Within approximately 70 years the fleet of the United Fruit Co.
has increased from a few small schooners to practically six score
power-propelled vessels aggregating almost 450,000 tons. An inter-
esting vessel of this line was the first steam-driven ship, placed
in service in the eighties. She was a 3-masted schooner with a
hollow mainmast, which was used as a smokestack. It is evident

A MERCHANT SAILING SHIP

Long before the advent of steam-propelled ships, regular voyages were made by square-riggers between
ae Americas. Many sailing vessels which made maritime history in Latin America were built at
uayaquil.

that even late in the nineteenth century steam power was still
considered a doubtful advantage.

At the present time the ‘‘Great White Fleet’? includes vessels
ranging from more than 7,000 tons to less than 1,500, most of which
are engaged in passenger services and in the transportation of bananas,
other tropical fruits, and general freight.

Regular passenger and freight services are now maintained by the
United Fruit Co. to all Central American countries with the excep-
tion of El Salvador, together with regular lines to Cuba, the small
islands of the West Indies, Panama, and the north coast of South
America, from the east, south, and west coasts of the United States.

616 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

An important water transportation system in the Western Hemis-
phere is the Munson Steamship Line, operating from the east coast
of the United States to Rio de Janeiro, Montevideo, Buenos Aires,
and other large ports on the east cosst of South America. It is one
of the principal means of communication between the two largest
republics of North and South America, and functions on a fortnightly
schedule with vessels which have yet to lose their laurels as the fastest
ships serving these two parts of the globe. Every fortnight vessels
of the line travel to and from sections of the world where the seasons
are reversed. If a ship sails out of New York harbor in the dead of

A CHANNEL IN SOUTHERN CHILE

Passage through the Straits of Magellan in a modern vessel brings to mind the tedious voyage between
the eastern ports of the United States and the Pacific coast of South America in the days of sailing vessels
and slow steamers.

winter, two and a half weeks later it arrives at Buenos Aires in the
middle of summer.

A line following a route similar to that of the Munson Co. is the
Furness Prince, which operates large and modern vessels from New
York to Buenos Aires via Rio de Janeiro, Santos, and Montevideo, in
approximately the same time.

A steamship line famed throughout Latin America is the Lloyd
Brazileiro, with headquarters at Rio de Janeiro. The service of this
line, which in 1928 included 77 steamships, is very complete, ranging
from separate weekly passenger and freight services from Rio de
Janeiro to Belem on the north coast of Brazil and Rio Grande do Sul

OCEAN SHIPPING IN THE AMERICAS 617

on the south, to fortnightly sailings of passenger and freight vessels
from the principal Brazilian seaports to the United States and to
Europe. Another service which does much to bring together the
commercial interests of this immense country is that from Manaos,
almost 1,000 miles up the Amazon River, to Rio Grande do Sul in
the extreme south. The Lloyd Brazileiro operates 16 separate ser-
vices, including coastwise routes, and covers almost 1,000,000 miles
in 224 separate voyages each year.

It is of interest to note that in the export of coffee from Santos,
the Lloyd Brazileiro receives at least her share of this product for
transport to foreign countries. Statistics show that from January
to May, 1922, the Lloyd Brazileiro moved over 1,250,000 bags of
coffee, while its closest competitor transported less than 300,000
during the same time; in fact, all the other steamship lines combined
did not ship as many bags as did the Brazilian company.

A well-known shipping company serving the north coast of Colombia
and Haiti is the Colombian Steamship Co., with headquarters in
New York City. Organized as an outcome of the World War as
the Raporel Steamship Co., it was taken over in 1920 by the Clyde
Steamship Co., and in 1923 the Colombian Steamship Co. was
formed, six vessels in the Colombia-Haiti service being purchased
by the newly formed organization. Since 1923 these ships have
traveled on a regular schedule to Colombian ports on the Atlantic
Ocean and to Haitian ports, carrying a limited number of passengers
and bringing to the United States from Caribbean regions large
quantities of bananas, coffee, and hides.

On August 6 the Colombia, a cargo-passenger ship of 5,500 gross
tons, was launched and will sail on her maiden voyage about Novem-
ber 15. Her sister ship, the Haiti, is under construction and is
expected to enter the service a month later.

Navigation of the Magdalena River in Colombia, which has
brought strong language to many a skipper’s lips, was solved by the
executives of this company only after thorough study. It was
found that in order to transport cargo on the Magdalena continuously
throughout the wet and the dry seasons, it would be necessary to
build special equipment. This was accordingly done, and now the
Colombian Steamship Co. has more than 20 barges and 3 tugboats,
especially constructed for the purpose, plying the Magdalena.

A steamship service far from the much traveled sea lanes, but
one which offers much to the somewhat venturesome tourist, is the
Menéndez Behety Line, operating from the southernmost habitable
land in the world—the Chilean Territory of Magallanes, at the
extreme end of South America—to Valparaiso, Chile, on the west
coast of the southern continent. Vessels of this line, which has its

1338197—32—Bull. 9——2

618 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

headquarters at Punta Arenas in the Straits of Magellan, carry
passengers and cargo to a part of the globe which the average person
does not picture as properly belonging to South America. During
the winter months of June, July, and August, these vessels pass
through winds, squalls, and snow storms which rarely have their
counterpart in northern waters; but their hardy crews are accus-
tomed to such a life.

A line whose vessels encounter conditions similar to those of the
Menéndez Behety Line is the Chilean Inter-Ocean Navigation Co.
Using a number of vessels of moderate size, the latter sends its ships
on a regularly scheduled itinerary from Valparaiso through the

a
Courtesy of W. R. Grace & Co.
A MODERN LINER FOR INTERAMERICAN SERVICE

This is a model of one of the fleet of new steamers soon to be placed in regular service between east and
west coast ports of the United States and Latin America.

Straits of Magellan and up the eastern coast of South America to
Buenos Aires, Montevideo, and principal ports in Brazil, returning
via the same route.

While it is impossible to mention here all the maritime services
operating in the Western Hemisphere, it is important to note that
the majority of the Latin American Republics are manifesting a
keen interest in the development of national mercantile marine
services, showing a desire to have a share in the transportation of
their products to foreign lands and in the importation of commodities
from other countries. Among the lines flying the flags of the various
countries are the Compafifa Sudamericana de Vapores (South Ameri-

*uozeuy BTA estea aoTA pue Nied 04 [Tzerg

“ss *""eTenzoua,

“ores ss Kensnig
"899398 pagtuy

DOG DOO wey

Aendereg

* "BnBeleorn

-* +> -QO0TxeR

‘ereuazensy

“‘-ropeates Tx

ropanog

“OTtTandsy ueotutTmog

tts spoT 24909

Te a
pp [al= tats

SOTTENdaa NVYOMANY SHL NAAMLAd ONILVYAdO SHOIAMAS AWILIYVIN

620 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

can Steamship Co.), of Chile; the Compafiia Peruana de Vapores y
Dique del Callao (Peruvian Steamship Co.); the Compafiia Argentina
de Navegacién (Argentine Navigation Co.); the Empresa Naviera
de Cuba (Cuban Steamship Co.), and the Lineas Nacionales de
Navegacién (National Navigation Lines of Mexico).

From a report recently prepared by the Pan American Union to
show as far as information is available all the steamship communica-
tions which each of the countries, members of the Union, maintains
with the others, several interesting comparisons may be drawn with
conditions a few years ago. For example, in 1906 there were 8 regular
steamship services between the United States and ports of the River
Plate, and the fastest time from New York to Buenos Aires was 26
days. At the present time there are 17 from the United States to
Argentina and 19 from Argentina to the United States, while 18 days
from New York to Buenos Aires is considered good traveling time.
It is also notable that in 1910 none of the ships on this trade route
bore the flag of a republic of the Western Hemisphere, while now 8 of
these services are under the colors of one or another of the 21 republics.

In connection with this report, a table has been prepared which
appears on another page in this article, showing the number of mari-
time services between each of the American Republics. It indicates,
for example, that Argentina has 51 direct services with Brazil, 3 with
Chile, 1 with Colombia, and none with Costa Rica, while Brazil has
50 direct services with Argentina, Chile 3, and Colombia and Costa
Rica have none. The large number of services between Argentina
and Brazil and vice versa is accounted for by the number of ships
from Europe and the United States which stop on both the south-
bound and northbound trips at Brazilian ports on the way to and
from their southernmost calls at River Plate ports.

The increase both in the number of services and in the speed with
which they are maintained is an indication of the growing importance
of the manifold products which the Latin American nations have to
offer and the world-wide market for them.

BUENOS AIRES NEW AND OLD

By C. J. Vinrta-Rivero

INETEEN days after leaving New York on a comfortable

steamer, passengers wake up to find themselves surrounded by a
mud colored expanse of water—the River Plate. But suddenly, as
they look ahead, a miracle happens: From the muddy waters the
towers of a sunken city begin to emerge—Buenos Aires. Then the
tugs come, the ship passes the breakwater, and presently they are
landing at a covered concrete pier.

Conditions were far different on November 16, 1823, when the Hon.
Cesar Augustus Rodney, first United States Minister to Argentina,
landed in Buenos Aires. His good old clipper had to lie at anchor
several miles off the coast and her passengers and cargo go ashore in
the lifeboats. The river was too shallow to allow a sea-going vessel
to come close to its southern bank, and the man-made channels of to-
day had not even been imagined. In fact, the river was too shallow
even for lifeboats. That was the raison d’étre of the strange carts
built with enormous wheels and drawn by several horses, that came
to meet the boats a few hundred yards off the beach. They were deep-
water carts, those carretas; 1t was beneath their dignity to take their
cargoes ashore. That task was left to the lighter carretillas, amphib-
ian vehicles of smaller wheels and lesser horsepower.

Mr. Rodney, despite his jovial disposition, must have felt rather
discouraged at the sight that greeted his eyes after his third trans-
shipment that day. The Riverside Drive of present-day Buenos
Aires (Avenida Costanera) was then non-existent. The gardens that
now give a somewhat Champs-Elysées background to the dock ware-
houses were still a part of Utopia at that time. The town’s refuse
was dumped on the beach; here and there an overlarge catch of fish
had been thrown away, possibly to accelerate the reincarnation of
their souls; a few dead horses, laboriously tugged through the streets,
had also been left there. Yet some progressive spirits had already
given the matter careful thought. Sefor Rivadavia, later President
of the Republic, invited Mr. James Bevens, an American hydraulic
engineer, to study and design pier facilities. Monsieur Cattelin, a
French military engineer, received a similar invitation. (Incidentally,
Mr. Bevens did not approve of M. Cattelin. The American and his
wife were deeply religious Quakers, whose lives, dress, and habits
bespoke the severity of God-fearing pioneers. M. Cattelin was per-
haps a little too mundane for them. Dressed in his colorful uniform,

621

Ca ASAD

Photo by Arthur Bauer
THE PORT OF BUENOS AIRES

Upper: In the early nineteenth century lifeboats carried passengers and cargo from the vessels anchored
some distance off the coast to shallow water, where they were met by large-wheeled horse-drawn
carts Pawel: A small section of the waterfront of present day Buenos Aires, one of the great ports of
the world,

BUENOS AIRES NEW AND OLD 623

he was wont to ride horseback late in the afternoon, accompanied by
an attendant, also in uniform; his sophisticated manners, his polished
savoir-faire, and his facile wit were, to his colleague, evidence of sin-
fulness. )

Not much more encouraging than the beach was the aspect of
“downtown.” Instead of the tall buildings of to-day, the wide tree-
lined avenues with their busses, street-cars, automobiles, electric
signs, and general air of hustle and bustle, then there were only squalid
rows of 1-story houses, sometimes whitewashed, but more often not.

The change wrought upon building construction in Buenos Aires
by the magic wand of a century is really breathtaking. It is indeed
hard to believe that the Avenida de Mayo, the Diagonal Norte, the
Calle Florida, teeming with metropolitan throngs and lined by
smart shops of all descriptions, stand on the same land occupied a
hundred years ago by houses that were little more than farms. The
asphalt pavements of to-day were dust roads in the eighteen twenties.
Needless to say, the rains played havoc with the streets. Large pools
of stagnant water, which were slowly transformed into mud flats if
given sufficient time, gave a Venetian touch to the landscape. Ox
carts coming from the Provinces in long caravans escorted by nu-
merous riders did not improve the condition of the flats. Some pub-
lie-spirited citizens, however, magnanimously contributed to civic
progress by having stepping-stones placed across the streets, or,
occasionally, a wooden plank for the belles to walk on without fear
of spattering their dainty gowns.

The spacious sidewalks of to-day, which harbor café tables under
awnings, had poor antecedents in the distant eighteen twenties.
They were sidewalks only by courtesy, unpaved and narrow; their
width was still further diminished by protruding window gratings.
Stealthy figures would often move noiselessly along those sidewalks,
stop, give a quick glance of inspection through the bars, and then
unobtrusively produce a fishing pole. Dexterous hands introduced
the rod between two window bars, and soon withdrew it, with a
watch, coat, or other valuable merrily dangling from the hook.

The bronze lighting standards with their artistic opaque glass
lamps, the pride of present-day avenues, are lineal descendants of the
humble and imadequate tallow candles of yore, protected against
wind and rain by equally humble glass cases. As a matter of history,
however, most of the street-lighting was done by the pedestrians
themselves. A negro slave holding a storm-lamp at the end of a
stick lighted the way for his masters. This prevented painful
bumps against window gratings, unwelcome stumbles into pools, and
disagreeable encounters with frogs.

The distant twenties could not boast of a de luxe police force, such
as Buenos Aires now maintains. ‘True, some faultfinders criticize
the attire of present-day policemen, because, they claim, it resembles

624 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

the uniform of a private chauffeur; such critics would have found
more than costume to decry a century ago. Night patrolling was
then intrusted to serenos (watchmen). Few and far between, those
ghostlike guards patrolled the streets after dark, garbed in ponchos
and armed with short lances, at the end of which dangled lanterns.
Theirs was a double duty: To enforce the law, and to keep the public
informed as to the hour and the weather. Their chant could be heard
all through the night: ‘‘Ten o’clock and it’s ramming!” “Midnight
and it’s fine!”

Nocturnal music, now and then, has also changed. Automobile
horns, street-car bells, raucous loud-speakers, traffic policemen’s
whistles, newsboys’ cries, compose to-day’s symphony. The distant
twenties were more melodious, for then serenading was at its zenith.
Groups of young guitar players made the rounds at night. After a
little preliminary strumming, a love song would break the silence of -
AVENIDA DE MAYO

BUENOS AIRES
This splendid boulevard,

120 feet wide and a mile
long, is lined with smart
shops and fine buildings.

Subway entrances appear
in the foreground.

the night. Then the lady to whom the song was dedicated would
appear at the window; there would be thanks, glances, perhaps a
flower, and the band would be off to other balconies.

What possibly amounts to a world record in the matter of serenades
was attained in that period. Don Francisco Munilla, a café owner,
was a music lover and very competent pianist who conceived the
idea of serenading the town with a piano and a whole male chorus.
Four husky porters carried the piano, and other servants took along
the music-stands and necessary paraphernalia. The serenade lasted
an entire night and was the talk of the town for many a year to come.

This leads us to the all-important subject of opera. Facing the
Plaza Lavalle in Buenos Aires stands an imposing building which
occupies an entire block. Wide marble steps lead to a spacious foyer,
where a grand staircase adds a note of splendor. Within are uphol-
stered seats, red plush carpets, the ‘‘diamond horseshoe.” Great

BUENOS AIRES NEW AND OLD 625

names find a familiar echo here: Caruso, Titto Ruffo, Journet,
Schipa, Galli-Curci, Lauri-Volpi, Lily Pons, Tulio Serafin. The
corps de ballet, the orchestra, and the chorus are permanent, supported
by the city. Without stand Rolls-Royces, Renaults, Hispano-
Suizas, Packards, liveried chauffeurs, footmen. It is the Teatro
Colén, the opera house of Buenos Aires, built on what was farm land
in 1823, when the town had its opera premiere.

The first performances were held at the Teatro Argentino, a ram-
shackle stable lighted with candles. Many patrons protested, ap-
parently in vain, against footlights that shone on both the stage and
the orchestra for lack of a board or other contrivance to throw the
light where it was needed. ‘The prompter’s shell was of such generous
proportions that one of the first Italian tenors fell into the prompter’s
pit while singing a comic aria, an incident which elicited loud laughter
because it was taken by the audience as part of the performance.

AVENIDA PRESIDENTE
ROQUE SAENZ PENA

Many blocks of old buildings
were razed to permit the
construction of this fine new
avenue, also known as the
Diagonal Norte, through the
heart of the city.

The mechanical equipment amounted to nothing, if one considers
the fact that the curtain was raised in the following manner: Four
heavy stage-hands, two at each side, climbed a ladder to the top of the
curtain; then, at the proper time, they seized the ropes and jumped to
the floor, thus lifting the curtain into position.

The boxes, of which there were about twenty-five ‘‘low” and as
many “high” (on the second floor), did not have any seats. The box-
holders had to provide their own chairs. For many years the boxes
did not have any doors, with the result that many unprincipled in-
truders crowded around the doorways, to the great annoyance of the
legitimate occupants.

The gallery was an exclusively feminine domain, considered in-
formal. Young ladies could meet there to exchange confidences and
secret slips of paper, while the mothers pretended not to see. Sefiorita
A would promise, for example, that when young Sefior B called at her

626 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

THE TEATRO COLON, BUENOS AIRES

This building, which ranks with the fine opera houses of the world, was opened May 25, 1808, replacing
an earlier theater of the same name.

house, she would discreetly send a messenger to Sefiorita C with the
news, so that she could call with every appearance of innocence.

The répertoire of the 1832 season of the Teatro Argentino included
Otello, Cenerentola, and the Barber of Seville. The chorus had been
recruited from among the Italian residents who graciously consented
to leave their shoemakers’ benches before the usual time.

As for the theater, it is interesting to note that Shakespearean sub-
jects were not unknown in Buenos Aires after 1824. Mr. Love,
editor of The British Packet, perhaps the first English-language paper
published in that city, wrote in 1825: ‘‘Othello is performed every once
in a while; not Shakespeare’s Othello, but a Spanish translation from
the French, full of absurdities that an Englishman provided with the
average amount of patience could not tolerate.”

At this period a revolution in fashion attacked what seemed to
many the very foundations of Buenos Aires society. Women de-
clared their independence from Spanish fashions, and mantillas and
high combs were banished. The influence of French couturiers upon
Argentine femininity was in the ascendant, much to the discomfort of

BUENOS AIRES NEW AND OLD 627

the old-fashioned. Sedate matrons and young ladies waited anxiously
for the arrival of mail packets with the latest novelties from Paris.

The Spanish dress had been relatively short, as dresses went in that
genteel age. The French invasion lengthened it considerably, adding
innumerable frills, ribbons, and furbelows. Petticoats varied in
number from 1 to 14 or 16. Sleeves were of the balloon type, stuffed
with wool, cotton, or other material. Opera pumps were the rage.
Hair dressing attained a perfection as complex as the most ambitious
coiffeur of to-day could desire. Artificial curls were sometimes glued
at the temples, to increase the devastating power of feminine charm.

Another revolution was also under
way at the time: The hospitality
of the home was giving way to a
newlangled institution—the hotel.
The large modern hostelries of
Buenos Aires, exponents of sanitary
plumbing, private baths, de luxe
suites (and de luxe bills), evoke the
memory of the pioneers in the
field, the Englishmen Faunch, Keen,
and Smith, and the enterprising and
energetic American Mrs. Thorn.
Theirs were the hotels whose clien-
téle was the élite, both Argentine
and foreign; for narrow national-
ism did not exist, immigration had
not yet brought thousands of Euro-
pean laborers into Buenos Aires,
and foreigners were well received
in the most exclusive circles.

Catering to the poorer classes :

A PROMENADE COSTUME OF OLD
were the fondas, which managed to BUENOS AIRES
make themselves highly conspicuous Reproduced from an illustration dated 1832.
by the spicy odor—perceptible at
quite a distance—of their viands; from these inns there issued at
night strains played on the guitar, drawling provincial accents, and
not infrequently the sound of clashing knives.

Faunch’s Hotel was the most fashionable place for a number of
years. It was there that a great celebration took place on January 22,
1825, to commemorate the battle of Ayacucho, the { al victory of South
America over Spain. The consular corps joined in the festivities.
Mr. Poussett, the British vice consul, was seen arm in arm with Mr.
Slocum, his American colleague. ‘‘Fifty years ago,’’ says Mr. Love
in The British Packet of that date, ‘‘such an occurrence would have
been considered fantastic—a British consul joining with a consul of

REL ME MORLA :

eS aera”

TUNER Wtsr Be

MONUMENT TO CAESAR AUGUSTUS RODNEY IN BUENOS AIRES

As a tribute to the first United States Minister to Argentina, who died in’ Buenos Aires in 1824, the
Argentine Government erected this memorial in St, John’s Anglican Church.

BUENOS AIRES NEW AND OLD 629

MARKET PLACE, BUENOS AIRES OF LONG AGO

Reproduced from Vidal’s ‘‘ Picturesque Illustrations of Buenos Aires and Montevideo,’’ published in
London, 1820.

England’s former colony in a celebration of the imdependence of
another part of the American continent.”

It was also at Faunch’s that the Argentine Government had given,
the May before, an official banquet in honor of Mr. Rodney, to which
127 persons were invited. It was the last function that he attended,
for he died suddenly 15 days later, still in the prime of life, highly
popular, and beloved by all who knew him. At his very impressive
funeral the funeral coach, or hearse, such as is still used in Buenos
Aires, made its first appearance.

The Argentine Government issued the followmg decree on the
day of his death:

June 10, 1824: The death of Mr. Cesar Augustus Rodney, minister plenipo-
tentiary of the United States, has produced in the mind of the Government of
Buenos Aires all the regret which is inspired by the loss to his country of such a
distinguished citizen, and to all America of a jealous defender of its rights, espe-
cially connected with the Provinces of the River Plate.

The Government, therefore, desirous of giving a public testimony of this regret
and of the regard it has for him, has enacted and decreed:

1. That the Government shall erect, as a proof of its gratitude, a funeral
monument where the remains of the Hon. Cesar Augustus Rodney will rest.

2. The cost of the monument shall be covered by funds from the appropriation

for discretional expenses of the Government. Tiniwac

Manvurewt Jos& GaARcrA.

OVER THE ANDES TO THE AMAZON
By Granuam M. Ker

Y wife and I sailed from New York, passed through the Panama

Canal, and disembarked at the Peruvian seaport of Callao, en
route by steamer, rail, auto, and airplane to Iquitos. About this city
on the Amazon the axe of the mahogany exporter is blazing the way
to a possible return of prosperity, now lost to the jungle, but at its
peak in those days two decades ago when wild rubber commanded such
fabulous prices in the markets of the world.

From Callao an automobile ride of 7 miles took us to Lima, the
capital, founded by the Spanish conquerors nearly a century before
our own settlement at Jamestown.

Lima, ‘‘the City of Kings,” is a fascinating medley of the past and
the present. Here, for example, stands the former hall of the Inqui-
sition, now the Senate Chamber, the exquisitely carved woodwork of
its interior equaled only by that of the famous old Torre Tagle Palace,
the present home of the Ministry of Foreign Relations. There rises
the ornately carved facade of the church of San Augustin, one of the
loveliest in the Americas. The University of San Marcos, probably
the oldest institution of its kind in the Western Hemisphere, proudly
traces its origin to a royal decree of 1551. Yet down in the newer
part of the city rise strikingly handsome buildings of modern design
and construction. And everywhere flowers grow in the greatest
profusion.

But it was not with Lima that we were concerned, charming though
she is. We were bound for the mighty Amazon. A glance at a relief
map of South America will show where the various ranges of the Andes
converge in Peru, forming a narrow barrier between the West Coast
and the Amazon Basin. This great mountain wall, towering to tre-
mendous heights, now lay across our path.

The morning after our arrival in Lima we continued on our way,
comfortably watching the charming landscape from the train as it
left the narrow coastal plain and plunged into the rocky gorges of the
sierra, worming its way upward toward the summit. We had been
cautioned against soroche, the peculiar sickness affecting travelers in
the high altitudes; therefore, although feeling perfectly well and
enjoying the trip, we let the lunch hour go by unobserved.

By noon we had risen to an altitude of 10,000 feet. Ascending as
we did through rock-walled canyons, at times seemingly insurmount-
able cliffs rose before us to bar our way. By zigzag paths cut into

630

OVER THE ANDES TO THE AMAZON 631

their precipitous faces we scaled many; through countless tunnels
we pierced the rest. A young woman in our car fainted, overcome by
the rarity of the atmosphere; but oxygen, kept ever ready for such
emergencies, was promptly administered and she soon recovered.
Early afternoon brought us to the crowning point of our climb, and
we passed through the final tunnel, 16,000 feet above sea level. The
hills opened up about us, and we found ourselves gently descending
through mountain pastures surrounded by snow-capped peaks. Long
trains of llamas, the camel-like pack beasts of the Andes, could be

CURVES ON
THE CEN-
TRAL RAIL-
ROAD OF
PERU

In the journey of
140 miles by rail
across the An-
dean Range from
Lima to Oroya
the train tra-
verses innumer-
able tunnels and
bridges.

seen wending their way with their characteristically dignified stride
along near-by routes of travel; and we knew that beyond our sight,
but possibly viewing us from a safe distance, were alpacas and yicufnas
running wild in their native habitat.

Though our train had left Lima at 7 in the morning, it was not yet
eventide when we pulled into Oroya, and our trip by rail was over.
Since we were still more than 12,000 feet above the sea, however, we
decided to spend the night at Tarma, a quaint little town nestling in
a valley several thousand feet down the eastern slope.

Our automobile was soon on its way, out past the smelter of the
Cerro de Pasco copper mines; the mountain air was chilly but we

632 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

were wrapped in heavy clothing and felt no discomfort. All went
well, and by 9 in the evening we had made ourselves at home in the
comfortable hotel in Tarma and were ready to enjoy the good dinner
our host prepared for us.

The next morning the young chief of the San Ramon air base, who
was to be our pilot on the flight over the foothills the following day,
called at the hotel to say that it would be best to leave for the flying
field in the afternoon. Our heavy baggage had already been disposed
of: It was to be taken by auto truck down to La Merced, thence by
pack mule across the old Pichis trail for seven days, and eventually

THE TOWN OF TARMA

In the quaint town of Tarma, a few thousand feet down the eastern slope of the Andes, the author spent
the first night of the trip from Lima to Iquitos.

down the river by the mail launch to Iquitos, where it would appear a
month later.

We enjoyed the cool mountain air at Tarma, where we strolled
about for hours. Its market place was typical of such highland
towns. Vendors, mostly women in colorful woolen garb, lent pic-
turesqueness to the plaza. Their only stock in trade was frequently
little piles of peanuts. Equally meager supplies of salt, shelled corn,
beans, frozen potatoes, flowers—sometimes a single bunch—claimed
the attention of other vendors as they squatted, chatting in the sun.
At the stalls within were brilliantly-colored dress materials, shawls,
sandals, native pottery, baskets, and other simple necessities. Don-
keys stood about, relieved of their cargoes of fruits and vegetables

OVER THE ANDES TO THE AMAZON 633

from the more fertile spots in the valley below; llamas came swinging
in from the higher lands, bearing loads of the current fuel of the
mountains—dung from their own grazing grounds.

Early in the afternoon Mrs. Ker and I bade good-bye to Tarma,
and with our pilot and the chauffeur soon found ourselves speeding
down a hazardous l-way automobile road cut into the wall of a
great canyon, in whose depths tumbled a wild mountain river plunging
to the lowlands. As we whirled dizzily along the face of the cliff we
could see our everdescending road zigzagging back and forth, often
a thousand feet or more directly below. Once we discerned the dim

toe ; pe on a
Photograph by Albert C. Smith

THE ROAD DOWN THE TARMA VALLEY

The descent of the zigzagging 1-way road cut into the canyon wall proved a thrilling experience.

outline of the twisted wreckage of an automobile, the mute witness
to some tragedy of the past. Landslides are frequent, and woe betide
the traveler caught by them as they hurl their tons of rock down
across the road.

We had been anticipating a sensational experience the following
day, for our air trip was our first flight, but here we were, still on
terra firma, holding our breath while the chauffeur, contemptuously
familiar with the danger, stepped hard on the gas and whirled us
along that dizzy path with but a few inches of roadway at times
between our outer wheels and a plunge to certain death.

183197—32— Bull. 9——_38

634 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Evening was fast upon us when we reached the floor of the canyon
and, care free once more, spun happily along a pretty road past coffee
plantations and humble holdings. After the chill of the mountain
heights the air in the valley was soft, and overcoats and sweaters were
discarded. Lights were burning in San Ramon as we drove up to the
little hotel with keen appetites, ready for the simple fare of its modest
board.

We were glad to find our bedroom windows screened with wire, and
our cots covered with cotton netting, for mosquitoes are numerous
in San Ramon. In relaxation and comparative comfort we retired
for the night. Hardly had we fallen asleep it seemed, when, well
before sunrise, we were called and advised that breakfast was prepared
and the automobile ready to take us to the flying field. There we
found an ample hangar with three American planes, while close by
was a neat little wooden bungalow, the headquarters of the aviators.

San Ramon is the western terminus of the East Peruvian air line.
It lies in a pocket in the foothills, whence it is necessary to rise high
in the air before starting on the eastward flight. Ugly-looking clouds
hung low over the hills as we sat on the porch of the bungalow chat-
ting with the aviation officers. One was an American, veteran of
many adventures; the other two, Peruvians, were graduates of the
naval flying school in Lima. Our pilot had been given command of
the post in recognition of his skill and familiarity with the difficult
terrain of this region, where he had been bred.

Weather conditions being somewhat doubtful, one of the pilots
mounted above the clouds to see what the prospects were. In a few
minutes we saw him descending, and anxiously awaited his verdict.
It was unfavorable, so we continued our chat until 2 in the afternoon,
when the airway was clear. Donning caps and goggles, we mounted
to the seat of our 2-passenger plane; the pilot was already in place
behind us, and we were off on our first flight.

Below us as we passed out over the foothills lay fleecy cloud banks
penetrated in spots by timbered heights. These were soon left behind,
the sky below us cleared, and a vast panorama of hills spread out in
all directions. Rivers tumbling along through canyons appeared as
faint threads of white. It was an awe-inspiring sight to landlubbers
gazing for the first time down upon the earth.

The mountains gradually disappeared and the rivers grew larger as
we sped on toward the Amazon. Frequently the pilot handed us
hurriedly scrawled notes calling attention to salient features in the
landscape. A sparsely inhabited spot on a river bank,-he told us,
was the first mail station; swooping low, he dropped a bag of mail into
the clearing. At 4.30 in the afternoon he passed us a final note and
pointed to a group of buildings just coming into sight. The word he
had written was ‘‘ Masisea’’—the end of our day’s journey. The field

OVER THE ANDES TO THE AMAZON 635

was small, but we made an easy landing, grateful for a perfect flight
through what is at times a bad bit of air.

(Not long after this, one of the young pilots we had met in San
Ramon, who had already won a reputation for cool-headedness, left
on the same route with two passengers. Seven thousand feet above
the mountainous terrain beyond the divide his motor stalled. Far in
the distance he saw the silver glint of a mountain river; the hills
below him were rugged, broken, covered with timber. No landing was
possible there; his only chance in a thousand was to find a soft spot
along the distant river’s bank. Quick as a flash he turned and dived
with terrific speed. There followed a pull on the stick, a long hori-
zontal glide, then another dive, another glide, again and again, until

Photograph by Ellsworth P. Killip
SAN RAMON AVIATION FIELD

From San Ramon, in the foothills of the Andes, regular air service is maintained to Iquitos.

the river lay below. He spied a silt-filled, reed-grown pocket by
the water’s edge; there was a crash, the machine was wrecked, but
all lives were saved.)

Here at Masisea we found again a neat little bungalow, free from
all pretensions of beauty, and almost entirely free from furniture as
well; but it was new and clean, the porch and doors were screened,
and it contained two good shower baths, whose excellence we had time
to prove before wending our way up the river bank to the modest
abode of the Governor of the District. Under a lean-to of his palm-
thatched house we sat down to a simple meal, his solicitous women
folk urging us to eat heartily. The balmy air of the tropic night
invited a stroll, but the mosquitoes forced us, instead, to return to the

636 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Marshall Field Amazon Expedition photograph
IQUITOS FROM THE AIR

Iquitos lies at the head of Amazon River navigation, more than 2,300 miles from the Atlantic seacoast.

protection of our screened-in bungalow. On the way we met a party
of five Indians, just arrived by canoe from one of the upper rivers, to
meet and conduct back to their settlement an American missionary
who was working among them. They wore a garment of hand-woven
wool like an inverted bag with an opening for the head. Their thick,
black, straight hair was cut in bangs across the forehead. Wild
creatures they looked, unlike so many of the Indians met along the
river ways and mountain roads.

One of the officers kindly put his cot, the only one in the bungalow,
at Mrs. Ker’s disposal for the night, and slept on the floor with the
rest of us.

The next morning bright and early we were up and ready, greatly
pleased that we were to have the chief of the East Peruvian air serv-
ice as pilot on the last lap of our journey. The day before we had been
out to the hangar to inspect our new plane, again a 2-passenger ma-
chine, but this time a hydroplane, for now our route was to follow the
general course of the river.

At 8.30 we were off, heading down river for Iquitos, only three or
four hundred miles distant. We were not always within gliding dis-
tance of the river, and though the monotonous green of the jungle,

OVER THE ANDES TO THE AMAZON 637

2,000 feet below us, looked soft and safe, we realized its deceptive ap-
pearance and the probable hopelessness of ever getting out of it alive
if forced to seek a landing in the branches of its mighty trees. Against
all that background of green and water, hovering spots of white—in-
numerable herons—were the only signs of life, although we knew the
jungle to be teeming with parrots and other birds of the most brilliant
plumage, boa constrictors and anacondas, deer and jaguars, tapirs
and crocodiles, monkeys of countless varieties, beautiful butterflies,
and a thousand different forms of life.

An hour after leaving Masisea we dropped down for gasoline at
Contamana, a river town on the Ucayali gradually being washed away
by the floods of that mighty river; we were off once more, the seeming-
ly interminable jungle stretching away in all directions. We reached
Requena, circled low, dropped a package of mail in the plaza, and again
headed for Iquitos.

We had been gone from Masisea five hours. A hard wind was blow-
ing against us, drops of rain stung us in the face, and we felt the vibra-
tion of the struts, and sudden jerks as we dropped in the air pockets.
We rose to higher levels and a superb view opened below us—the junc-
tion of the Ucayali and Marafion rivers, the two great confluents of
the Amazon. |

An hour more and we saw in the distance on the river bank a glis-
tening spot of white which gradually resolved itself into a city—Iquitos
at last. The plane descended in a graceful spiral, and we found our-
selves on the bosom of the Amazon. Our journey was over, and
Mrs. Ker had the distinction of being the first American woman to
make the flight.

The little city of Iquitos, with its 20,000 inhabitants, hes only 328
feet above the level of the Atlantic; an ocean-going steamer was load-
ing at the dock when we arrived, although the ocean is 2,400 miles
distant. Surprising, you say? Yes, and another surprise was in
store for us, a pleasant one, for never in our travels had we met people
of greater charm than those whom we were to know in this little city,
hidden in the heart of the jungle, 3 degrees south of the equator.

‘SoATso[dxe puw ‘sojsed ‘sonjs yo ornjovsnuvur oy}
UI PUB ‘pod} YOOISOATL B SB POZI[I}N osye orB JuBld oy} JO sjonpoIg ‘so4eIG popu oY4 Jo Solapune] Aq posn ATOATSUO}XO ST YOIYA Youejs B pue ‘Boolde} UMOUY AT[e1oues
OY} 0} UOTJIPp® UI “IMO puw [VOU BPNPIU SoATWVATIOp SJ] ‘sJuBTd dTUTOMODS PosSM ATEPIA\ JSOUL S,P[IOM OY} JO 9UO SI BABSSRO OY} ‘BOIIOUTY WIYeTYT [eoIdo14 04 snoussIpuy

VdNO NI VAVSSVO HO GTHIA V

eueqey ‘ofeqniy, A O1oteu0D ‘Bainy[NoUay ep BystAey JO AsayINO_D

CASSAVA: AN ECONOMIC PLANT
NATIVE TO LATIN AMERICA

By Jos& L. CoLtom

Chief, Division of Agricultural Cooperation, Pan American Union

HE cassava is one of the most extensively grown and widely used

economic plants known to man. With the exception of corn,
beans, and potatoes, it is of all the indigenous plants of America the
one whose culture is most widespread throughout the world. It grows
well in every tropical country, and is to be found in all lands within
the limits of 30° latitude north and south of the Equator where grow-
ing conditions are at all favorable. The tuberous, starchy root of this
plant forms the chief article of diet for millions of tropical people; in
this role it ranks perhaps next to rice. While the inhabitants of tem-
perate regions are familiar with only one or two of its manufactured
products, such as the tapioca eaten occasionally as a dessert or used
in the preparation of other foods, in many parts of South and Central
America cassava is eaten by all classes of society twice a day nearly
every day in the year. One of the most nutritious foods known, it is
propagated very easily and has indeed been growing in a wild state in
tropical America since before the Spanish and Portuguese settled in
that part of the western world. Yet itis only in comparatively recent
years that peoples of the Tropics, particularly in the cassava’s native
American habitat, began to realize its importance as an economic
plant.

NOMENCLATURE

In the United States the name cassava is properly given to the plant
Manihot utilissima Pohl., though even here it is known also by various
others. Other scientific names applied are Jatropha manihot Linn.,
and Janipha manihot H. B. K., while in South America the common
names by which it is known include manihot, manioc, aypi, and yuca.
For obvious reasons it is sometimes referred to as the tapioca plant
or the sweetpotato tree, the latter because of a similarity in the root
growth of the two plants. When it was introduced into India it was
given a dozen or more different vernacular names in the various states,
which literally translated mean “bread yam,” “‘stick sweetpotato,”’
‘flour tree,’’ and similar descriptive phrases.

BOTANIC DESCRIPTION

The cultivated cassava is a shrubby tree growing 3 to 10 feet in
height, with stem and branches forking regularly in threes. It has long-
639

640 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

petioled palmately-parted leaves of from 5 to 13 divisions, reaching
nearly to the base, elliptical in outline and forming fingers. In appear-
ance the plant resembles the castor-bean (Ricinus communis Linn.),
both being genera of the Huphorbiacex family. The color of the roots
varies from dark red to light yellow or almost white, their length from
1 to 6 or 8 feet or more, and their diameter from 1% to 2% inches.
There are usually from 3 to 5 storage roots, in which starch is kept as
food for the plant; they grow radially from the base of the plant and
rather close to the surface of the ground and are the roots of com-
mercial importance.

Two types of cultivated cassava are usually designated, ‘‘bitter”’
and ‘‘sweet,’’ the former represented by the species Manihot utilissima
Pohl., and the latter by Manzhot aipi Plon. The distinction is due to
the presence in their roots of the volatile hydrocyanic (prussic) acid
compound, the former type containing considerably more than the
latter, or as much as 0.03 per cent and more of the root content. In
spite of this fact, varieties of the bitter cassava are much more widely
used as food in the Tropics, mainly because they produce more abund-
antly. In both types most of the acid is lost by processing the roots,
or driven off by heat in drying the starch or roasting or cooking the
roots.

There are many different varieties now known, though only a few
are commercially important. In Java, where perhaps greater strides
have been taken in cassava cultivation and exploitation than else-
where, 25 are considered to be important, while in the Philippines
only 2 or 3 are of wide distribution. In 1919, J. Zehntner made a
study of 74 different varieties of Brazilian cassava. Many new ones
have been developed from time to time, all through propagation by
seeds; the commercial system of propagation, which will be discussed
later, is by means of cuttings.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

In view of the growing interest shown by many countries in the use
of cassava flour as a substitute for wheat flour, it may be worthwhile
to say something about its composition. The Bureau of Chemistry
of the United States Department of Agriculture found that cassava
flour could not be substituted in full for wheat flour in making bread,
largely because of its excessive carbohydrate content and lack of
nitrogenous bodies. For instance, ordinary wheat flour contains
nitrogenous compounds varying from 8 to 14 per cent, while in cas-
sava flour they rarely are as much as 2 per cent. For this reason the
role of cassava flour in bread making must necessarily be confined to
that of a partial substitute to be used with wheat flour, at least if
present baking methods continue.

CASSAVA! AN ECONOMIC PLANT 641

The chemical composition of cassava roots and flour, as deter-
mined in the bureau laboratory, is shown in the following tables:

Composition of cassava root (dry matter)

Per cent
ENGST oo a a ap ON ee ge tee eg 1. 94
Peiroleunmn Guner Gach (Ci) eee ee IL, 27
Lithemextrach (resins) organic acids, @tG) 22] 222. 922s = = = ee . 74
Aicohol extract (amides, sugars, glucosides, etc.) ________------------- 17. 43
CO eraTT Gl etal loc pee tener cree es cece Te Hs ae a le aE a meee en ae 4. 03
SMR TEB NAS ws cs cc a er RH acer es Ti, SS
eeeite Time (LOGE COne 0) ee ee ena ae 2 eee ee 3. 47
STC) (yet eaeeetonee fey send utes ge oe ey tof es LILLE So oe ES to al a ay ie ee 100. 73
Composition of cassava flour—two experiments
Per cent Per cent
MOS hue meee ee eee Oe oe ee SS ee 10. 56 11. 86
ING Tile Se Re eae Beane re Se Ee a ee eS 1. 86 1.13
Retrolemmu@ethemextract (hat))sas= 8225.20 2 2 es 1. 50 . 86
Ether extract (resins and organic acids) -______----_------- . 64 . 43
Alcohol extract (amides, sugars, glucosides) ___-____----_---- 13. 69 4. 50
Wexinines cues ye GIITeKenCe ms = = es ae 2. 85 5. 63
Crudepil cream ne ees Sos ee oe oe Se 2. 96 4.15
Broome (MIELOSeNGO.259))2 2222-2 22 a et Se See il 1. 31
Sa i euenne Ms Pune ee ae ene URE ie a Bie ce ae 64. 63 70. 13
TO aah a eh Ase a ee 100. 00 100. 00

A word should be said about the “‘poisonous” hydrocyanic (prussic)
acid found in cassava roots. It is possible that the roots of both
bitter and sweet types contain at a certain stage a small amount of a
substance which, when partly cooked and allowed to start fermenting,
may release hydrocyanic acid; yet the fresh raw and the roasted or
boiled roots usually may be eaten with impunity. There has never
been recorded in the United States any case of poisoning from cassava;
a possible explanation advanced for this is that the shorter growing
season and different climatic conditions in this country result in pro-
ducing a plant with a smaller hydrocyanic content. It is true that
only the sweet varieties are grown in the United States.

It has been claimed that the main difference between the sweet and
bitter types is that in the former the hydrocyanic-acid compound is
found only in the bark of the roots, and hence is removed by peeling,
while in the bitter type this poisonous compound permeates the entire
root. In the latter this poison must be eliminated by the application
of sufficient heat to release it in the form of gas. Usually exposure for
some time to the direct rays of the sun is sufficient; certainly roasting
or cooking the roots renders them safe to eat.

642 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

HISTORY

The present cultivated varieties of cassava are probably all traceable
to a common ancestor which was found growing wild in the valley of
the Amazon River when the white men landed there in the late fif-
teenth and early sixteenth centuries. Von den Stein reported its
cultivation in northern Brazil among the Bacairi Indians, who had
never before seen a white man, while Peckolt claims that the Portu-
guese found it under crude cultivation by the Guaranys and Tupi-
nambas. In 1548 Pinzén makes the first scientific reference to manioc
as being indigenous to Brazil, thriving as far as 3° south latitude, and
growing at a height of 3,000 feet above sea level.

Its ease of cultivation and value as a food crop were soon noticed
by the Portuguese, who lost little time in carrying to the East plant
specimens of the promising cassava. It found its way into Africa
during the sixteenth century and a little later into India and other
parts of Asia. Through the channels of commerce it was soon carried
into almost every country where growing conditions were at all favor-
able. Just when it was introduced into Florida is unknown, though
records show it to have been in cultivation there as early as 1860, and
in common use as a source of starch during the Civil War.

CULTURE

As mentioned above, the cassava thrives best in a tropical climate,
one which is free from frost at least 11 months of the year, though
8 months of freedom will suffice. This is necessary to permit
maturity of the roots, the season for which may be anywhere from
between 7 and 9 months for most varieties to as long as 2 years for
others. However, the sweet varieties seem to mature more rapidly
than the bitter, and have given satisfactory results in Florida and
other Gulf States of the United States. Some writers consider the
cassava an annual plant in temperate climates and a perennial in the
Tropics.

The best soil in which to grow cassava is a light, rich, sandy loam.
That this should be underlaid by a hardpan, to prevent too great
penetration of the roots and thus permit their easy harvest, many
growers consider preferable. Of course, cassava will grow in wet,
heavy, or clayey soils, but there will be disadvantages either in digging,
in the appearance of the roots, or in their excessive water content.
The cassava has practically the same soil requirements as the sweet-
potato.

Good preparatory crops for cassava are velvet beans or cowpeas,
which, when turned under, will furnish the needed nitrogen and
lighten the soil. This leaves only potash and phosphoric acid to be
supplied in the form of commercial fertilizer. A common mixture for

CASSAVA! AN ECONOMIC PLANT 643

fertilizer is 200 pounds of kainite (or 50 pounds of potash) and 300
pounds of acid phosphate, less phosphate being used on limestone
lands and more on light, sandy soils. From 200 to 400 pounds of this
mixture should be applied to an acre. Ground bone may be substi-
tuted for acid phosphate. If velvet beans or cowpeas do not precede
the planting of cassava, nitrogen may be included in the fertilizer in
the form of cottonseed meal at the rate of 200 to 400 pounds per acre.
The ground should not be fertilized too heavily. While cassava will
seem to thrive readily, especially on virgin soil, continued planting on
the same land without fertilizing soon impoverishes the soil.

Courtesy of Revista de Agricultura, Comercio y Trabajo, Habana

CASSAVA ROOTS

The commercial value of the plant lies in these roots, which grow radially from the base of the plant near
the surface of the ground.

As in the matter of climate, so in rainfall cassava grows under
widely divergent conditions. While some varieties make a vigorous
erowth where the annual rainfall does not exceed 20 inches, others
endure as much as 200 inches without injury. Its chief asset in this
connection, however, is its ability to subsist over periods of drought.

It is more difficult to determine the exact time for harvesting this
crop than is the case with most others. The starch content of the
roots and the use to which they will be put are the determining
factors. Actual tests from about every tenth hill of every tenth row
should be made several times after it is felt that period for digging is
close at hand, in order to determine the approximate yield per acre.

644. THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

When the yield is no longer increasing it is time to harvest the crop.
The period of growth may range anywhere from seven months, as
with the sweet varieties of Florida, to as long as two years.

The cassava plant is propagated commercially by cuttings. The
seed canes should be cut just before planting into pieces 4 to 6 inches
long from mature, but not too old, plants. The middle portions are
preferred, though the entire cane may be used in case of a shortage of
cuttings. Great care should be exercised to insure the use of only
live stems, since the greatest loss in yield is that due to planting dead
or dying cuttings. They should be cut cleanly so as not to wound the
eyes or leave jagged ends which will invite rotting. A very sharp
knife, or better still, a wide-toothed saw is best for this purpose.

After the ground has been ploughed and well harrowed, it is fur-
rowed at right angles to make hills about 4 feet apart. This method
should produce 2,722 hills to an acre. While some writers advocate
dropping the cuttings carelessly and covering them entirely with
earth about 4 inches deep, others say that they should be set right
side up in either a slanting or a vertical position and covered until only
the tip is exposed.

Cassava, which grows very rapidly, needs cultivation only in the
early months and then merely to keep down weeds. A shallow culti-
vator which will not injure the roots of the plant is best; where labor
is plentiful and cheap, hoeing may be substituted for one or more
ploughings. After the foliage becomes dense enough to shade the
entire surface of the ground, weeds will not grow enough to harm the
plants and cultivation may be dispensed with.

If the ground in which the crop is grown is light and sandy, the
roots may be pulled by hand after all but about a foot of the stem has
been cut off. However, a sharp-pointed instrument (in the Philip-
pines a bamboo rod is used), which may be inserted under the root
cluster and used as a lever, is often used to insure a more complete
harvest and prevent breaking the roots. Where the ground is heavy
or damp, it becomes necessary to employ a spade or similar instru-
ment. Digging is the most expensive phase of cassava culture, and
experiments are being made to find an implement for ploughing out
the roots without injuring them too greatly. The tops have prac-
tically no commercial value and are usually left on the ground as
humus for future plantings. After harvesting it is advisable to use
the roots immediately or, at the latest, within 24 hours, for at the end
of that time they begin to deteriorate rapidly. Unwashed roots
keep longer than washed ones.

Very often from one-fourth to one-third of the hills are missing at
harvest time, and this keeps down the yield. Crops may run any-
where from 2 to 25 tons of roots per acre, but 5 to 6 tons is considered
an average yield.

CASSAVA: AN ECONOMIC PLANT 645

Only two diseases of any consequence are known to attack the cas-
sava, both caused by parasitic fungi. They are the ‘“‘spot disease,”’
caused by Cercospora henningsii Alleschi, appearing late in the
season when the leaves are almost mature and doing little harm; and
“frenching”’ or “‘little plants,” caused by the Glocosporium manihot
Earle, which attacks and kills the growing branches near the end and
then works downward. In some cases this is serious; it is combated
by planting selected cuttings known to be free from this fungus. O.
W. Barrett says that a bud maggot, Lonchoea chalybea, is one of the
few pests which attack cassava; it is common but not very dangerous
in tropical America and can be controlled by hand picking the tender
tips of the branches. He mentions a Sphingid caterpillar as some-
times being troublesome; again hand picking is recommended. Root
rots are rare and leaf blights not common.

USES AND PRODUCTS

To millions of people in tropical countries the cassava root is as
common in their diet as are potatoes to people of the United States
and European countries. If eaten whole, fresh roots are used, peeled,
and usually cooked or baked. Another and perhaps more widely
followed practice is to peel the roots, then grate them into meal, and
cook by steaming. In cooking care is taken to allow the steam to
escape, as with it any poisonous gas from the roots will also pass.
Various dishes are prepared by natives of the different tropical
countries.

Starch is of course by far the most important product made from
cassava. The general procedure of its commercial manufacture is as
follows: The tubers are first thoroughly washed in a tank or tub of
suitable capacity, then removed, cut into pieces about the size of
potatoes, and fed into a starch-extracting machine, which at full
capacity should take care of about 600 pounds per hour. The machine
automatically separates the starch from the pulp, the latter being
discharged in front of the machine and the starch conveyed to settling
tanks. For a machine of the capacity described above, three 1,600-
gallon settling tanks would be required, there being approximately
100 gallons of starch-containing fluid to 100 pounds of roots. It
requires from 4 to 6 hours for the starch to settle and separate from
the water and from the pulp and peels, which rise to the top. The
starch is next dried, in the sun if the quantity is not too great, or
by means of mechanical drying equipment in cases of large-scale
production.

In addition to the whole root, cassava meal, and starch, the follow-
ing products may be listed:

Tapioca flour is the product resulting from the heating of moist
cassava starch or flour on iron plates, whereby the granules are rup-

646 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

tured and when cooled formed into hard and translucent pellets.
If rather large and flat they are called flakes, and if molded into small
pellets they are known as pearl tapioca.

Gaplek, a Malay word, is used to designate the peeled, sliced, and
dried roots of cassava.

Gaplek meal is ground gaplek reduced to the consistency of fine
corn meal.

Cassareep is the liquid squeezed out of cassava meal when heated,
and reduced to the consistency of syrup. It is said to be a very power-
ful antiseptic and is used to keep all kinds of meat fresh for consider-
able periods. It is also the basis of many well-known sauces, and
figures prominently in the West Indian dish called ‘‘pepper pot.”’

Piwarri is an intoxicating drink said by Nichols to be made from
the cassava root by natives of Guiana.

Suman is the name given to cookies made by the Filipinos from
fresh cassava meal.

Bagasse is the fibrous waste left after most of the starch has been
extracted from the roots. Its food value for livestock is rather low,
though it may be mixed with other feeds to advantage. The finer
waste is called ampas, and corresponds to bran in the manufacture
of wheat flour.

In closing the remarks on cassava as a food source mention should
be made of its use as livestock feed. Probably 95 per cent of the
crop grown in the United States goes for this purpose, the roots being
eaten eagerly by hogs, cattle, horses, and poultry. Since it is a
heavy-ylelding crop, its advantages over other tuberous crops are
apparent. It is often fed in combination with bran, cottonseed meal,
or some other nitrogenous grain feed. As a feed for milk cows it is
at least equal to ensilage, but it is especially valuable for fattening
beef cattle and hogs. When fed to growing livestock it should be
mixed with grain, but as a quick fattener it is equal to, if not better
than, corn and may be fed by itself. One grower at Wortham, Miss.,
considered 1 acre of cassava to be worth as much as 8 to 10 acres of
corn for fattening hogs.

In addition to its uses as food, cassava is the source of numerous
products well known in the industrial field. The starch made from
cassava constitutes a large part of that employed in laundries, and
for this purpose is considered superior to starch made from either
potatoes or corn. A former important use was for sizing in cotton-
textile mills, though now it is seldom used for this purpose in the
United States because it commands a better price elsewhere. From
it, too, are made many glues and pastes; about 30 per cent of the tap-
ioca imported into the United States is now made into wood glue,
which is highly prized by furniture manufacturers for veneering.
It also figures in the manufacture of explosives, adhesive for stamps

CASSAVA: AN ECONOMIC PLANT 647

and envelopes, and paper sizings. In the Philippines even the pith
of the stalk is utilized; this is cut into strips and strung into curtains,
which, when dyed, are highly ornamental.

IMPORTANCE TO THE UNITED STATES

While cassava has been grown in Florida and a few other Southern
States of the United States at least since the time of the Civil War,
not until about 1894 was its growth stimulated. The freezes of that
winter destroyed a large part of the orange groves of Florida, and the
farmers turned to livestock. Since theirs was not a grain-growing

A CASSAVA PLANT

This 20-year-old specimen
of a Brazilian variety, in
the patio of the Pan
American Union, has
reached a growth of 11
fect.

State and there was need for acheap and prolific feedstuff, the farmers
of Florida adopted cassava for this purpose. Soon fields of from
5 to 10 acres became common in many parts of the State, while by
1903-4 fields of from 50 to 100 acres each were to be found in the vi-
cinity of cassava starch factories, of which the first in the United States,
if not in the world, was that at De Land, Fla., in 1898. Another
followed at Lake Mary in 1899, but the cassava starch industry in
the United States never flourished and finally died out about 10 years
later. Since that time the only use to which domestic-grown cassava
has been put is that of feed for livestock. It is probable that the new

648 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

and small cassava starch factories found competition with the larger
more firmly established starch industry too keen.

However, while cassava is not grown to any considerable extent
in the United States, this country is the world’s largest consumer of
cassava products. Imports have averaged 140,000,000 pounds
annually for the past five or six years, 1929 being the peak year with
over 181,000,000 pounds. The average value of these imports is in
excess of $3,000,000.

The following table! shows the imports into the United States of
cassava products and other farinaceous substances from 1926 to 1930.
Imports listed as coming from European countries are evidently
transshipments from the Far Kast.

United States imports of farinaceous substances (cassava, tapioca, arrowroot, and sago)

[Quantities in thousands of pounds; value in thousands of dollars]

1926 1927 1928 1929 1930

Country of origin @ |

GHGS Ee to sleds SS | 98,514 | 2,988 | 105,977 | 3,047 | 166,405 | 3,655 | 171, 250 | 4,448 | 105,639 | 3, 154
British Malaya-_---_ 7,119 204 7, 862 226 6, 744 178 7, 291 172 6, 227 132
Hong Kong_________ 454 21 731 30 675 25 530 23 804 28
Ja pants =o = = se eee. 24 1 61 3 &4 3 12 1 27 1
Netherlands___-____- 126 4 6 () 793 13 1,014 27 57 2
United Kingdom____ 671 22 283 17 265 10 782 24 982 32
Ciubashe sane ee 59 1 15 (1) 125 2 ood 5 274 4
Other countries_____ | 2, 516 91 1, 356 48 1, 378 29 205 11 426 17

Notaleas see 109, 483 | 3,332 | 116,291 | 3,371 | 176,469 | 3,915 | 181,441 | 4,711 | 114,436 | 3,370

1 Less than $500.

The imports of farinaceous substances into the United States’, ac-
cording to different classes of material imported, follow:

Imports of farinaceous substances into the United States, by classes. for consumption

[Pounds]
Class | 1926 1927 1928 | 1929 1930

Sago CRUG C Sascha Die ether WRe sop eae 280, 940 249, 669 557, 771 | 99, 221 102, 070
Sagoiflourieeesioiatt oF Aces eee 5,239,769 | 5,614,556 | 4,752,920! 7,973,182] 5, 108, 358
Tapioca pe Spee ese ee en ee 21, 623, 547 31, 638, 288 13, 033, 226 5, 926, 852 5, 475, 845
GNeyonorn, opie 2 82, 241,611 | 78, 723, 558 | 128, 521,498 | 159, 574, 088 | 100, 935, 371
Cassa vat ses: ee omnes a eas 73, 262 46,566 | 29, 676, 165 7, 816, 564 2, 428, 355
IATTOWLOO ties oe eo een en ame | 23, 743 18, 258 13, 780 53, 721 2, 670
PAE ROW LO OURS UTC ieee ae (2) (2) (2) 978, 707 988, 158

Motalso. 25 et eee a 109, 482, 872 | 116, 290, 895 | 176, 555, 360 | 182, 422, 335 | 115, 040, 827

2 Included in ‘‘Other starches”’ prior to 1929.
1 Commerce Reports, Sept. 7, 1931.

CASSAVA: AN ECONOMIC PLANT 649

In 1931 imports of cassava products into the United States were as
follows: Tapioca (crude) and cassava, 2,241,526 pounds, valued at
$21,180; tapioca, ground or prepared, 140,953,300 pounds, valued at
$3,012,608; total, 143,194,826 pounds, valued at $3,033,788.

IMPORTANCE TO LATIN AMERICA

We have already spoken of the tremendous importance of the whole
or semiprepared roots of the cassava in the daily diet of millions of
persons in Latin America. This plant, indigenous to tropical Latin
America, will grow well in every country of that region, though in
only one or two have steps been taken to exploit it to any considerable
extent, notably in Brazil and Cuba. In the latter, according to the
statistics of 1928, there are about 60,000 acres devoted to the cultiva-
tion of cassava, with only something like $4,000 worth of exports,
these going to the United States. In Brazil the production of cassava
in 1928 amounted to 754,459 metric tons, with the States of Bahia,
Rio Grande do Sul, and Ceara leading in the order named. It is
grown in every State of Brazil, however. Practically all of the Brazil-
ian crop is consumed at home and therefore can not be much of a
factor in world trade. Exports from Brazil amounted to 5,022 tons in
1926; 4,817 tons in 1927; 4,657 tons in 1928; 5,774 tons in 1929; and
5,998 tons in 1930. Almost all of Brazil’s exports go to Argentina,
Chile, and Portugal, none going to the United States.

Recent developments in these and other tropical countries of Latin
America indicate that more attention will be paid from now on to the
growth and utilization of cassava, particularly as a source of flour for
bread making. Nearly every one of these countries is now an im-
porter of wheat or wheat flour, and it is in an attempt to avoid entire
dependence on this essentially temperate zone grain that cassava
flour is being brought to the fore.

On January 2, 1931, a law was promulgated in Cuba, to take effect
July 2, 1932, providing that from the latter date henceforward all
bread and allied foodstuffs made and sold in Cuba must contain not
less than 10 per cent nor more than 40 per cent of cassava flour. One
may easily judge the national interest in cassava when the content of
such a common daily article of food as bread is made the subject of
national legislation.

On June 17, 1932, according to a dispatch published in the New
York Times of July 10, a law was passed in Costa Rica, to become
effective one year later and to remain in force five years, which pro-
vided that bread must contain at least 10 per cent of cassava flour
during the first two years and at least 20 per cent during the last three
years. It is quite possible that other countries will follow the lead of
Cuba and Costa Rica in this action.

133197—32—B ull. 94

650 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Recently a large American company purchased in the Dominican
Republic about 8,000 acres of land, on about half of which cassava is
under cultivation. It has an experimental factory for extracting
tapioca from the roots and is shipping finished tapioca flour to the
United States on a small scale. The company states that it intends
to increase its facilities for the production of tapioca flour in Santo
Domingo when the results of the experimental plant have proved the
proper type of factory construction and equipment for the most
economical production. The Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com-
merce has received samples of tapioca flour from a Cuban concern
which proposes to begin manufacture on a commercial scale with a
view of exporting to the United States.

By means of correspondence and agricultural publications which
reach the Pan American Union, we find that interest in cassava is
growing also in Colombia, Venezuela, Guatemala, Paraguay, and
other countries of Latin America in addition to those named above.
In Colombia, for instance, the Department of Agriculture has made
some rather extensive studies on its growth and chemical composition.
It is the plan of these countries to develop interest in cassava as a
source of domestic food, and eventually to bring it to the point where
it may become an export product.

WORLD COMMERCE

Java is by far the leading producer of cassava products, and from
it and Madura come about 90 per cent of all tapioca exported in the
world. Production in these two Dutch East Indian islands for the
four years 1926-1929 was as follows: 1926, 11,871,000,000 pounds;
1927, 14,285,000,000 pounds; 1928, 13,583,000,000 pounds; and 1929,
11,417,000,000 pounds. Approximately 2,000,000 acres there are
devoted annually to the production of cassava. In 1929 Java ex-
ported a total of 270,274 metric tons of tapioca products, worth
$8,418,982, to all countries; the following year these figures had
dropped to 135,035 metric tons and $5,552,900, respectively. The
products shipped were: Dried tapioca roots (gaplek), cassava meal,
tapioca flour, tapioca flakes, pearl tapioca, and waste.

In addition to Latin America, Java, and Madura, cassava growing
is important in Jamaica, Mozambique, Madagascar, Reunion,
Malacca, the Philippines, and other countries in the tropical belt.
In only a few, however, does production for export purposes occur.

THE GUATEMALAN INDIANS

By Litiy pr JoncH OsBorne,

Member of the Society of Geography and History of Guatemala and Corresponding
Member of the Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando, Madrid

T first sight, the Guatemalan Indians are just merely picturesque
people, who adorn the landscape with their colorful clothes; a cross
between beasts of burden and handy persons to have around on a
plantation or on moving day; primitive individuals, who seemingly
are quite content with their lot. It is enough for an Indian to have a
small thatched hut and a diminutive patch of ground on which to
plant sufficient corn for the needs of his immediate family; three meals
a day with a monotonous menu of tortillas (corn paste cakes), frijoles
(black beans), and coffee of a very indifferent quality; and a few
chickens and a pig, which nine times out of ten looks anemic and long-
suffering. One suit of clothes is the rule, but it must conform in every
detail of cut and color combination to the rules prescribed for those
worn by all his tribe. He must have a little money, enough with
which to buy ‘‘white eye” on Sundays and fiestas.

On closer acquaintance, the Indian is a much more interesting indi-
vidual, with a personality all his own and traditions which still retain
a strong flavor of those in vogue centuries ago among his ancestors.

Properly to understand the modern Indian, it is necessary to have
a background of his history. This is furnished by various periods
of historical events. Taken as a whole, the Indians form the first
great period of Guatemalan history. No other country has more
well-defined periods in its historical development than Guatemala;
the first period begins in the Dark Ages and ends with the arrival
of the Spaniards; the second covers all the colonial period, in which
the Spaniards made efforts to conquer and christianize the Indians,
ending with the Declaration of Independence from Spain in 1821;
then comes the modern or last period, which covers the events during
the Republican régime up to the present time. The last period
has witnessed the development of the Republic, which has taken
its place among the civilized countries of the world and asserted
itself as a distinct personality among its sister republics of Central
America.

THE MAYAS

In the humid lowlands of what is now Guatemala, Honduras,
and Yucatan (Mexico), there flourished a civilization which can be
compared to no other before or after. During the years preceding

651

652 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

and following the beginning of the Christian era, until the opening
of the seventh century, thousands of Maya Indians lived in enormous
stone cities, the ruins of which still bear evidence of the high degree
of civilization which these people had attained.

During this period, the Mayas developed and lived in what are
called the Old Empire sites, including Copan, Quirigua, Tikal, Palen-
que, Piedras Negras, and Naranjo, to mention only a few of the many
which flourished during that time.

After they had reached tremendous heights in their artistic and
scientific development, for some as yet undiscovered reason the Mayas
abandoned these cities. It may have been that the soil was ex-
hausted, or that earthquakes occurred; perhaps epidemics or great
wars drove the people away, letting the forests again cover the enor-
mous temples, palaces and other stone buildings. The beautifully
carved stelae and carvings in high and low relief on all the buildings
could only have been made by a people of artistic temperament.
The well-developed system of hieroglyphic writing and counting
was amazing. What has been learned of their civil and religious
life is also wonderful, especially for a people living in that day and age.
As I have stood before the enormous carved stones in Copan and
Quirigua, it was hard to realize that the labor involved had been
executed solely with stone implements, with no beasts of burden
to help transport the huge blocks of stone to the places where they
were left at the exodus of the Indians.

The New Empire of the Mayas attained its greatest glory in the
peninsula of Yucatan, where Chichen Itza, Uxmal, and Mayapan
formed what is called “the League of Mayapan.’’ During this period,
which ended about the thirteenth century, great cities were erected
and Maya civilization flourished and reached great heights in every
branch of the arts.

Between the arrival in Yucatan of the Maya people from the south
in the tenth century and the time when they abandoned their Old
Empire sites, they seem to have built a few smaller places en route,
but none of consequence or to be compared to the great Old Empire
sites or the New Empire sites in Yucatan.

The ruins of the New Empire sites show these places to have been
simply stupendous; highly developed architectural knowledge con-
ceived the enormous buildings which in the last few years have been
uncovered and partly restored.

Once again, some unknown reason forced the Mayas to abandon
their cities, and this time they scattered to the south, but made no
further attempt to form nations and build cities as their ancestors
had. It may safely be said that with the breaking up of the League
of Mayapan about a century before the Spaniards arrived, the history
of the Mayas ended. After this, outside forces, especially Mexican,

THE GUATEMALAN INDIANS 653

influenced these people, and the pure Maya civilization ended for
all time.

But there is still another part of the history of their ancestors which
we must take into account, the story of the Indians whom the Spanish
conquistadores found in Guatemala in the early part of the sixteenth
century.

Utatlan, Iximche, Tzaculheu, and Tecpan-Atitlan were al flourish-
ing cities at the beginning of the sixteenth century, strongholds
wherein lived thousands of Indians, with a well-regulated civil and
religious life; the inhabitants preserved very little of the artistic

MONOLITH FROM TECPAN, GUATEMALA

This gigantic carved stone discovered near Tecpan, one of the centers of the Cakchiquel Indians, has been
removed to Aurora Park in Guatemala City as a monument to an early civilization.

development of their ancestors, the Mayas, although they had a
calendar of their own and a literature which expressed their thoughts.
They had palaces, temples, and fortifications against the enemy;
outside these cities as many more people lived in thatched huts,
exactly as the present-day Indians do. Their artistic abilities were
expressed in gold and silver work, in feather and cotton embroideries
on their clothes, in music and in dancing; architecture, however, was
much neglected. Warfare occupied much of their time. The
Spaniards found many parts of the country at odds with each other,
a fact which facilitated in no small degree the conquest by the
Spaniards.

654 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

It was hard for the conquistadores to judge the degree of civilization
the Indians had attained, for according to European standards they
were a barbarous people of no intellectual attainments at all. It is
not surprising that most of the old chronicles give the impression that
the Indians were savages, an absolutely primitive people—which was
not the case at all. The few records that survived the wholesale
burning and destruction of Indian books prove that the Indians were
far from savagery at that time.

Soon after the Spaniards arrived, the Indian civilization under-
went further transformations; Spanish traditions and customs mingled
with Indian ones, forming a strange mixture. To this was also added
the influence of the Mexican Indians who followed the conquistadores
into Guatemala.

During this second period of Guatemalan history the Indians lost
much of their individuality. Pressure was brought to bear on them
to conform to the customs and religion of the invaders. Very soon
villages and towns were founded by the Spaniards; the outstanding
feature in each one was the large church built on Spanish architec-
tural lines. Around it were grouped houses, like those of the smaller
Spanish villages; around the houses the thatched huts of the Indians
were placed. Thissame arrangement may still be seen in every valley
and mountain nook in the country; the last four centuries have
hardly changed the aspect of these villages. The church forms the
center of the village life, and in the open square in front of it all the
religious and civil festivals take place. By the end of the colonial
era, the Indian, though retaining his Indian way of living, had become
a strange mixture. Many had a strong strain of white blood; these
were called Ladinos. In the last century their number reached large
proportions, especially in some of the southeastern portions of the
country, where the real Indian has completely disappeared.

During the last hundred years traditions and old customs have con-
tinued, perhaps more openly than in the three centuries immediately
preceding. A semblance of old lore can still be found, a most interest-
ing sort of mongrel civilization; it is a queer mixture of foreign influ-
ences made by the Indian mind into something completely new. This
is what is mistaken by so many as true Indian lore, coming directly
from the Mayas, but a good three-quarters of it is outside influences—
not necessarily pure Spanish, but also Aztec, Nahuatl, and Mexican,
likewise African, and nowadays in some places, German—with a
strong Indian flavor.

TRIBES

The Guatemalan Indians are not all of the same stock. In Guate-
mala to-day there are 21 different groups, more or less, speaking dif-
ferent languages, none of which can be understood outside its respec-

THE GUATEMALAN INDIANS 655

tive territory. Most of these groups belong to the large Maya-Quiché
family, but they separated from the parent stock so long ago that they
developed quite different languages, as well as diverse habits and even
physical characteristics. Therefore they may really be called different
groups, tribes, or races. The different bloods mixed with the parent
strain in smaller or larger proportions make these differences very
marked.

To the Quiché tribe, whose ancestors were living in the fortified city
of Utatlan in 1524, when the Spaniards destroyed this last Indian
stronghold, now belong such important centers as Santo Tomas
Chichicastenango, Quezaltenango, Totonicapan, and Momostenango,
famed for its lovely woolen blankets. The Quiché Indians are a clean
and industrious lot. Their language boasts a literature—among its
famous books is the Popol-Vuh, or so-called Quiché Bible, a classic
which has been translated into all modern languages; it is full of
traditions and lore relating to these people, beautifully expressed, and
gives an insight into a side of the Indian character which otherwise
would be hard to understand. The Rabinal-Achi is also written in the
Quiché language. This drama, with music for religious dances, is full
of Quiché traditions; it was admirably interpreted and translated into
Spanish by the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg in the latter part of the
last century. In addition, there have been found innumerable land
grants in the Quiché language, the most important being the titles
belonging to the ‘“‘Sefiores de Totonicapan.”’

Next in importance are the Cakchiquel Indians, also of the same
parent stock. They live near what is now Guatemala City, and their
ancestors occupied the stronghold of Iximche when the Spaniards
arrived. They also have an important literature; Los Anales de los
Cakchiqueles has been translated into other languages and studied by
students interested in Indian lore. The Cakchiquel Indians live in and
around such centers as Tecpan, Solola, and Antigua.

Around Lake Atitlan the inhabitants of the various villages which
cling precariously to the cliffs on the shores of the lake belong to three
distinct tribes. Some are Quichés, others Cakchiqueles, but the
greater part belong to the Tzutuhil tribe, also of the Maya-Quiché
eroup and related to the above, even though their physical appearance
differs greatly. They are good fishermen, their canoes being quite
distinctive, built in a style not to be found anywhere else in the coun-
try. They had a stronghold called Tecpan-Atitlan from which they
defended their homes against the Spaniards, but they were defeated
like all the rest of their neighbors.

The Mam Indians were living in and around the great fort of
Tzaculheu when the invaders arrived; they also tried to resist their
enemies, but were overcome. The descendants of this race still live
in the vicinity of the old city, now in ruins, and also in Huehuetenango.

656 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

They are very stolid looking, mingle seldom with outsiders and have
kept up their traditions faithfully.

The Ketchi Indians live nowadays in and around what is called
Alta Verapaz; they are fine specimens of human beings. A strong
strain of German blood is found in these Indians, but they still retain
their Indian habits and clothes, which make a startling combination
with their blue eyes and fair hair.

The Chuj Indians are small in stature and have the true Indian
physique. Their traditions and mode of living are also akin to those

INDIAN WEAVERS

A woman weaver, using a small hand loom, is pictured by the Guatemalan artist, Humberto Garavito,
in this canvas which was included in the Pan American Exhibit of Paintings in Baltimore in 1931.

of their forefathers; they seldom speak even the Spanish required for
trading in the larger cities. This fact is also true of the Indians
belonging to the Ixil tribes, or what are commonly known as the
Pueblos de la Sierra (people living in the high mountains of the
Cuchumatanes in villages like Nebaj, Chajul and Cotzal). Their
queer clothes, stolid expressions, small bodies, and very dark com-
plexions distinguish them from members of any other tribe.

The Pocom4n Indians are quite different; they are much more
easily approached—perhaps living near more accessible places has

THE GUATEMALAN INDIANS 657

brought this about, perhaps because they are related to the ancient
Mexicans. The best examples of the Pocom4n tribe are to be found
in San Martin Jilotepeque and in the little village of Mixco.

In the vast wilderness of Peten in the north of Guatemala, the
Mop4n Indians are found, also scattered groups of the Lacandén
Indians, reputed to be fierce and warlike. Peten was the territory
occupied by the Mayas after leaving Yucatan, and it is there that
some of their true descendants may be encountered.

To the above list of tribes many more might still be added, such as
the Chol and Chorti Indians, all belonging to the same parent Maya-
Quiché group. None of these peoples understand or are interested
in one another; in fact they avoid each other to such an extent that
young people are absolutely forbidden to marry outside their own
tribe. Should this happen, however, as it does in these modern
times, the one punished is always the girl, who leaves her people, and
adopts the clothes and customs of the tribe into which she has mar-
ried.

Besides the afore-mentioned tribes, we have the Pipil Indians, who
are a distinct Mexican tribe; their name, meaning youth, evidently
originated from their appearance. They live scattered throughout
the country, but principally near Escuintla and in the vicinity of Lake
Amatitlan, Zacapa and Salama. They migrated to Guatemala in
pre-Columbian times.

The only tribe which, with its language, is considered autochthon-
ous is the Sinca, whose descendants live along the Pacific coast.

The Guatemalan Indian tribes form a true Tower of Babel, but
some of the languages are fast disappearing.

In every village there is always a native alcalde, or official, chosen
by the Indians, as well as one named by the Central Government in
Guatemala City. The alcalde chosen by the people has often several
Indian regidores to help him maintain his dignity. He is the go-be-
tween and interpreter, the one who settles all affairs and disputes
amongst his people, and takes long journeys into the capital city to
confer with the President on any important questions which may
arise, usually land disputes with the Ladinos.

CLOTHES

Each tribe wears its own distinctive costume, no two being alike;
even in small and seemingly insignificant details they vary according
to the tribe. One recognizes an Indian’s origin by his garb. Form-
erly only the priests and high officials in the large centers had em-
broidered clothes; the Indians in the mountains wore only loin
cloths, and a tzute, or large handkerchief, to keep the sun off their
shoulders. Now all Indians wear brightly embroidered costumes.
The men’s is a mixture, resulting from Spanish influences and true

658 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Indian ideas. This is usually the so-called Capishay, from the Capa
y Saya (cape and skirt) of the Spaniards; it is a most useful garment
of dark wool, which protects the wearer from the rain and keeps him
warm in the colder mountain regions.

A woman wears a huipil, or blouse, on which she puts a great deal
of work, with a skirt which is either tightly wound around the hips,
making her trot along instead of walk, or loosely pleated around the
waist. The skirt, held up by a richly-embroidered belt, may vary in
length, some women wearing it down to the ankles, others up to the
knees, all depending on where they live and whether much climbing
has to be done. Some use a shawl over the head, others just a strip
of cloth in the tribal colors, while still others wear beautiful hair
ribbons, or simply adorn their hair with varicolored wool.

Red is a favorite color, especially among the men; red jackets gaily
embroidered, red head cloths, red shirts with the tribal design on
them, all help to make the men look very distinctive.

Every village weaves its own clothes; small hand looms can be
seen in almost every hut, the women being the ones who do the
work—very seldom do the men take part. The clothes are for the
most part made out of cotton in the two natural colors produced in
the country, white and brown (cuyuscate). The patterns are either
embroidered after the cloth is woven, or put in while the weaving is
in process. For coloring, natural vegetable dyes are used, although
nowadays many employ aniline dyes bought in the city.

Silk is now used only for festive garments, wool being preferred as it
helps the wearer to keep warm, especially in the highlands where
frost can be found on the ground every morning. The woolen hand-
woven blankets are delightful, being waterproof and almost everlasting.

The different designs on the clothes are symbolic, but the true
meaning of the symbols has generally been forgotten, except where a
soothsayer or high official still has an inkling of their meaning.
Nevertheless the tribal design is strictly adhered to by all; even small
children wear clothes identical with those of their parents. The
symbol is carried out in every article of wearing apparel and is never
copied by a neighboring tribe. The Indians are clever in combining
all sorts of colors and in making different kinds of stitches. The
“tied and dyed”’ method of coloring cotton is very frequently used
for their skirts; the more ‘“‘jaspes,’’ as the knots are called, the more
valuable the piece is. The coin necklaces, which are much worn,
are beautiful and very expensive. They are seldom for sale, even
though the wearer is in need of money; the coins are mostly old
Spanish silver. In one village, Sacapulas, the women wear a breast
piece made of old Peruvian coins surrounded with minute silver
symbolic figures.

ine Say eee SE

THE GUATEMALAN INDIANS 659

The ‘‘pieces of eight,’’ and other old coins, some of them many
sided, are favorites for these chachales, or coin necklaces. The former
were the first ones coined in Guatemala when the Spaniards estab-
lished the mint in Central America, and the Indians have a super-
stition that they bring good luck, but only when they are acquired
as a gift, never when bought. Some Indians who are fortunate or
rich enough still have these macacos, as they are called, in gold.

The men for the most part wear palm-leaf hats, weaving them
themselves, into different shapes. It is quite amusing to watch a
row of Indians walking along the street, each busily making a hat for
himself. The Nahual& Indians have hats made out of black beeswax
and shaped exactly like a derby.

AN EMBROIDERED BELT

Tribal designs are closely adhered to in various articles of clothing made by the Indians. The heavily
embroidered belts resemble tapestry.

Primitive wheels, spindles, looms, and methods for dyeing are still
used all over the country, just as they were several centuries ago by
the ancestors of the present Indians. The finished product is always
a thing of beauty, whether plain or symbolic. Some of the more
complicated huipiles take six months to weave and are worn as long
as they last, often being patched until little of the original piece re-
mains. When an Indian woman is working, she generally turns her
huvpil inside out to save wear and tear on it.

Marriage veils and ceremonial costumes are things of beauty
although queerly shaped, and show a very strong Spanish influence,
in both cut and design. The trousers and coats usual among the
men have a foreign cut, but are most amusingly worn, so that they
look quite original and not like imported fashions. Individuality
is the key-note to the whole subject of Indian clothes, which, sad to
say, are disappearing rapidly, the Ladino clothes taking the place of

660 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

the colorful and picturesque costumes which make their wearers look
like bright birds along the highways of the country.

LIFE AMONG THE INDIANS

The Indians are more inclined to agriculture than to any other
occupation; to them the various seasons of the year are of utmost
importance, especially the beginning of the rainy season. Since corn,
their principal food, plays such an important part in their lives, it is
not to be wondered at that the time for planting the corn is made the
occasion for special celebrations. Even though Indians are working
far away from home on plantations, nothing can keep them from
going home to plant their own little patch of corn. Every village
has a special ceremony for corn-planting time, the corn being blessed
by the village priest.

In some places the different kinds of corn (yellow, black, and white),
which have been stored from the previous year, are taken out and
put in the church, which is decorated with flowers, pine needles, and
candles. Each family worships around its own corn, while the priest
celebrates mass and blesses the grain. In other places the corn is
taken out to the fields, three small pine trees planted, and a picture
of San Isidro, the patron saint of planters, hung on the middle tree.
The trees are then decorated with fruit, and under them the corn is
placed according to its size, candles are lighted and incense (copal) is
burned underneath, while the relatives and friends pray that the crop
will be a good one and that there will be sufficient rain throughout
the season. In still other villages large candles are placed at the
four corners of the field and many prayers are offered before the corn
is planted. When the corn is ripe, all the relatives and friends are
obliged to help the owner gather his crop, after which there is another
celebration with music and of course much “‘white-eye.”’

It is interesting to watch Indians returning to their home villages
for the great fiesta of their patron saint. They bring with them all
sorts of goods to trade at the fair held in front of the church, where a
recular nomad village springs up overnight. The priest baptizes
wholesale on the day of the fiesta, the children one and all receiving
the saint’s name.

Marriage is quite another affair; the witch-doctor plays an impor-
tant part in that ceremony, either at the house where the wedding
feast is in progress, or later in the woods where he has his stand.
He is an important personage, nothing ever taking place without his
first being consulted. If a youth wants to marry, the witch-doctor
is consulted; if the verdict is given that the girl chosen is too frail for
work, the young man is urged to look around for another one who will
not be an expense to him through illness. Many ceremonies are gone

saa

THE GUATEMALAN INDIANS ool

through before a wedding takes place; usually the girl has little to
say on the subject, the parents doing the bargaining; very strict rules
govern the chastity of a maiden. The Indians are a moral lot; only
after mixing with outsiders do they noticeably relax from their strict
codes.

For example, in some places it is obligatory for the murderer of a
husband or father to sustain the family of the man he has killed until
such time as the youngest child is old enough to work, or the youngest
daughter married and provision made for the support of the widow.
In another place no man or woman outside the tribe is allowed to
pass the night within the limits of the village. Some villages prohibit
drinking to the state of intoxication, and anybody so inclined must

Courtesy of Lilly de Jongh Osborne

GUATEMALAN INDIANS SELLING CARVED GOURDS IN THE MARKET

leave his village and not return until completely sober; in others a
girl must give proof of her ability to cook and weave before she is
allowed to marry, and while her wedding guests wait, she must grind
corn and prepare food for them, which must be exactly to their taste.
Otherwise they are allowed to chastise her as they leave.

Whenever Indians reach the top of a high mountain, they simul-
taneously take off their hats, and deposit floral offerings on a stone
altar to the Spirit of the Mountain. Upon reaching a clear brook they
will leave stones on which they have placed flowers and pine needles;
at a hot spring, however, they leave a bundle of sticks tied together.

Indian fiestas are celebrated in a primitive way, music being played
on the Indian instruments, the Marimba, Tun, and Chirimia, which

662 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

make day and night horrible with their sounds. Symbolic dances,
the participants in which wear masks, take place to the different
tunes. These dances, mostly of Spanish origin but with a sprinkling
of Indian influence, are performed only on special occasions. The
Torito and the Moros are of distinct Spanish flavor, while the Gracejo
is purely Indian.

Every village has some specialty by which it distinguishes itself,
splendid hand-woven textiles, which the inhabitants trade in other
markets in Guatemala or even in other countries: woven mats, called
tules, made of swamp reeds; string bags of very special design and
kind; woolen blankets; embroidered huipiles which the natives trade
outside their own territory; pottery in various shapes and sizes;
glazed ware famous for its resistance to both heat and cold; water
jugs of splendid proportions; or gourds beautifully carved. To obtain
a special article made in far off villages, people will wait a whole year
for its annual fair. Traders peddle their wares in the different villages
on market days, regular routes existing along the mountain. The
goods are carried on the Indian’s back, suspended by a tumpline across
his forehead; if he is wealthy, however, the load will be carried by
a mule or a decrepit horse, while his wife and small children trail
along on foot.

The descendant of a tribe or race which originally came from Mexico
will wait until the dry season, when the roads are passable and
traders from Mexico come into the town with their wares, to obtain
his particular and distinctive belt and thus be able to show clearly
his descent.

But now strange customs are fast dying out and taking with them
much of the beauty and picturesque atmosphere which gives Guate-
mala such an exotic flavor of its own.

Courtesy of Lilly de Jongh Osborne

AN INDIAN CANOE ON LAKE ATITLAN, GUATEMALA

COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY NOTES

Special library science collection.—During the past month the library
has added three titles to its special collection of over 40 books on
library science in languages other than English. The new acquisi-
tions include Norme per il catalogo degli stampati, published by the
Vatican Library in Vatican City; Catalogacién y ordenacién de Biblio-
tecas—Instrucciones elementales, por Jorge Rubié, Barcelona, Taber;
and Como se forma una biblioteca, por Federico Carlos Sainz de Robles,
Valencia, Cuadernos de Cultura, No. 12. The Vatican code of cat-
aloguing rules comprises 400 pages; although it is apparently based
on those of the American Library Association, it is a larger publica-
tion. It is a work that should prove most useful to librarians in the
countries south of the Rio Grande. The book by Rubié, in spite of
the fact that it contains only 49 pages, includes very useful instruc-
tion for library workers and is illustrated with color plates and
drawings of library equipment.

Dr. Harvey Bassler.—A recent visitor to the library was Dr. Harvey
Bassler, who has spent many years in the region of the upper Amazon.
For the past 10 years he has been especially interested in geological
exploration on the eastern slope of the Ecuadorean and Peruvian
Andes. During this period he acquired an unusually large library on
Latin America—reported to contain more than 60,000 volumes—
which contains one of the outstanding collections of Pan Americana.
Doctor Bassler created The Harvey Bassler Foundation, which pub-
lished in 1931 A survey of Mexican scientific periodicals, by Anita
Melville Ker.

Notes from Mezico.—In the supplement of El Libro y El Pueblo,
Mexico, May, 1932, appears an interesting list of 138 children’s
books in Spanish. It was prepared by Miss Juana Manrique de

663

664 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Lara, a former student at a United States library school. The works
cited include translations from English and French and many by
Mexican authors.

The same issue also contains the text of new library regulations
issued for the guidance of public libraries in Mexico by the Bureau
of Libraries of the Department of Public Education. The rules
include special arrangements for home lending.

Recent acquisitions.—Books of special interest received during the
past month include the following:

Obras de Juan de Castellanos. Edicién de Parra Leé6n Hermanos en homenaje
al Libertador Simén Bolivar con motivo del centésimo aniversario de su muerte.
Prélogo del doctor Caracciolo Parra ... Tomo 2. Caracas, Parra Leén Her-
manos, 1932. 559 p. 4°.

Memoria de la cuestion de limites entre México y Guatemala y de los trabajos
ejecutados en la frontera de ambos paises por la comisiédn mexicana de reconoci-
miento de dicha frontera primero, y después por la comisién mexicana de limites
para el trazo de la linea divisoria entre ambas reptiblicas. Por el ingeniero
Alberto Amador. Tomo 1. México, Imprenta de la Secretaria de Relaciones
Exteriores, 1931. 683 p. ilus. maps. 4°.

La iniciacion de la repuiblica. Contribucién al estudio de la evolucién politica
y social del Peri. [Por] Jorge Basadre. Tomo 1-2. Lima, Libreria Francesa
Cientifica y Casa editorial Rosay, 1929-30. 8°. 2 vols.

Cubagua. [Por] Enrique Bernardo Nifiez. Paris, Editorial ‘‘ Le Livre Libre,”
1931. 138p. 8e.

Hostos: ciudadano de América. [Por] Antonio 8S. Pedreira. Madrid, Talleres
de Espasa-Calpe, S. A., 19382. 264 p. 82.

José Antonio Saco fué en caracter. [Por] Federico Cordova. Habana, Tipo-
grafia Molina y cfa., 1931. 80p. 82.

Encuadernaciones artisticas mexicanas, siglos xv1 al x1x. [Por] Manuel Romero
de Terreros. Monografias bibliogrdficas mexicanas nimero 24, México, Im-
prenta de la Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, 1932. xxvii,25p. 48 plates. 8°. .

El Ecuador en cien anos de independencia 1880-1930. Tomo 1-2. [Por] J.
Gonzalo Orellana. Quito, Escuela Tipogrdfica Salesiana, 1930. 4°. 2 vols.

Inter-American congress of rectors, deans, and educators in general, Habana, Cuba,
February 20-23, 1930. Report of the chairman of the delegation of the United
States of America. Washington, Govt. print. office, 1931. 1386 p. 8°. (Pub-
lications of the Department of State, conference series, No. 8.)

Equivocaciones: ensayos sobre literatura pentltima. [Por] Jorge Basadre.
Lima, Casa editora ‘La Opinién Nacional,’ 1928. 56p. 8°.

Se han sublevado los Indios. . . [Por] Luis Alberto SAnchez. Lima, Casa edi-
tora ‘‘La Opinién Nacional,” 1928. 69 p. 82.

La multitud, la ciudad y el campo en la historia del Peru. [Por] Jorge Basadre.
Lima, Imprenta A. J. Rivas Berrio, 1929. 234 p. 4e.

Los gobernadores de Guayaquil del siglo xvi. (Notas para la historia de la
ciudad durante los afios de 1763 a 1803.) [Por] Abel-Romeo Castillo. Madrid,
Imprenta de Galo Sdéez, 1931. 3897p. 4e.

Derecho internacional puiblico. (Curso universitario.) Por Alberto Ulloa . .
Tomo 1-2. Lima, Impresores Sanmarti y cia., 1926-1929. 8°. 2 vols.

El fallo arbitral del presidente de Estados Unidos de América en la cuestién de
Tacna y Arica. Por Alberto Ulloa. ... Lima, Imp. Seminario y cia., 1925.
110 p. 8°.

COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY NOTES 665

Escola moderna: conceitos e praticas. [Por] Maria dos Reis Campos. Rio de
Janeiro, Est. Graphico Fernandes & Rohe, 1932. 284 p. 12°.

New magazines and periodicals received for the first time during
the past month are as follows:

Revista Orto. (Organo del Grupo Universitario.) Apartado 638, Quito, Ecua-
dor. (Monthly.) Afno1, No. 2 y 3, marzo—abril, 1932. 116p. 6 by 8} inches.

Boletin del Consejo de Salud Publica. Montevideo, Uruguay. (Monthly.)
Ano 1, No. 1, enero, febrero, marzo de 1932. 247 p. 6% by 9% inches.

Pan American News. Bogota, Colombia. (Weekly.) Year 1, No. 2, July 2,
1932. 4 pages, illus. 10 by 14 inches.

Gaceta Juridica Trimestral. Apartado de Correo No. 58, San Cristdbal,
Estado Tdchira, Venezuela. Ano 1, No. 1, julio-setiembre de 1932. 74 p.
6% by 94 inches.

Index Translationum. (International Bibliography of Translations.) Inter-
national Institute of Intellectual Cooperation, 2, rue de Montpensier (Palais
Royal), Paris, France. [Vol. 1], No. 1, July 1932. 57p. 8 by 10% inches.

Revista Panamera de Contabilidad. (Revista publicada por el Instituto Pan-
ameno de Contadores.) Apartado 361, Panama, Panama. Vol. 1, No. 1, julio de
1932. 48 p. 6 by 9% inches.

Diario de los Debates del Congreso Constituyente de 1931. Lima, Peru. (Daily.)
18 de abril de 19382. 42 p. 9% by 12% inches.

Boletim de Educacgéo Publica. (Publicagaéo trimestral da Directoria Geral de
Instruc¢ao Publica do Distrieto Federal.) Rio de Janeiro. (Quarterly.) Anno
1, No. 3, julho-setembro, 1930. 173 p. ilus. 6 by 9 inches.

133197—32— Bull. 9——5

PAN AMERICAN PROGRESS
PUBLIC HEALTH AND SOCIAL WELFARE

Maternity and child welfare work—Much interesting and helpful
child welfare work is being done in Sao Paulo, Braziu, by the Cruzada
Pro Infancia, a society which though organized only two years ago,
has already initiated a vigorous campaign for the development of
normal healthy children.

Many of the activities of the society center around its dispensary,
formally opened on May 18, 1931, where prenatal care is given to
mothers, milk distributed, general examinations are made, and treat-
ments given. Since February, 1932, the services of an eye, ear, and
nose specialist and a dentist have been secured and the work further
broadened by the installation of violet-ray treatment apparatus.

Special arrangements have been made by the society with the
maternity ward of the medical clinic to have maternity cases coming
under the observation of the dispensary cared for there; but when this
is not possible, the society sees that the mother is attended by a
trained midwife. In cases where she can not bear the full expense
of proper care, the society contributes the necessary amount. In
connection with this work the society maintains several beds for
expectant mothers who need to rest before or immediately following
hospitalization. As yet this service is limited, but the society hopes
to be able to extend it as time goes on to an increasing number of
needy women. Those mothers whocan not afford to purchase clothing
for their children are given layettes.

Another important phase of the work of the society is its activities
in assisting the unemployed. With the cooperation of the Depart-
ment of Labor, work is often secured; this however, is not always
possible and then other aid must be sought. Many times the society
enlists the interest of the Vincentinos, a well-organized charity asso-
ciation which will provide rent and provisions until the wage earner
can again find work.

Realizing the immense value of furnishing children with adequate
playtime in the midst of healthful surroundings, the society has
organized special activities at the large central playground. There
a health nurse is maintained who supervises the grounds, directs
exercises, and gives sun baths and lunches to children needing special
attention. At the suggestion of the society, high-school students
have taken over the supervision of games and the Society for the

666

PUBLIC HEALTH AND SOCIAL WELFARE 667

Prevention of Cruelty to Animals has further assisted by teaching the
children to plan and tend small gardens in space set aside for that
purpose in the playground.

In all its work the society has had the hearty cooperation of the
Government, which has contributed the services of two health nurses
and a dentist. The physicians connected with the dispensary have
given their services free, as have also the girls who keep the records.

Last October the society sponsored a children’s week, and plans
are already being made for a similar celebration this year. Beginning
on October 12, which is officially recognized as Children’s Day by the
Government, a varied and extremely interesting program was carried
out. The second day was devoted to mothers and nursing babies.
A matinee was held in a theater in each suburb for mothers, a series
of lectures on child care begun, and awards were made to the most
healthy children registered at the public health centers.

The following day interest was centered around children in the
hospitals, and the lectures dealt with the prevention of certain diseases
and the necessity for adequate and timely hospital treatment. Hospi-
tals were visited by different groups, who gave entertainments and
carried to each child a new garment, a toy, and a bag of candies and
fruit.

On the fourth day children in asylums or institutions were the
object of attention. Committees visited every children’s home to
study conditions there, and make suggestions for its improvement.
The children themselves were remembered with garments and toys.
A feature of the day was a picnic held in one of the playgrounds for
the children of these institutions.

The fifth day was devoted to school children. Appropriate programs
were held in the schools and awards made to the students who had
done outstanding work. Some of the children took this opportunity
to further the activities of the society; money was given by the boys,
and tiny garments, their own handiwork, were contributed by the
girls.

The sixth day was dedicated to working children. The trade schools
were closed for the day and all the students given passes to an indus-
trial exhibit and its amusement features. Even the boys in the re-
formatory were allowed to participate, and although they were not
permitted to leave the grounds of the institution, they were excused
from their regular duties to enjoy a program of their own.

In an effort to make its work more effective, the National Bureau of
Hygiene and Public Welfare of Cotomsia has reorganized the section
in charge of the national child welfare service. The personnel of the
division now includes a physician, two student physicians, seven
nurses, a gynecologist, and an eye, ear, and throat specialist.

668 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

A maternal hygiene and child nutrition clinic which is expected to
play an important réle in preventing and combating diseases among
children of the capital has recently been opened by the Public Health
Service of GUATEMALA in its office in Guatemala City. The new
clinic is in charge of three specialists in gynecology and pediatrics, a
eraduate nurse, and an assistant. While established for the purpose of
providing treatment for the sick, one of the primary functions of the
clinic will also be to teach mothers to find the proper diet for their
children. All women who have had any difficulties arising from nutri-
tion problems are being urged to visit the clinic. No charge is made
for the service.

Interesting innovations in the usual welfare programs for mothers
and children have been made in Mexico, where a mothers’ night
school has been opened and a service established for home delivery of
the milk prescribed for children treated by specialists in the clinics of
the National Child Welfare Association. The latter service was begun
last spring when the National Child Welfare Association decided to
broaden its work in the capital by preparing the milk and special
food prescribed for each child and delivering it to the home under
conditions which would insure its freshness. The association was
organized in January, 1929, and has now extended to all the States of
the Republic its varied activities, which include the maintenance of
children’s homes, medical centers for mothers and children, clinics,
and milk stations; but the plan being tried out in Mexico City is
unique.

The night school for mothers was opened in Mexico City on June 13.
In contrast to the usual type of educational opportunity offered
mothers, which includes simply courses in child care and hygiene, there
are classes in typewriting and stenography in addition to the subjects
of a purely domestic nature. The supervision and maintenance of the
school is in charge of the Government of Federal District.

The provision of special lunches for undernourished children attend-
ing the primary school at the Teachers’ College in Asuncion was
recently begun by the National Red Cross of Paraguay. The society
has also established a similar service in the maternity clinic and does
other important child welfare work through its milk stations and
dispensary.

Social-welfare activities of the Government of El Salvador.—The
official social welfare program of El Salvador is carried on through the
Department of Labor and Social Welfare and the Department of
Public Health. In general, the Department of Public Health is
concerned with the prophylaxis of disease, for which it maint aims

a ee

PUBLIC HEALTH AND SOCIAL WELFARE 669

vaccination and sanitation services, while the Department of Labor
and Social Welfare is engaged in the other phase of the problem—the
treatment of disease. This distinction, however, is not applicable to
all the activities of either division of the Government; the Depart-
ment of Public Health is in charge of the children and mothers’ clinic
in San Salvador, and the Department of Labor and Public Health is
directly responsible, among other things, for child-welfare activities
which are preventive rather than therapeutic in character and for the
maintenance of all national orphanages and homes for the aged.

Much of the work of the Department of Labor and Social Welfare
centers around the administration of the national hospitals. These
institutions, which number 17 in all, are accustomed to care for more
than 28,000 patients yearly. The largest hospital is the Rosales,
located in San Salvador. Its regular medical and surgical services
total 15, and there are also 4 special services besides the bacteriological
laboratory. According to the report submitted to Congress by the
Minister of the Department early in 1932, 1,673 operations were per-
formed in the hospital during the preceding year, 16,284 laboratory
tests made, and 330,239 prescriptions filled. A total of 355 cases were
treated in the section of pathological anatomy and 4,605 in the physio-
therapy service. Persons attending the free clinics of the hospital
during the year numbered 8,991. Recent improvements to the hos-
pital buildings include the construction of an addition to the emerg-
ency ward and a separate division for tuberculosis patients.

The second largest hospital in the Republic is in Santa Ana. A
total of 5,789 patients were stated to have been treated in this insti-
tution during the year 1931. The extent of its work is indicated by
the reports that surgical operations numbered 229, treatments in its
physiotherapic service 1,546, and tests in the bacteriological labora-
tory 1,377. Two new floors were added to the building during the
year, one to form an extension to the tuberculosis ward and the other
for use in the general services. Perhaps the outstanding feature of its
work, however, was the establishment of free dental service in charge
of a competent dentist.

The other hospitals are located at Chalchuapa, Metapan, Usulutan,
Sonsonate, Nueva San Salvador, Ahuachapan, San Miguel, Zacateco-
luca, San Vicente, Santiago de Maria, Jucuapa, Suchitoto, Chalate-
nango, Cojutepeque, and La Union. These are necessarily smaller
but their contribution to the health of the Republic is no less
important.

Orphanages are maintained by the Government at San Salvador,
Santa Ana, San Miguel, Sonsonate, and Santa Tecla. A total of 884
children were being cared for in these institutions at the close of 1931.
Another interesting child-welfare activity is the day nursery attended

670 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

by 36,012 small children during the past year. The nursery at Son-
sonate, founded as a private charity, passed during October to the
direction of the Government and is now functioning as a part of the
hospital in that city.

The National Tuberculosis Sanatorium, the Central Insane Asylum,
and several other homes complete the list of social-welfare institutions
maintained by the Government.

Through the public health service the Government is able to keep
an effective control over epidemics of various kinds, improve sanita-
tion, and enforce existing sanitary legislation.

For the purposes of organization the Department of Public Health
is divided into five different sections, each of which has its specific
duties. To one is assigned the vaccination service, to another the
treatment and prophylaxis of hookworm and venereal diseases, to a
third the inspection of food products, and to a fourth the engineering
service. The fifth section is in charge of legal questions which may
come before the department.

As a result of the vigilance of this branch of the Government, the
danger of smallpox has been practically eliminated. Vaccination and
revaccination are being carried on at all times. During the year
1931, a total of 160,660 persons were vaccinated, 76,488 of this
number for the first time. The work, however, is not confined to the
prophylaxis of one disease. One hundred twenty-nine persons were
treated in the Antirabies Institute, and a school medical service was
maintained. This last had charge of the vaccination of school pupils
against smallpox and diphtheria, and the inspection of the school
buildings.

One of the most important services of the department was its work
against hookworm. During the past year the radius of action of the
commission in charge of this campaign was extended to include a score
of towns in the Departments of Santa Ana, La Libertad, Chalatenan-
go, Cuseatlan, La Paz, Usulutan, San Miguel, and La Union which
had never before been reached. The dispensary in San Salvador
treated large numbers of people and initiated work in the schools and
barracks of the city. During 1931, alone, over 42,000 persons were
examined for the disease. The supervision of the construction of
latrines was also continued as an integral part of the regular measures
taken to combat the disease. Homes are constantly being visited by
the health inspectors to investigate conditions and, if necessary, to
order adequate sanitary services.

A total of 1,989 men and women were treated in the night clinic in
San Salvador during the past year and 5,156 examinations made in the
Hospital for the Prophylaxis of Venereal Diseases. Patients treated
in the latter numbered 506. The bacteriological laboratory reported
having made 14,014 examinations.

encase aaa ps PRE

PUBLIC HEALTH AND SOCIAL WELFARE 671

Constant vigilance is also kept by the department over the products
sold in the markets and stores and the milk and drinking water supply.
The section of sanitary engineers passed on 235 building plans during
1931 besides inspecting the construction of sewerage systems and
studying the problem of ventilation in the theaters of the capital.
The work for the prevention of malaria was largely concerned with the
destruction of mosquito breeding places in stagnant pools and along
rivers and streams.

The child welfare clinic in San Salvador, which has been open only
three years, reported that it attended 425 children and a large number
of mothers during 1931. Lectures were given under the auspices of
the clinic and free medicines distributed through the courtesy of the
public welfare service and several pharmacies in the capital.

SUBJECT MATTER OF CONSULAR REPORTS

REPORTS RECEIVED TO AUGUST 12, 1932

Subject Date Author
ARGENTINA
1932
Excerpt from reyort on general conditions prevailing in Arzen- | June 17 | Embassy, Buenos Aires.
tina irom May 31 to June 13, 1932. (Argentine export trade;
Petroleum in San Juan Province; Projected grain alcohol indus-
try; Tke Chilean cattle duties and the Transandine railway;
Arzentiae-Chilean relations; Arzentina and Bolivia, Buenos
Aires provincial budget.)
Limiting the municipal budget of the Federal District____________ June 23 Do.
Unofficial translation of the new Argentine sales tax regulations __| June 30 | Do.
Excerpt from report of general conditions in Argentina from June | July 1 De.
14 to 27, 1932. (Washington Bicentenary; Argentine-Japanese
Society founded in Tokyo; Visit of Brazilian students to Argen-
tina; State railwars receipts; Public works in the Province of
Buenos Aires.
BRAZIL
Central perchasing commission ______________ ta gt nea aa ees ‘June 22 | Embassy, Rio de Janeiro.
COLOMBIA |
Volume 1 of ‘‘ Compilation of studies, plans and reports,’ by the | June £1 | Lecation, Bogota.
council of ways of communication and the railway and river
tariff commission.
Report of general superintendent of municipal public utilities of | June 28 | Raymond Phelan, vice con-
Medellin. slat Medellin.
COSTA RICA
IMiarkersi fore are Atria e Tei Geasra ye belat a syyien yee ee June £3 | Legation, San Jose.
|
MEXICO |
|
Possikility of the development of Vera Cruz as seaside resort _____- July 12 | William Karnes, vice consel
at Vera Craz.
PANAMA
Panama declines to increase rates of postage to equal those of | July 13 | Herbert O. Williams, consul
Canal Zone. at Panama City.
PARAGUAY
Excerpt from report on general conditions prevailing in Paraguay | May 31 | Legation, Asuncion.
from May 1 to 31, 1932. (New budget submitted to Congress.)
URUGUAY
Status of the Montevideo-Colonia highway project._____________- June 21 | Leslie E. Reed, consul gen-
eral at Montevideo.
VENEZUELA
Islands of Lcs Roques: (GRocky Islands)_-2- === ===) July 8 | Ben C. Matthews, vice con-

sul at La Guaira.

Sons evens BU00E_ COLOMIBIANS

- A

a te : 2
apr eV ef
Soese? BULLETIN :
i

OF THE

PAN AMERICAN
UNION

THE CAPITOL, BUENOS AIRES

OCTOBER 1932

PBCACICORR LPS CACC HRTT TAD TALON TONNE HIRES y

OIC COOSA ODE MACAU ES

athp ae

Muy
Pat YUU UU Ue

LER

SuvuvuuuuuuUNUEY

PovUVUUYUEe @UNMuUUMUYY

GOVERNING-:-BOARD-OF-THE
PAN-AMERICAN
UNION

Mr. Henry L. Stimson, Chairman

Argentina______-_-_- Sefior Don Fruipe A. Esprit,
1806 Corcoran: Street, Washington, D. C.

Bolivia Oe ey Senor Don Enriqvx 8. pe Lozapa,
2830 Forty-fourth Street, Washington, D. C.

BEAgil een teen Snhr. Dr. R. pe Lima & Sinva,
2437 Fifteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

Chileke= ces cee Sefior Don Emrtio Epwarps BELLO,
2154 Florida Avenue, Washington, D. C.

Colombia_-_--_------ Sefior Dr. Fasto Lozano,
Hill Building, Washington, D. C.

Costa Rica___.----_- Sefior Don ManuEL GoNzALEz,
3451 Newark Street, Washington, D. C.

Cuibatercxoe econ Sefior Dr. José T. Bar6én,
2630 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

Dominican Republic. Sefior Don Rosrerto DEsPRADEL, i
Woodward Building, Washington, D. C. :
FIGUAG OF pe. wines cus Sefior Dr. GonzALo ZALDUMBIDE,
2633 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
El Salvador_------- Sefior Don Rosserto D. MEuenpEz,
National Press Building, Washington, D. C.
Guatemala________- Sefior Dr. Apri4n ReEcINos,
1614 Eighteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
DF HSI ele Sar ty M. Dantis BELLEGARDE,
1703 Q Street, Washington, D. C.
Honguras..- Sefior Dr. Cétzo0 DAviua,
1100 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C. :
Mexing= se au Sefior Don PasLto HERRERA DE HUERTA,
2829 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C. A
Nicaragua_-_---_---- Sefior Dr. Luis M. Desay Le,
1711 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C.
Panama cee asec Sefior Dr. Horacio F. Auraro,
1535 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D, C.
Parapaayo soos vie Sefior Don Pasto Max. YNSFRAN,
1726 Irving Street, Washington, D. C.
Perit ouskenedoe sd Sefior Don M. DE FREYRE Y SANTANDER,
1300 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
United States____-- Mr. Henry L. Stimson,
Department of State, Washington, D. C. ; :
Uruguay. eesecite Sefior Dr. Jacopo VARELA,
1317 F Street, Washington, D. C.

Venezuela_-__.----- Sefior Dr. Pepro Manurt Arcaya,
1628 Twenty-first Street, Washington, D. C.

iets

ae
+e
fag
Shad
Sat
Se
me
a

nes

TABLE OF CONDENS

Page
Andrés Bello, A Great Contributor to International Law________________ 673
By Miguel Cruchaga Tocornal, Ambassador of Chile in the United States.
Sao Vicente, The Small Beginning of a Great Nation.___________________ 677
By Spencer Vampré, Professor of Law, University of Sao Paulo.
hesNationaloliibrary of Argentinas 2-9) 22 22 22 681
By Gerald Herbert Sandy.
In Bolivia.
leplakewhiticaca and La Pages 2222.02.52 2 2 eee 690
lipplnetheblnca,bmpiness sos 6202 oe ee Se ee De 694
By Nelly Merino Carvallo.
III. Sucre_____ Be Se eet eee NS ee a Set 696
By Juan Andrés Cuello Freyre.
TV eee sll] Ameena eee a ee Pe a oe eee ea le SS ee 698
By Luis Azurduy.
AgColonials@hureh in Paraguay... 23 2 ee 700
By Pablo Alborno.
Trends of Immigration in the Americas___-___________________________ 710
By William A. Reid, Foreign Trade Adviser, Pan American Union.
Fermin Tangiiis, Father of Peruvian Cotton___________________________ 718
By José L. Colom, Chief, Division of Agricultural Cooperation, Pan American Union.
United States Trade with Latin America, Fiscal Year 1931-82.________—_—_ 720
By Matilda Phillips, Chief, Statistical Division, Pan American Union.
Columbus) Memorial library Notes. ==) ---) =) 22
Pan American Progress:
Treaties and International Relations_______________________________ 724
Status of Pan American Treaties and Conventions (Table).
PAROTENG UU (i111. Meee ara en ee ett a, tS eae beaiss 2 nN a eS | Sy G25
Argentina improves its hog breeds.
Financial Measures taken by Colombia to Meet the Economic Crisis____ 726
MdstOlLbrazitanebankse oo. Se en ee 733
1), © enna pigs Ny PE ED SS es Doe come sin Mo ee Oe ene a le ee 734
First Latin American Labor Congress—Mexican Immigration Conference.
ALi mOclence mand Mm ducatlones s.5 ase eS ee 737
Teachers’ associations help popularize education in Brazil—New building for Natural His-
tory Museum, Buenos Aires.
Public Health and Social Welfare__________________________________ 740
Guatemala’s new sanitary code—Compulsory medical certificate for servants in the
Dominican Republic—Antituberculosis campaigns in the Americas.
IN(E CTO 2,1 er eee ae i nem ee ike aS a ee a a al 746
SubvecteMattern on Consular Reports] — 9 2252-2) ) 2 eee ee 747

(The contents of previous issues of the BULLETIN OF THE PAN AMERICAN UNION can be found inthe READERS’
GUIDE in your library)

Tit

fe sienna.

Se ceamenne!

PP NT
eee

ANDRES BELLO

ao
reese

rarer

ro
se craregaae

Jurist, educator, poet, philologist and writer on many subjects. The
present year marks the centennial of the first appearance in Chile of
his *‘ Principles of the Law of Nations,’’ a basic work in international

law.

ROSNY TI Sy ANA 2 BE SIS Sed oot pS

Vou. LX VI OCTOBER, 1932 No. 10

ANDRES BELLO, A GREAT CONTRIBUTOR
TO INTERNATIONAL LAW

By Miaurt Crucuaca TocornaL
Ambassador of Chile in the United States

HE year 1932 marks the centennial of the first appearance in

Santiago, Chile, of the volume on Principios de Derecho de Jentes
(Principles of the Law of Nations), written by Andrés Bello. This is
indeed a significant anniversary, and the intellectuals of the American
Continent unite in paying homage to the memory of Bello, a gifted
man, an eminent jurist, a propagator of fertile ideas, who exerted a
deep influence on the destinies of the Americas and whose name is
venerated throughout the continent.

The name of this illustrious pioneer in the study of international
law in Spanish America has been called to remembrance by the Goy-
erning Board of the Pan American Union,’ the American Institute of
International Law, and the American Society of International Law.
The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, at the suggestion
of the Governing Board, is preparing for its series of Classics of Inter-
national Law a reproduction of the first edition of Principios de
Derecho de Jentes, with a preface by the distinguished Cuban jurist,

1 Andrés Bello, says a Spanish encyclopedia, was a Chilean public man and author, born in Caracas,
Venezuela, on Noy. 29, 1781. Both the country of his birth and that of his adoption hold him one of their
most honored citizens. About 1810 he served as an officer in the early Venezuelan struggle for independence
and then went to England as secretary of a commission to solicit official support for the movement. He
remained in England, teaching, studying, and writing, until he left to assume a government post in Chile,
offered to him in 1827. The rest of his life was spent in the latter country, where he died in 1865, and was
buried with imposing ceremonies by the nation.—Editor.

2 See BULLETIN OF THE PAN AMERICAN UNION, June, 1932, for the resolution passed by the Governing
Board.

673

674 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Dr. Antonio Saénchez de Bustamante. Thus, by the unanimous con-
sent of those who now continue what he began, Bello is enshrined in
the high place he so justly deserves.

The activities of Bello in his more than 80 years of active life
covered fields so varied and extensive that it is difficult for his biogra-
phers to give a satisfactory outline of his ability and achievements.
As a vigorous philologist, he wrote a grammar of profound erudition.
As a poet, he composed verses which are still memorized in the schools
of South America. As a research scholar, he published studies on the
American history of the eighteenth and first half of the nineteenth
centuries which show unusual depths of understanding. As a critic,
he penned essays on European literature which bear comparison with
the best works of great minds. As a student of the law, he drafted
a civil code for Chile whick gives him a leading place among the jurists
and lawmakers of Latin America.

The college which he established upon his arrival in the country of
his adoption furnished the basis for the University of Chile, created
in 1842, over which Bello presided unti! the time of his death in 1865,
an occasion of deep mourning throughout the continent.

He organized the Ministry of Foreign Relations of Chile, having
been engaged for that purpose in 1827 by Don Mariano Egafia,
Minister of Chile in London. Jn a communication to the Ministry,
Egafia said: ‘Bello possesses a broad classical education, a deep
knowledge of literature, a complete mastery of the principal ancient
and modern languages, and many personal qualities which are greatly
enhanced by his modesty.”

The results of Bello’s activities in the Ministry of Foreign Relations
were fruitful and lasting. In reality he directed Chile’s foreign policy
during the formative years of the Republic. In this work he was
always inspired by well-defined ideals of continental brotherhood.
He was the author of a provision incorporated in the first international
treaties of Chile, reserving for that country the right to grant other
Latin American countries more favorable conditions than those of the
most-favored-nation clause. The name ‘‘Bello clause” has well been
given to that reservation.

Among the best works of this illustrious man, the Principios de
Derecho de Jentes stands out as a brilliant analytical exposition of the
doctrines and practices of international law. It is in itself more than
sufficient to make the author’s name famous, for these principles of
international law were not sharply defined at the time this monu-
mental work appeared. Bello expounded them with’ clarity and
with a beauty of style that delights the reader.

ANDRES BELLO 675

In the preface to the first edition of his book, Bello states that he
found guidance in the works of the eighteenth-century publicists and
in Chitty’s A Treatise on the Laws of Commerce and Manufactures and
the Contracts Relating Thereto, 1824; Elliot’s The American Diplomatic
Code; and Kent’s Commentaries on American Law, 1829. To these
sources may be traced the important influence of Anglo-Saxon view-
points noticeable in Bello’s work, since the first named was English
and the other two were American.

In the discussion of the foundations and origins of international law,
Bello sided with those who contend that international law is nothing
more than natural law, that mankind is a great community of nations
in which each has the same duties in regard to the others that human
beings have toward their fellow men.

The doctrines of Bello on the right of the former Spanish colonies
to form independent States, severing the ties that bound them to the
mother country, exerted a positive influence on the destiny of the
new Republics. He preached that the independence of those coun-
tries was an accomplished fact which other nations were obliged to
recognize, and that it was their duty in the struggle between the
mother country and its former colonies to remain neutral and to act
accordingly.

In the American Continent Bello awakened a deep and wide inter-
est in the study of international law. His influence has inspired those
writers of this continent who have undertaken researches in that field
and contributed with important works to the formation of international
law as it is understood to-day.

The great Argentine jurist Calvo said of Bello’s achievements:
“He was the first to point out the inadequacy of the principles laid
down in Vattel’s work, and to attempt to correct those defects. He
may be considered the forerunner of Wheaton, who quotes him fre-
quently. The most distinguished authors speak of Bello’s work with
praise.’ The great merits of Bello’s treatise are further evinced by
the fact that it was translated into French and German and that it is
quoted by eminent European writers.

The reputation as a jurist established by Bello mainly through his
Principios de Derecho de Jentes—keeping step with the development of
science, in later editions the author changed the title to Principios de
Derecho Internacional—was increased by the ability he displayed in
orienting Chile’s foreign policy. His prestige was such that in 1864
the Governments of the United States and Ecuador asked him to
arbitrate a controversy that had arisen between them. A similar

676 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

request was made of him during the following year by the Governments
of Colombia and Peru. Advancing age and failing health compelled
Bello to decline these highly complimentary requests, which were, we
believe, the first of that nature to be made of a Latin American.

A profound influence was exerted by the work the centennial of
whose publication we seek herein to commemorate. It has served asa
textbook in almost all the universities of the American Continent,
and the doctrines it sets forth have been quoted, as coming from the
highest authority, in all the international disputes that have arisen
in the New World.

THE BIRTHPLACE OF ANDRES BELLO, CARACAS, VENEZUELA

SAO VICENTE, THE SMALL BEGINNING OF
A GREAT NATION

By SPENCER VAMPRE
Professor of Law, University of Sao Paulo

N the 22d of January, 1932, various ceremonies held throughout

Brazil commemorated the four-hundredth anniversary of the
founding of Sao Vicente, the oldest city in the southern part of the
country and the place where Portuguese colonization began. Sao
Vicente, which is situated on the seacoast of the State of Sao Paulo
and has to-day about 8,000 inhabitants, was founded by Martim
Affonso de Souza, whose colony gave Brazil its first church and its
first customhouse.

The road of colonization is never smooth, and the case of Brazil
was no exception. The Portuguese had not only the Indians to con-
tend with but also their fellow Europeans: France, Spain, and
Portugal were waging a mightly battle for empire in the Orient and
in the New World. After Brazil was discovered in 1500 by the
Portuguese navigator Alvares Cabral, not many years elapsed before
the struggle for the riches of the country began. French ship owners
were interested in Brazil wood, which was then used extensively as
adye. In 1503 they sent the ship Espoir to Brazil. It is also known
that in 1511 a Portuguese ship, the Bretéa, arrived in the country.
Part owner of this vessel was Fernando de Noronha, who gave his
name to one of the islands on the Brazilian coast.

As time went on and trade increased the French and the Portuguese
became more hostile to each other. The French used to establish
settlements in which they left agents to gather the products of the
soil and hold these in readiness for the return of the ships. The agents,
of course, made all possible efforts to win the friendship of the Indians
and to form alliances with them, in order to turn them against the
Portuguese. These, for their part, policed the Brazilian coast, did
their best to sink every French vessel they sighted, and hanged from
his own mast every captain they captured. Moreover, Portugal
kept spies in France and Spain, in order to learn of any projected
expeditions to Brazil.

To furnish an example of the kind of warfare then carried on, it
may be related that in 1527 the Spaniard Cristébal Jacques, who had
been in the service of the King of Portugal 11 years, guarding the
coast of Brazil, found at Sao Salvador de Bahia the crews of two

677

‘payst[qgeyse 104e] Sem ‘o[Nv_ OV MOU ‘VdUIUTZVITA JO AJ10 9} VION A SPULTYSIY 9Y} 0} 03N01 oy} SUIJUIOd UMOYS SI OU[VUIVY “UOIdII oY} JO SoqI1 UIPUT OY} YIM POAT
pey ‘eojoq sieved 4Svoo ueI[Izeig oy} UO pexosIMdtys SUT 104Je ‘oymM ‘OUTBUIeY OVOL PU SONSIIpOY OLUOJUY “UeWIAIJUNOD SIy JO OM} Aq JoOUI SBM OSUOYY WIA
‘soques Jo J410d ayy Jo Jed B MOU ‘d}UODIA OBY JO OFIS OY} YS FECT Ul Ao1O[dx9 oY} Jo sUIpUR] oY} SJOIdap OFXI[VH OJOIPSUDg 4SI}Ie UI[IzeIg 94) Aq dsuTJUIed [eoII04STY SIG

VZ008 Ad OSNOFAVY WILYVIN FO ONIGNVT FHL

SAO VICENTE 679

French ships engaged in loading Brazil wood. Attacking them by
surprise, he sank the vessels, hanged some of the sailors, and buried
others up to their shoulders, leaving their heads as a target for his
marksmen. In 1531 Jean Dupérot, master of the ship La Pélerine,
established a settlement at Pernambuco, in northeastern Brazil.
Some time afterward, Pero Lopes de Souza came down upon the
settlement and destroyed it completely.

Martim Affonso de Souza, a brother of Pero, left Portugal at the
end of 1530 and arrived at Pernambuco in January of 1531. From
there he sent one of his lieutenants, Diogo Leite, to explore the
northern coast with two caravels. He himself set sail for the south,

SAO VICENTE AND SANTOS

From an old print of the two towns as they appeared in their early days.

and made stops at Bahia, also called Sao Salvador; Rio de Janeiro,
known as Guanabara; and Cananea, a port in the present State of
Sao Paulo. Guided by the desire for silver, which was said to exist
in great quantities in what afterwards came to be known as the Rio
de la Plata, or ‘River of Silver,” he tried to go up that stream, but
was shipwrecked and compelled to turn back. He arrived at Sao
Vicente on the 22d of January, 1532, and on that date founded the
city, set its limits, allotted the land among his men, and undertook
the construction of all necessary buildings. He also convoked a
council of ‘‘good men” for the purpose of electing the city authori-
ties. De Souza was greatly aided in his undertaking by two of his

680 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

countrymen who were living among the Indians—Antonio Rodri-
gues, who was married to a daughter of Chief Piquerobi, and Joao
Ramalho, who was married to a daughter of Chief Tibirigé and was
himself the chief of the Guaind Tribe. Friction developed between
the Indians and the newly arrived Portuguese, and Ramalho moved
to the heights overlooking Sao Vicente, where he founded the city of
Santo André, which afterwards became fused with what is to-day the
city of Sao Paulo, first called Piratininga.

The prosperity of Sao Vicente increased the interest of the Portuguese
Government in Brazil. The country was afterwards divided into
hereditary captaincies, whose limits began at the seacoast and con-
tinued into the interior ‘‘as far as the royal domain extends.” That
partition was a solemn occupation of all Brazilian lands. Various
expeditions carried out in the eighteenth century enlarged this terri-
tory to its present proportions. Thus not only did the country’s
development and progress start with the founding of Sao Vicente,
but it also may be said that therein le the beginnings of the present
territorial vastness of Brazil. Those erstwhile ‘‘royal domains”’
are to-day a republic with 40,000,000 inhabitants and an enormous
expanse of land, and it may therefore be considered that January
22, 1532, is one of the most significant dates in the history of Brazil.

THE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF ARGENTINA’

By GeraLtp HERBERT SANDY

HE National Library of Argentina, located at Buenos Aires, was

established at the nation’s birth as its first public hbrary. During
Spanish rule the only libraries were those of the convents and those
connected with institutions of learning and accessible solely to students
and professors. In the century and a quarter of its independence
the Argentine Republic has come to be perhaps the most progressive
State of Spanish South America in various types of libraries, and its
national library is among the best, both in service and in size.

The idea of establishing a public library in Buenos Aires existed for
many years before its realization. Manuel Azamor y Ramirez, Bishop
of Buenos Aires, at his death in 1796 left his books to be used in
starting a public library, but the plan, delayed by the occupation of the
city by the English under Beresford in 1806, was not carried out until
the first revolutionary Junta came into power in 1810. This Govern-
ment ordered that, besides these books which were being held in trust,
the entire library of Bishop Orellana and the books of other supporters
of the opposing party be placed in public service, and informed the
rector of the Colegio de San Carlos that, having decided to found a
public library, the Junta had determined to incorporate in it the
library of the college. This plan must have been agreeable to the
rector, Luis Chorroarpin, later one of the librarians, for he replied that
he would gladly send not only the books of the college but several of
his own as well, if they could be used.* Don Mariano Moreno, secre-
tary of the Junta, was named ‘‘protector,’’ and two librarians were
appointed, Dr. Saturnino Segurola and Fray Cayetano Rodriguez.°

Although the library was national, there were other interests than
that of the Central Government involved. The town council settled
500 pesos a year on each of the librarians, and a patriotic subscription
which within three months reached the sum of 16,670 pesos, in
addition to many books, maps, etce.,° gave the library a good start.

1 Chapter VIII of “An Accourt of the National Libraries of South America,’’ a thesis submitted in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree master of arts in library science in the Graduate School of the
University of Illinois.

2 Buenos Aires. Biblioteca nacional. Revista...1879. Vol. 1, p. 459.

3 Lucero, A. Nuestras bibliotecas desde 1810. 1910. p. 9.

4 Buenos Aires. Biblioteca nacional, op. cit., vol. 1, p. 461.

5 lbid., vol. 1, p. 460.

6 Sarmiento, N. Historia del libro y de las bibliotecas argentinas, 1930, p. 48.

681

682 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Among the gifts was a substantial one from the English colony of
the city, sent in token of appreciation of the hospitality which the
people had accorded to the foreign settlers, and of the governmental
protection which they had enjoyed.’ However, those were stirring
times in other fields as well, and public enthusiasm soon veered to
more urgent matters, so that the opening of the library was delayed
until March 16, 1812.

In a short tine the Junta, being too much occupied in maintaining
itself in power to be concerned about the library, allowed it to become
dependent first upon the municipal administration and later upon the
Province of Buenos Aires. It remained under this jurisdiction until
1884. However, the national character of the institution was still
evident, since it had been created and was regulated by the central
power and since many of its resources emanated from outside the
city—as, for instance, subscriptions received from Concepcion and
Cordoba. With conditions as they existed at that time, the library
did well to make any progress at all, and the administration of
Manuel Moreno, brother of the first ‘‘protector”’ and director during
this period, may be considered very successful.

During Moreno’s term as librarian (1822-1828) he completed the
first real organization of the library, which, without more change than
natural development required, was retained until Quesada revised it
in 1877.3 The staff, consisting of the director, two assistants, and a
porter (a secretary was added during the term of Sefor Marmol),
served the public daily from 9 a.m. until2 p.m. ... The budget
comprised 600 pesos annually for books and running expenses, 500
pesos for the director’s salary, and 1 peso per day for the rest of the
staft.° Moreno also directed the first inventory which the writer has
found obtainable. The results of this count show that the first decade
of the library’s existence, although one of strife and turmoil for the
nation generally, was not an unprofitable one for the library—rather,
in fact, the most progressive which the institution should see until
it again came under the control of the National Government. Ac-
cording to statistics published in the Registro estadistico of 1823, there
were in the library 17,229 volumes, not including 1,500 duplicates,
which were used during the year by 3,284 readers—a very good record
compared with that of 1871, when the collection of 20,104 volumes
served 3,000 readers of a population probably four times that of 1823.7°
Although the fact that Buenos Aires lagged behind other parts of the
country during that half century in its social culture, public education

7 Buenos Aires. Biblioteca nacional, op. cit., vol. 1, p. 475-77. Letters and list of donors.
8 La Biblioteca 1: 28 June, 1896. La Biblioteca de Buenos Aires, by P. Groussac.

9 Tbid., p. 29.

10 Lia Biblioteca 1:30 June, 1896. La Biblioteca de Buenos Aires, by P. Groussac.

THE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF ARGENTINA 683

and press would account for some lack of progress in the library, this
comparison bears out Lucero’s statement that, with the exception of
Doctor Quesada, who enriched the library and gave it the basis of
its modern organization, the chronicle of directors from Moreno to
Groussae¢ is only a gallery of portraits where likeness is of less value
than the technique, careless though that may often be.!!

THE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF ARGENTINA, BUENOS AIRES

Argentina’s first public library was established in 1810 and formally opened in March,
1812, although the idea had been conceived many years earlier.

The decadence which set in at the beginning of this period was
mentioned in an official decree issued the day after the resignation in
1833 of Presbyter Ignacio Grela, a pamphleteer, politician, and open-
forum orator who replaced Moreno, November 25, 1828, when the latter
was appointed Argentina’s Ambassador to the Court of St. James’s.”
Between 1833 and 1852 the library had but two directors—Dr. José

11 Lucero, op. cit., pp. 17-18.
12 La Biblioteca 1:161-62, July, 1896, op. cit.

684 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Maria Terrero, whose term extended from November 14, 1833, to
January 18, 1837, and Dr. Felipe Elortando y Palacios, who succeeded
INN 5 5 oc

Up to this time the directors of the library had all been members of
the clergy, but in the general educational revival which followed the
fall of Rosas in 1852, the library was laicized. The directorship of
Marcos Sastre, lasting but a year, was too short to be productive of
many results, but that of his successor, Carlos Tejedor, April 14, 1853,
to October 23, 1858, may be said to have terminated the almost leg-
endary period of the library’s history.

From that time on, although the organization was still defective, at
least natural development was given a chance. The first report of
Doctor Tejedor, published in 1854, gave the total number of volumes
in the library as 15,3897 and the number of readers of the year as
1,695.8 Since the library was not blessed with a generous budget,
Doctor Tejedor’s efforts to rehabilitate it were somewhat cramped,
and he complained that not only were there no funds for book pur-
chases, but nobody ever donated anything to the library. Neverthe-
less, the library was in much better shape when, appointed Govern-
ment assessor, he relinquished the reins to the poet José Marmol.

Sefor Marmol’s long term of office was unmarked by any memo-
rable innovation, either good or bad, and the only original suggestion
of the director seems to have been that the theological section of the
library should be moved to some monastery where it would be more
appropriately placed, leaving room in the libary for more works on
science, literature, and the arts. Nothing came of this suggestion,
however, and the collection was turned over intact to Dr. Vicente
Quesada, lawyer and publicist, on September 23, 1876, after Marmol’s
death."

The new director was an indefatigable worker as well as a prolific
writer, who discharged his duty with zeal, contributing to the regula-
tion, classification, and bibliographical description of the lbrary.
His inventory of 1872 took account of 20,014 volumes in the library,
1,928 of which had been acquired during his year of work. Since the
inventory of 1881, two years after he was succeeded by Manuel
Ricardo Trelles, a writer and archivist, showed a total of 13,645 works
in 31,601 volumes, plus 909 volumes of newspapers and periodicals,”
we may conclude that Quesada augmented the collection consider-
ably. Perhaps his greatest improvement in a material way was the
construction and installation of a pew reading room, which he fin-

13 Tbid., p. 171.
14 La Biblioteca 1:186, July, 1896, op. cit.
15 Buenos Aires. Biblioteca nacional, op. cit., 1882, vol. 4, p. 511.

THE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF ARGENTINA 685

ished during the last two years of his term, thus climaxing his indus-
trious administration.

It remained for Sefior Trelles to inaugurate this new room, and to
classify provisionally its 8,699 works, which were divided into four
sections according to the main divisions of the library. The annual
attendance of readers had increased from 5,017 in 1873 to 6,953 in
1880, and still further to 7,715 in 1881, after which there was a slight
decrease.'° Trelles was especially interested in building up the col-
lection of periodicals, and made every effort to complete the library’s
sets of those published in America, particularly in Argentina. He
had previously been in charge of the national archives, and had edited
a Revista del archivo, which he now continued in the Revista de la
biblioteca, publishing thus various historical documents from the
library’s collection. During his five years in the library, 1879-1884,
he increased the library’s holdings by 3,386 volumes, not including
periodicals, manuscripts, and maps.”

Mention should perhaps be made here of the attempts of the
Government to found a national library while the one under discussion,
although answering very nearly to that description, was still the
property of the Province of Buenos Aires. In 1870 President Sar-
miento gave a great impulse to public library work by forming the
OComisién Protectora de Bibliotecas Populares. At the same time
he created the Biblioteca y Depésito de Libros. Both these projects
were ill-fated, for of the 182 public libraries established by the
Comisién before its abolition in 1876, only 15 remained in 1895, and
the Biblioteca, which was hardly more than a depository for Govern-
ment publications, was finally incorporated in the Biblioteca Nacional
de Maestros in 1884.'8

After the law of September 20, 1880, had made Buenos Aires the
nation’s capital and the provincial government had removed to La
Plata, it was almost inevitable that the library should be nationalized.
The national and provincial governments each appointed a commis-
sion, and arrangements were completed on September 9, 1884, whereby
La Biblioteca Piblica de Buenos Aires became La Biblioteca Nacional.”
Sefior Trelles having resigned because of his attitude toward the Federal
Government, Dr. José Antonio Wilde, as first director of the library
in its new character, had the honor of organizing it and formulating
its first regulations. His death on January 14, 1885, cut short his
administration before he had time to develop his plans.”

16 Buenos Aires. Biblioteca nacional, op. cit., 1882, vol. 4, p. 481.

17 La Biblioteca 1:190, July, 1896, op. cit.

18 For complete history of these projects, see Lucero, op. cit., pp. 21-69.
19 La Biblioteca 1: 191, July, 1896, op. cit.

20 Ibid., p. 192.

138341—32—Bull. 10 2

686 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Paul Groussac, a historian and critic, appoimted director January
14, 1885, had an exceptionally long administration, and during the
40 years of his management he set up such a high standard and at
the end left such an enviable record that it must have been with some
trepidation that his successor accepted the position. So closely did
he stick to his task, and so little time did he spend in compiling
statistics, making reports, and like activities, that the Memorias of
the Minister of Justice, Rebgion, and Public Instruction, upon whose
department the library has been dependent since its nationalization,

READING ROOM OF THE NATIONAL LIBRARY

The present collection of about 200,000 volumes has grown from the nucleus bequeathed in 1796 by Manue
Azamor y Ramirez, Bishop of Buenos Aires, for the purpose of starting a public library.

must be relied upon almost entirely for indications of the institution’s
development.

Within two years the library had grown to such an extent that the
building was inadequate for the proposed installation of a binding
department and an exchange office, its 22,041 works, in about 50,000
volumes, demanding so much room that it was perhaps a relief that
there was no law compelling copyright deposits.) The library was
extending its service as well as increasing in size, for in the year
1886-87 it was used by 7,990 readers, a larger number than ever
before, although even that seems now a small enough percentage of

21 Argentine Republic. Ministerio de justicia, culto é instruccién publica. Memoria, 1887. pp. cxxxili-
C@XXXiV.

THE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF ARGENTINA 687

the city’s 400,000 inhabitants.” Space must have been at a premium
long before anything was done greatly to relieve the crowded condi-
tion, for the report of March 24, 1899, signed by the vice director,
Don Emilio H. de Padilla, placed the library’s holdings at 43,139
works in 80,562 volumes.” Such congestion as there must have been
would seem to call for action, which was forthcoming at last when
the Argentine Government took over the National Lottery Building,
one of the handsomest public buildings in Buenos Aires, and con-
verted it into a home for the National Library.

At the opening of the new quarters on December 27, 1901, Sefior
Groussac, in the address of the day, characterized the library as first
in Latin America in its classics and periodical collections, although
it could boast comparatively few bibliographical treasures in the
way of manuscripts and incunabula.*

One regrettable incident of Sefior Groussac’s early administration
was the cessation of La Biblioteca after a short hfe. This was a
monthly publication, founded in 1896 by Groussac, in which appeared
hitherto unpublished papers and articles in the fields of history,
science, and letters. In the list of contributors can be found the
names of such notable men as President Bartolomé Mitre; Rubén
Dario, the great Nicaraguan poet who reached the height of his
fame while residing in Buenos Aires; Juan Bautista Alberdi, writer
on social and economic subjects; and Domingo F. Sarmiento, who,
as we have seen, was deeply interested in education and libraries.
During its two years of existence it maintained a high editorial
standard, and one can not but feel that the official censure of one
article was a little severe and that the resulting cessation of publication
was too drastic a measure in reply.”

The greatest work of Director Groussac, a task which extended
throughout his long administration, was the cataloguing of the library.
The Brunet system of classification was adopted and modified to
suit the library’s particular needs. One volume of the catalogue was
published on each large subject as it was finished, with occasional
revisions; for instance, volume 2, covering the subjects history and
geography, with subdivisions A~Z, was published in 1900 and revised
aL O i528

A new era of library work in the Republic began in 1908, under
the direction of Rémulo S. Naén, Minister of Justice and Public
Instruction, with the reestablishment of the Comision Protectora de
Bibliotecas and the organization of the National Association of

22 [bid. pp. eXxvi-exxviii.

23 Lucero, op. cif., pp. 18-19.

24 Buenos Aires. Biblioteca nacional. Inauguracion de la Biblioteca nacional. 1902. p. 16.
23 La Biblioteca 8 : 244-48, May, 1898. La desaparicion de ‘‘ La Biblioteca,’’ by P. Groussac.
26 Buenos Aires, Biblioteca nacional. Catalogo metodico . . vol. 1-, 1893-.

688 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Libraries. The National Library felt the impulse of this increased
activity, and in that same year the collection was augmented by the
purchase of the hbrary of Dr. Martin Garcia Merou, consisting of
5,320 volumes on history, law, and literature.2”7 During the year,
36,579 volumes were consulted in the library by 29,918 readers.”
Three years later the library was made the copyright depository, and
by December, 1911, the collection had reached a total of 128,203
works in 206,110 volumes, plus about 5,000 volumes of maps and
newspapers.” . . .

The library, however, was developing in other directions and giving
service in other ways than simply in the furnishing of books and
reading facilities to its patrons. The administration took advantage,
in a very progressive way, of the educational facilities of the hbrary, and
during the fiscal year 1915, when 61,804 readers visited the library,
38 lectures, art entertainments, etc., were given by the institution.”

The library has for many years enjoyed a steady and rapid growth,
with neither serious hindrance nor spectacular favors to trouble the
stream of its development. The library section of the annual report
of the Minister of Justice and Public Instruction states regularly
that no incident of particular note has occurred during the year, but
that the burden on the staff becomes heavier and heavier, and that
the present building is becoming inadequate. By 1920 the annual
attendance had passed the 80,000 mark, with nearly 120,000 beoks
consulted by the readers.* In 1927, the last year for which figures
are available, almost at the close of Sefior Groussac’s long and suc-
cessful administration, 190,487 books were used by 99,756 readers.*”

After the death of Director Groussac, in 1929, Dr. Carlos Melo
was appointed to fill the vacancy, but he lived only a short time after
taking charge of the library. He was succeeded by the present
incumbent, Dr. Gustavo Martinez Zuviria, the famous novelist.
He is perhaps better known by his pseudonym, Hugo Wast, and his
work enjoys considerable reputation in this country as well as in
South America. His intellectual capacity and literary ability augur
well for progressive and increasing service with the smooth-running
organization and expert staff which he inherited from his predeces-
sors. His appointment has placed him at the head of the largest
library in a country where library progress is something more than
idle talk.

27 Argentine Republic. Ministerio de justicia é instruccién publica. Memoria, 1908. p. 256.

28 Ibid., pp. 260-61.

29 Ibid., 1912, pp. 54-55.

30 Tbid., 43 : 252-53, August, 1916. National Library.

31 Argentine Republic. Ministerio de justicia é instruccién publica, op. cit., 1920. Vol. 2, p. 353.

32 Argentine Republic. Ministerio de justiciaéinstruccién publica. Estadistica, ano 1$27. Tab. 136-37.

THE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF ARGENTINA 689

There are functioning in the Republic, distributed in the Federal
capital, the Provinces, and the territories, 1,313 popular libraries,
with a total of more than 2,500,000 volumes, varying from 1,000 to
70,000 volumes each.* Since library employees of the country are
beginning to feel the need of training in library economy and biblio-
eraphy to raise themselves to the rank of professional workers, plans
have been suggested for the establishment of library schools and for
the incorporation of courses in library science in the curricula of the
provincial normal schools, with the National Library as the center
of these activities.**

Argentina holds a leading place in South American library matters,
and her National Library is a credit to this reputation, which bids
fair to be upheld in the future.

33 La Literatura argentina 4 : 48, October, 1931. Las bibliotecas populares
34 [bid., 4:37:38, October, 1931. Plan de estudios para una escuela de bibliotecarios, por Alfredo Console.

IN BOLIVIA
J. LAKE TITICACA AND LA PAZ!

T is a curious sensation, after traveling for several days up from
Mollendo, Peru, to the high altitudes of the Andes, to alight from
the train on the shores of Lake Titicaca and see, docked at the pier,
a vessel which has all the appearance and nearly the size of an ocean
liner. It is as if one had been dreaming and had suddenly awakened
in a most unexpected place. .

Lake Titicaca is not only the highest but one of the most beautiful
bodies of navigable fresh water in the world. On the maps of the old
school geographies the lake is a mere dot, and until one crosses it the
impression is likely to remain that altitude alone is its most dis-
tinguishing feature. Study of a large-scale map, however, reveals
the fact that it is nearly one-third the size of Lake Ontario. It is
situated at the central point of a vast basin, on the western side of
the main Cordillera of the Andes, where the water might reasonably
be supposed to flow into the Pacific, but does not, on the surface, at
least. The overflow from Titicaca is drained by the River Desagua-
dero into Lake Poopo, which has no visible outlet, and it is gener-
ally conceded that evaporation eventually returns all the waters from
this vast watershed to the heavens whence they came.

Before sunrise, just as the first silver rays begin to light up the
snow-capped range at the east of the lake, is the correct time to rise
on board the steamer. Nearly 75 miles of perpetual snow are then
in sight in the distance, looking deceptively near and but little above
the level of the water. It is almost unbelievable that some of these
peaks are more than 22,000 feet high, nearly 2 miles higher than the
lake. There are no possible color combinations which the rising
sun does not bring out as its first rays strike the glistening, silvery
heights—the browns and grays and greens of mountain side and
valley, and the deep blue of the lake. The longer one journeys
about on the top of the world, over land and inland sea, the more
readily one can understand how easy it was for the Incas to make the
sun their God, and how, for so many centuries, the sun was wor-
shipped in these regions as the source of all life, and hope, and joy,
here and hereafter; and if, as tradition has it, the first Inca and his
sister wife were born or first appeared at sunrise, on an island in
Titicaca, one comprehends how they were immediately accepted as
the ‘“‘Children of the Sun.”’

1 From ‘‘ Bolivia,’ Vol. III, No. 3.
690

aan ap tate aS eae

IN BOLIVIA 691

As the port of Guaqui, on the shores of Bolivia, at the southern end
of the lake, is neared, the traveler is usually glad if a return voyage
in a few days will give the pleasure of another night on the steamer
and another sunrise on Titicaca. The passenger goes ashore with
mingled reluctance and anticipation—reluctance at parting from the
beautiful scenery, excellent accommodations of the ship, and antici-
pation of the interesting journey to La Paz.

The Bolivian highlands to the south and east of Lake Titicaca
have many remains and ruins of a civilization which was, without
doubt, pre-Incan and which are entirely prehistoric. The most
important of these are on the plains of Tiahuanaco, 13 miles from
Guaqui. Many are in sight from the railway, and there are enough
within easy walking distance of the station to require several hours

THE PORT OF GUAQUI, LAKE TITICACA

At the Bolivian port of Guaqui, trains for La Paz connect with modern lake steamers.

for even a cursory examination—ruins of immense walls with door-
ways and archways still intact; life-size human figures and animals
carved from solid rock; doorways and archways covered with carved
images, figures, and designs, the significance of which no one has
been able to discover. One such archway, which is near the railway
station, is used by the village boys as a target for rifle practice. The
size and extent of these ruins and the immense size of many of the
stones make all conjecture as to their origin futile, as there are no
known quarries of similar rock within many miles, and it is beyond
the possibilities that such immense stones were ever moved long
distances and placed in position by mere man power.

It is said that in the building of the Guaqui-La Paz Railway hun-
dreds of carloads of these ruins, priceless as historical remnants of an

692 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

CONGRESSIONAL BUILDING, LA PAZ

The modern building in which the Congress meets faces an attractive square. In the center 1s a monument
to one of the country’s heroes, Pedro Domingo Murillo, who gave up his life in the cause of independence.

unknown civilization, were broken up and used in the grading and in
construction of culverts, foundations, and buildings; thus did the
ruthless hand of man despoil for commercial purposes, without regard
to sentimental and historical value, the mute monuments erected by a
race and civilization the age of which no man can even guess. Whence
came the thousands by whose labor these great walls were built?
In what dim distant ages was the work accomplished? What purpose
did it serve on this high Andean plateau? By what flood, famine,
or catastrophe did the race become extinct, unknown, and forgotten?
These questions will probably for all time remain unanswered, but
those who care to theorize and speculate over secrets buried centuries
ago will here find much food for meditation.

From Guaqui to El Alto the railway follows the broad plateau at
an almost even grade, rising only about 1,000 feet in the 55 miles.
The first evidence that a city is near is the well-kept golf course near
the railway at El Alto. Here the steam locomotive is exchanged for
a powerful electric motor, and it is only after the precipitous descent
is begun that La Paz comes into view, nearly 1,200 feet straight
below. El Alto has every appearance of being the ‘‘jumping-off
place,” and it looks as if nothing short of an airplane could possibly
negotiate the descent in safety, but by a series of circles and loops,
traversing a distance of only 5 miles, the train is brought to the
station at the edge of the city.

La Paz has gayer colors, steeper hills, better stores, more excellent
motor cars, and a greater range of altitude than any other Andean
city. It is the center of five railways—one to the south to Antofa-

IN BOLIVIA 693

VENEZUELA AVENUE, LA PAZ

This avenue in the residential district is one of the comparatively few level thoroughfares in the capital.
Most of the streets follow the contour of the hills and as a result are steep and winding.

gasta; one to the west to Arica; one to the north to Lake Titicaca and
Mollendo; one to the southeast to Buenos Aires; and one to the east,
tapping the immense fruit and agricultural belt of the lower montafia
called Yungas.

The Plaza de Armas, the only nearly level spot in the city, is sur-
rounded by the Government Palace, the Congressional building,
Hotel Paris, and the Cathedral, which has been under construction
for nearly 200 years. It is built from solid stone, after an old colonial
design, and will be a very imposing structure when entirely com-
pleted.

The elevation of the main portion of the city is 12,000 feet. Within
the limits of electric-car travel it is possible to go up nearly 1,400 feet
above the city to the golf course and down nearly 1,000 feet through
the residential section below the city. The difference in climatic
conditions within this range of nearly half a mile in elevation is quite
remarkable. Up at the golf course it may be cold and bleak, and
even snowing, while in the lower sections, in the vicinity of beautiful
homes, parks, gardens, and resorts in the sheltered canyon, the sun
shines and flowers bloom almost continually; and not so very far
below, oranges and other tropical fruits flourish perpetually.

The public market in La Paz is the greatest attraction for strangers
and tourists, and in many respects is unique. The stalls are practi-
cally all occupied by Indian women and children in picturesque
native costumes, and there is scarcely an article of food or apparel
that one will not find displayed for sale at ridiculously low prices.

694 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The wares most interesting to visitors are the hand-woven woolen
goods and blankets, ponchos, rugs, spreads, shawls, and wearing
apparel of all kinds, mostly in gay colors and at a range of prices from
10 cents to $20. Alpaca and vicufia rugs are so beautiful and so cheap
as to be almost irresistible, and many people who visit La Paz spend
more money on fur goods than on railway transportation.

Commercially, La Paz presents to the stranger a very prosperous
and busy aspect. It is not only the governmental but the commer-
cial center of Bolivia; the wholesale distributing center for a vast ter-
ritory rich in minerals, agriculture, fruits, coca, rubber, and _ live-
stock. Seemingly small wholesale agencies transact a surprisingly
large volume of business, and retail stores, well stocked with mer-
chandise from every quarter of the globe, have a metropolitan
appearance which one scarcely expects to find in this land-bound
mountain city.

To the north and east of La Paz is one of the most fascinating
mountain scenes imaginable; nearly 75 miles of peaks covered with
perpetual snow are in view from almost any point in the city. The
steep walls of the canyon, within which the city is built, are most
picturesque in coloring and formation. The erosion of centuries has
gashed and gouged the mountain sides into grotesque shapes, and the
city, as viewed from above, forms a never-to-be-forgotten picture.
To one who views it for the first time it looks unreal, as if it were the
creation of some imaginative artist. Many have tried to describe it,
but no one will ever be able to fully convey a vivid impression of the
surprising beauty and grandeur of the sight as for the first time he
gazes down into this awe-inspiring canyon filled with glistening,
red-tiled roofs.

Il. IN THE INCA EMPIRE?

By Netty Merino CarvaLio

Over the calm of Lake Titicaca the moon shed her waning light.
As dawn broke, the immense Andine cordillera was still hidden in
a sleepy mist, above which towered only the snowy peaks of Illampu
and Illimani. No signs of life were anywhere apparent. Everything
seemed enveloped in a gray veil, oppressive and sad, like the thoughts
which invade the mind on nights heavy with wakefulness.

Gently, with brush strokes of opal and vermilion, dawn opened
a path between dark clouds to pour over the world its luminous
wealth. Little by little the unending chain of mountains emerged.
Huayna, Potosi, Sorata, Muruata, Chacaltaya, slowly coming to
life, raised the violet profiles of their lofty summits. Fleecy clouds

1 Translated from the Spanish.

IN BOLIVIA 695

offered a prodigal display of colors against the grayness which was
melting away to disclose the blue sky. Suddently the molten metal
of the sun appeared above the surface of the sacred lake.

All the marvelous spectrum of a dawn which ostentatiously parades
its pomp and magnificence had passed before our eyes. In the light-
flooded space could be seen desolate peaks, some green, others yellow
and sere. A strong wind blew coldly from the heights. Flocks of
crying gulls rose to meet us, filling the air with the gleam of their
white plumage and the rustling of their wings.

How delicious it was to sail hour after hour on Titicaca, an ocean
imprisoned between snow and rocks without the fury of the sea,
and to have as inseparable traveling companions the glistening Andes!

MONOLITHIC DOOR-
WAY AT £=TIAHUA-
NACO

Not far from the southern
shore of Lake Titicaca are
the pre-Incan ruins at Tia-
huanaco. Perhaps the most
interesting is the great
sculptured doorway.

The celebrated lakes of Switzerland—blue Geneva guarded by
Mont Blanc, green Lucerne below the Rigi and Pilatus, and all the
others—how tiny they seemed in memory before the wide-stretching
waters of Titicaca and its surrounding peaks covered with perpetual
snow!

As we approached the Island of the Moon the mountains showed
more vegetation. Their folds seemed to be arranged with conscious
artistry, and one could see groups of trees around the native dwellings.
Small flocks of goats were playing on the hillsides, while the goatherd,
seated on a pile of rocks, played strains of sad music on his flute.

Noon. After sailing six hours we arrived at the island, famous for
its polygonal stone monuments and for its traditions and legends.
My imagination, nourished on Prescott’s The Conquest of Peru and
other books which present vividly to the imagination that long-past

696 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

epoch, had dreamed for years of seeing the Jnakwyu, or temple of the
Nustas, the virgins dedicated to the cult of the Moon, as the vestals of
Rome were dedicated to the guardianship of the sacred flame.

With an emotion almost religious, I visited the weatherbeaten
ruins of their palace. The walls and doorways of the Jiakuyu are
well preserved. Tradition says that there were altars covered with
plates of gold, silver, and copper, ornamented with figures, carvings,
and hieratic inscriptions. Bits of wall painted in various colors still
exist for our admiration. But nothing is more noteworthy than the
“pre-Inca”’ wall, famous for the delicacy of its carving and the
laying of its stones, so closely fitted together that not even a pin can
get between them. On the great terrace, high above the level of the
lake, the rites of the cult were celebrated. Here it was that the
nustas danced the sacred dances before the Inca, the king and lord
of the country of the Tahuantinsuyos, the high priest of the Sun.

Only women inhabited the Island of the Moon, the seraglio of the
monarch, virgins who lived isolated, far from the glances of men.
Under the spell of the legend, one must forget a while the present
moment and shut one’s eyes to all that to us means civilization and
culture. Then one sees, through the veil of fantasy, this great patio
with its niches and altars laden with precious objects. Gleaming
idols of gold show their disdainful faces. Tapestry hangs from the
marvelous walls of polished stone. And the fiustas, flowers of youth
and beauty, dance to the sound of Inca instruments, amid clouds of
incense burned in pots of silver and clay.

In the background lies the lake, deep and quiet. The sky, of that
intense blue peculiar to Bolivia, is cloudless, caressed by the dying rays
of the sun or by the first silvery light of the moon.

And from his invisible window the Inca chooses the queen for his
hours of dreams and of love. Suddenly he appears, elegant in his
chinchilla wrap and necklaces of pure gold. Blinded by the beauty
of the favored “usta, he sings the hymn of love, the divine lever of the
world, by which man is enabled to rise above himself. From the damp
earth rises the perfume of flowers which mingles with the odor of the
burning incense. The carnations, stirred by the breeze, let fall their
petals, red as blood, or yellow as the gold of the Andean heights.

UE SUCK *
By Juan Anpris CuELLO FREYRE

It might be said that time has stood still in Sucre, the white city of
the four names.

Four epochs of the past are incarnate on Bolivian soil—prehistoric
times, at Tiahuanaco; Inca rule, in the Islands of the Sun and Moon;

1 Translated from the Spanish.

IN BOLIVIA 697

colonial days, at Potosi; and at Sucre, the glory of those May days
in 1809 when that early attempt was made to secure independence.
No other country on our continent, to the best of my belief, can
boast more perfect symbols of the past than these.

After some hours’ travel by highway from Potosi, over lofty
mountains, along high precipices, through deep ravines, and beside
clear rocky streams, Sucre suddenly appears at the bottom of a slope,
its white houses and towers rising amid groves. It lies in a fertile
and smiling valley, removed from the barren high plateau traversed
by the Pan American Railway, and is little visited by tourists.
This is the old city of the Spanish Audiencia and of the famous

Photograph by I. F. Scheeler

THE CATHEDRAL, SUCRE

The cathedral is one of the notable structures in the ‘‘ City of the Four Names,” about which an atmosphere
of colonial days still lingers. Its exterior is reminiscent of that of the cathedral at Seville.

University of St. Francis Xavier, the great center of learning founded
in 1624 and long called ‘‘the Brain of American Independence”
because of the patriots there bred.

There is still a colonial flavor about this city, first known as La
Plata, because of the silver thereabouts; then as Charcas from the
Indians of the region; later as Chuquisaca; and now called by the
name of the great soldier who organized the new nation of Bolivia.
Coats of arms adorn Sucre’s ancestral mansions, whose baroque
fagades are wrought like filigree. A delicate atmosphere of bygone
days pervades the streets, as if an impalpable mist rose from the
Audiencia, the University, and the Cathedral. Even if the very

698 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

stones and bricks were not historic, if oidores and heroes of inde-
pendence had not walked its sun-bathed streets, still the chaste
architecture of early days, the high-walled convents whose massive
doors show the ravages of gnawing time, the rusted garden gates
behind which are perpetual perfume, color, and fruit, would still
transport the beholder back a hundred years.

The atmosphere of silence and meditation, the quietude of pro-
vineial life, notwithstanding the diverse manufactures of the city,
the mountain landscape of grays, blues, and reddish tints, are all
conducive to serenity of spirit and the noblest emotions of the heart.
As might be expected in such an environment, the common people
are affable and kindly, and the patrician families vie with each other
in refinement and culture to uphold the honor of their escutcheons.

One day the railway will bring more dynamic industrialism and the
exploitation of natural wealth; the population wiil increase; the
city’s aspect will be changed; and the smoke of chimneys will try to
dim the limpidity of the heavens and the purity of the rosy clouds
in those magnificent sunsets when the shades of the elders—Bolivar,
Sucre, and the rest—seem to walk these streets of legend and tradition.
But the white city of the Audiencia, the University, and the Cathedral
will continue to be a center of learning, and the orange trees will
still scent the air from the neighboring groves, as the gracious women
on their flower-bedecked balconies shed a fragrance on the life of the
city.

VE AR Act

By Luis Azurpuy

In the gentle quiet of the valley at the foot of Sama’s chilly heights
is set Tarija, drowsy with the scent of mint, sweet marjoram, and
thyme, and lulled by the murmur of the river that passes by the walls
of country places blessed with a Virgilian abundance.

For all the commerce that centers here, it is a sweet and tranquil
life that is led in these streets, undisturbed by the roar of traffic or by
hurrying crowds; the hands of the clock on the church of San Fra-
cisco do not hasten on their appointed round; ample doors, as wide
open as a generous hand, offer cool glimpses of a tiled patio shaded by
a leafy orange tree around which the family is gathered at the close of
day; at the side of long, dusty lanes are runlets of clear water; and over
the adobe walls hang now and then bursting figs, opulent bunches of
grapes, or red-cheeked peaches.

Here is a cart drawn by a pair of meditative oxen; there, a man
throwing pebbles at a troop of teasing children; then a swift motor
passes, frightening a mettlesome horse unfriendly to the machine age

1 Translated from the Spanish.

IN BOLIVIA 699

and forcing to one side the baker’s boy with his basket of warm,
sweet-smelling rolls—rolls which will be eaten with the delicious
Bolivian coffee.

It is night. Orange trees border the park and principal streets;
their fragrant blossoms, symbol of the marriage day, await the kiss
of the moon. Pairs of humble lovers walk enraptured, and far away
strains of music fade into the magic of the night.

“Every saint has his story’: Our Lady of the Rosary is bornedown
from St. John’s Hill in a shower of rose petals; the Easter procession
passes under arches scented with green herbs and gay flowers; and the
fiesta of San Roque has its canes interlacing over the polychrome
throng.

Over the roads leading into the city come laden donkeys, driven by
youths singing the joy of living and the fruitfulness of the earth on
which the rain has fallen like a blessing from heaven. On their wide-
brimmed hats they wear sprigs of bright flowers or sweet basil, plucked
as they set out from their distant farms. They bring coffee, coca
leaves, hides for tanning, or grain to be made into flour. Often there
are cattle, too, perhaps to be sent to other markets, for Tarija is the
capital of the Province and center of all this fertile region.

A SECTION OF TARIJA

The city of Tarija, in the southern part of Bolivia, is situated in a rich agricultural valley

A COLONIAL CHURCH IN PARAGUAY '

By Pasto ALBoRNO

AGUARON is situated on the Paraguay River, about 20 miles

from Asuncion. The present town was founded in 1536 at the
time of the Spanish conquest by Diego Martinez de Irala and Father
Francisco Miranda, who also started settlements at Ita and Atyra
and established chapels in each of these reductions, as Indian settle-
ments of Jesuit or Franciscan origin or under the control of mission-
aries were known in colonial South America.

It was in Yaguaron that the first great church in the countries of
the River Plate was built, between 1670 and 1720, and dedicated to
San Roque. And since the fathers under whose direction it was erected
had no stone suitable for a facade, they contented themselves with
erecting a great dwelling, about 350 feet long by 80 feet broad, with
porticos 20 feet wide. The massive walls, more than 3 feet thick, were
made of stones and brick set in a strong red mortar; embedded in
them were heavy wooden uprights. The roof rested on heavy carved
beams, originally supported on a colonnade of round hardwood
pillars, 22 feet high and 20 inches in diameter, surmounted by stone
capitals. These pillars were later replaced by others of fired brick,
as may be observed in the accompanying illustration of the exterior
of the building.

This sanctuary, so severely simple on the exterior, is all glorious
within. On entering it the visitor is overwhelmed by the rich orna-
mentation and the superb painted and gilded wood carving of its
altars, which recall those in the Spanish baroque churches of this period.

In discussing this church we must take into consideration the time
at which it was erected and the scarcity of resources for such a struc-
ture, while at the same time we marvel at the competence of the
architects and artists who built it. Still strong and unimpaired by
the ravages of time, it stands to the glory of God and the honor of its
builders. True, they had at their command the various beautiful
and lasting woods of the vicinity, colors extracted from native plants
for use as paints, and gold from the mine at Atyra. Red was ob-
tained from the Bira orellana, a bluish green from the Hupatorvum
laeve, a dark green from maté, the shrub which furnishes leaves for
the so-called Paraguayan tea, violet and black from Genipa americana,
and white from clay and chalk. These were the pigments which the
Guarani Indians had used before the conquest for their textiles,

1 Translated from ‘‘ Revista de la Sociedad Cientifica del Paraguay,’’ Asuncion, May, 1931, by courtesy
of the author and the society.

700

A COLONIAL CHURCH IN PARAGUAY 701

tattooing, and pottery. With these colors the artists painted the
saints and angels in lovely tones; then, combining the stains with
glue, they emblazoned the roof and pillars of the church, and to make
the effect more brilliant and preserve it undimmed, they put on a
varnish made from resin. To judge by the freshness of the colors
to-day, this varnish was of excellent quality. The retable, altars,
pulpits, and confessionals also retain their lovely polychrome.

All gilding on these various works of art is of pure gold, hammered
into leaf and then applied over a coat of plaster with fish glue and ysy,
the resin of which the varnish was made. The gold remains intact
after the passage of more than two centuries. Onsome altars one may

Courtesy of the Revista de la Sociedad Cientifica del Paraguay

CHURCH OF SAN ROQUE, YAGUARON, PARAGUAY

Built between 1670 and 1720, this was the first large church erected in the River Plate countries.
Its severely plain exterior is in striking contrast to the richly ornamented interior.

note aluster which must have been made by the use of a red earth found
among the stones called by the Indians itd ky, or “tender earth.”

At the end of the main aisle rises the magnificent retable blazing
with gold, one of the most beautiful of the colonial era; the gilded
carving stands out against a background decorated in greens, violets,
reds, and grays. Its details harmonize with its architectural lines,
the predominating style being Spanish baroque. ‘This is also some-
times called ‘‘colonial art,” from the period in which it spread through
South America from Paraguay. There it was first used in religious
works of art executed by the Franciscans immediately after the con-
quest and later by the Jesuits. For this reason the style became
known as the Jesuit colonial, since it was employed in all the Jesuit

138341—32—Bull. 10——3

Courtesy of the Revista de la Sociedad Cientifica del Paraguay

THE HIGH ALTAR

An unusual and effective detail is the stepped arrangement of the lower section of the retable, with corre-
sponding arches above receding to a sunburst which forms a background for a figure of the Virgin. Between
the twisted columns at either side of the altar are figures of St. Bonaventure and St: Michael Archangel.
The altar glows with gold and color.

A COLONIAL CHURCH IN PARAGUAY 703

reductions in South America, on church facades and in confessionals,
altars, and pulpits. The especial manifestation of the Spanish ba-
roque which predominated at the time was the florid Churrigueresque,
named after the Spanish architect Churriguera, who was its chief
exponent.

The characteristics of the Churrigueresque are its heavy ornamenta-
tion: unfolding leaves, ending in volutes fancifully placed to break the
lines of cornices and thus produce a strong effect of light and shade;
twisted columns, twined with garlands of fruit, flowers, and leaves
in high relief and supported on heavy brackets; composite capitals and
figures of saints in animated attitudes, with floating drapery, like
Bernini’s Santa Teresa in St. Peter’s at Rome. These figures, placed
in curved niches, shell-shaped above, are reminiscent of the Italian
baroque.

In the retable of the church at Yaguaron, as well as in its other
pieces of wood carvings, one may also trace influences of the Renais-
sance, Gothic, and plateresque styles.

This great retable produces an artistic effect especially pleasing
because of the rhythm of its lines and the stepped arrangement of the
lower central section, matched by the six stepped arches above, which
produces an illusion of depth and thus enhances the figure of the
Murillo-like Virgin placed against a sunburst of rays in relief.

At each side of the altar piece are two twisted columns, guarding
niches terminating in shell effects. Here stand the figures of St. Bona-
venture and St. Michael Archangel, both admirable examples of
baroque figure carving, such as might be found in Spanish or Italian
churches. The capitals of the columns, which are wound with garlands
of roses and marguerites, support a multiple cornice. From the two
center columns springs a 4-sided panel with curving sides, framing a
beautiful figure in high relief of God the Father, from whose triangular
nimbus spread rays of light. This panel is adorned at either side by
figures of saints in flowing robes and angels surrounded by foliage.
The columns rest on great brackets with heavy volutes of closely
spiraled acanthus leaves in the Churrigueresque style; the base of the
niche between them is plateresque in feeling. The altar, which has a
curved front, is also in the plateresque style. ‘The monstrance is
enshrined in the midst of ornamental motives, clouds, and heads of
delightful chubby-cheeked cherubs. Other details merge in the
majestic effect of the whole.

This retable, in its marvelous harmony of line, color, and gilding, is
an excellent example of the beauty and opulence characteristic of
colonial religious art, a product of artists trained in Europe, as is clear
from the perfection of the carving, sculpture, painting, and the whole
effect. It may be added that a replica of this reredos, made in Yagu-
aron at the same time as the original, is found in the Church of San
Francisco in Buenos Aires,

‘

at, ees comet

pM sie 2237 woot rmentes

Courtesy of the Revista de la Sociedad Cientifica del Paraguay
THE NAVE

Of interest is the gilded pulpit at the left, supported by an ornately carved angel. The timbered ceiling
and the supporting beams and pillars of hardwood retain much of their original brilliance of color.

a del Paraguay

sta de la Sociedad Cientific

Courtesy of the Revi

ALTAR

SIDE

d color.

Details of the Church of San Roque are in complete harmony with the side altars as to design an

Courtesy of the Revista de la Sociedad Cientifica del Paraguay

THE CHOIR

Flowers native to Paraguay form the chief motive in the decoration of the ceiling of the church. The
excellent workmanship of the woodwork and chairs warrants special mention.

A COLONIAL CHURCH IN PARAGUAY 107

The ceiling over the high altar and in the body of the church,
painted in plateresque designs with native flowers as motives, recalls
the Renaissance style used in Italy and Spain in the period when the
church was built.

The Church of San Roque offers other interesting details in the
carved altars on the right-hand side of the church, the confessionals,
and the pulpit, all in harmony with the retable, as are the pillars,
benches, windows, doors, fonts, and the wooden chandeliers where
lamps were placed in colonial times. The gilded altars of a com-
posite architectural style are beautifully carved in delicate rococo,
with thorny dentate leaves curving in capricious forms about the
three round arches and surmounting the cornice in an ornate design.
A monstrance reposes in the center niche of each, while figures of
saints in flowing robes occupy the side niches. The tables supporting
the altars are painted and gilded in colors similar to those of the
ereat retable.

The confessionals may be said to be completely Churrigueresque in
style, because of their combinations of curves, latticework, and twisted
columns, and the pedimental effect, composed of volutes, complicated
curves, and leaves, above a round arch of broken outline and a double
cornice.

The gilt pulpit, hexagonal in form, is extremely interesting. The
beautifully carved figure of an angel, with floating robes, supports
on arms and head elaborate branches of foliage, on which rests the
pulpit. The panels are divided by the usual twisted pillars with
capitals, first of acanthus leaves, and then of several Doric moldings,
which continue over the panels in the form of a cornice. The panels
are rather unusual in their combination of painting and carving. As
may be seen in the illustration, a carved canopy and drapery above
and at the sides frames the painted figure of a saint, while below is a
cherub’s head in low relief surrounded by rococo foliage.

Another exquisite work of art is the threefold altar in the sacristy.
In the center niche is a beautiful and majestic image of Christ, on one
side, St. John, and on the other, Our Lady of Sorrows, a figure of
lovely and expressive countenance. The base on which the altar
rests has a curved front, characteristic of the bureaus of the time.
Like the walls and the arched ceiling of wood, it is painted and gilded
in harmony with the decoration of the nave.

The armchairs and other straight chairs in the church have backs
of leather richly ornamented in wavy borders, like the bishops’ thrones
seen in Spanish churches of the same era.

The carpentry and woodwork throughout the church are admir-
able. The great retable is held in place by a solid framework, 40 by
27 feet, of hardwood beams dovetailed or rabbeted together and ar-
ranged in the form of steps, with a passage at the side nearly 3 feet

708 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

wide to permit the lighting of the wooden chandeliers. Wooden pegs
are used instead of nails.

The roof of the church, as may be seen in the illustration, is sup-
ported on crossbeams resting on wooden pillars, carved and painted
and topped with carved capitals, extending into brackets. The pil-
lars dividing the church into aisles are about 26 feet high, and each is
made of a single piece of very hard wood.

A CONFESSIONAL

The gilded and painted con-
fessionals are typically
Churrigueresque, with flo-
rid ornamentation and
colurnns twined with gar-
lands in high relief.

Courtesy of the Revista de la Sociedad Cieatifica del Paraguay

The windows are noteworthy for their carved wooden spindles, set
into the window frame with the shutters, each of which is carved in
plateresque style out of a single board.

The doors of the church are divided into 10 panels and sculptured
in low relief, the wood being cut away so as to leave moldings around
the edge and between the panels. These are arranged in pairs and
exquisitely carved in plateresque style. Each half door is made of a
single plank, 6 inches thick, and hung on wooden hinges. Even the
locks are of wood.

A COLONIAL CHURCH IN PARAGUAY 709

Besides the works of art which have been described above, one finds
in the church at Yaguaron some which were obviously executed after
the Jesuits had left Paraguay. Their ingenuousness and primitive
character proclaim that they are undoubtedly the work of Indians
taught by Spanish masters. The altar at the left of the retable, for in-
stance, is certainly a product of local artisans. In the real plateresque
one finds a certain conventionalization and the use of the Greek
acanthus; here, similar leaves are applied at intervals on the compound
curves, but in the decoration—different for each of the three sections—
carnations and other native plants are used as a finish for the design
and as garlands for the twisted columns. The figures of saints in the
three niches are crude as to anatomical proportions, stiff as to drapery.
The cornice is simple. The curved lines of the top terminate in a
scroll and little niche containing a saint.

Some small altars, armchairs, and other pieces, carved in the Indian
style, were carried away from the church at the time of a fire, and
still remain in private houses. These works are important in the
history of Paraguayan art, since they may be said to belong to the
Hispano-Guarani style which has persisted in other manifestations.

Other remarkable altars, chiefly in the Jesuit style, although with
some admixture of the plateresque and Churrigueresque, are to be
found in the churches of Capiata, Piribebuy, Acahay, Tobati, and
the Jesuit missions of Jestis y Trinidad, Santa Rosa, San Juan, San
Ignacio, and Santa Maria. In all the reductions named, schools of
art were established, for the Spaniards found among the Guarani
Indians a predisposition to the cultivation of art and religion which
enabled them to profit by instruction. In fact, the Guaranies already
cultivated the arts in their textiles and pottery, in which they ex-
pressed by means of symbols their religion and ideology. They
possessed a certain degree of civilization and a disciplined and ordered
racial life.

These apt pupils, then, carried on the tradition of the Spanish
masters first under the direction of the latter, and later, after the
expulsion of the Jesuits, by themselves. They built churches and
made altars, retables, pulpits, and other church furniture and carved
images of the saints and of the Virgin. While sometimes their figure
sculptures were strange in proportion and awkward in attitude and
drapery, other examples have a high degree of perfection, m fine
proportions, graceful drapery, and charming facial expression. These
Indians, indeed, delighted in all the arts and allied trades, for they
were not only sculptors but painters, masons, carpenters, ironwork-
ers, Jewelers, and excellent musicians and each one became an artificer
of manifold skill.

Thus the great church of San Roque at Yaguaron is not only a
splendid shrine but an embodiment of the history of ecclesiastical
art in Paraguay.

TRENDS OF IMMIGRATION
IN THE AMERICAS

By Wiuuiam A. Rerp

Foreign Trade Adviser, Pan American Union

F 150,000 people are born every day and if 100,000 people die every
day, when will our world become overpopulated?

This estimate of births and deaths, from the calculations of E. M.
East, a well-known Harvard scholar, is of timely interest. Moreover,
afew years ago the rising tidesof humankind evidently spurred another
educator, Prof. E. A. Ross, to produce that startling book, Standing
Room Only? Anda publication of the League of Nations, referring to
the deductions of its serious- minded statisticians, says that the world’s
population has steadily grown to more than 2,000,000,000 people.
On the other hand, certain authorities point out the danger of racial
suicide because some nations are showing decreasing birth rates.

An indication of public interest in the United States in the great
subject of immigration or nonimmigration is the fact that the Seventy-
second Congress passed eight immigration and naturalization bills.
Among important proposed legislation awaiting the next Congress is
‘fa general immigration restriction bill, which would cut existing
quotas 90 per cent and establish quotas for the Western Hemisphere.”
It will be recalled that the immigration act of 1921 established the
admission of immigrants by quota. This act was superseded by that
of 1924, which in section 4, paragraph (c), excepts from quota restric-
tions ‘‘An immigrant who was born in the Dominion of Canada, New-
foundland, the Republic of Mexico, the Republic of Cuba, the Repub-
he of Haiti, the Dominican Republic, the Canal Zone, or an independ-
ent country of Central or South America, and his wife, and his unmar-
ried children under eighteen years of age, if accompanying or follow-
ing to join him.”’ <A similar, although less explicitly worded, excep-
tion had been made in the act of 1921.

While migration in general in the past few years has been turned
from its regular channels and in many cases compelled to mark time,
there is still a perceptible human tide moving from thickly populated
Old World countries toward the open spaces and less congested cities
of the New World.

Perhaps it is well that migration has to pause; that colonization
schemes are developing more slowly; that governments are granting
concessions with more scrutinizing care. Now that the movement is

710

TRENDS OF IMMIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS “ele

slow, there are numerous plans in evidence here and there about the
Americas to meet an inflow which may be accelerated to-morrow.

Most of the American Republics need more people and welcome the
right kind of newcomer, except, of course, during a depression which
causes widespread unemployment. Naturally, the several nations
must look after their own nationals before accepting large numbers of
strangers, many of whom might become additional burdens.

South America, as a whole, possesses only about 10 inhabitants per
square mile. Central America has for the same area about 45, or
approximately 4 more than the United States. One Central American
nation, El] Salvador, has 124 people per square mile, but this density
of population is low in comparison with that of England, which con-
tains more than 600 persons per square mile.

The islands of Cuba and Java, on opposite sides of the earth, are
about the same size. Both are ‘‘sugar-bowl”’ countries. Cuba has
not quite 4,000,000 inhabitants; Java gives life and sustenance to
38,000,000.

Despite the economic depression of to-day the newly arrived settler
in Latin America finds conditions in many cases far safer and more
inviting than a decade ago. Trails have changed to roads and roads
have evolved into modern highways. Ten years ago when a party of
half a hundred immigrants bound for southern Bolivia reached the
end of the railroad it was necessary for them to travel on mule back
and afoot to their final destination in the wilds. Once there, nothing
was ready to meet their needs. Even pure drinking water and mos-
quito-protected cabins were yet to be provided. But heroically they
set about to clear the land, turn the soil, and raise crops. In due
time some returns came, but surplus crops could not be marketed ex-
cept by primitive means over long trails. Dissension and discourage-
ment grew, and within a few years those who survived abandoned
their claims. To-day a motor road pierces this region and connects
it with the outside world, while the airplane soars overhead and
delivers mail and light freight.

A similar isolation compelled a number of Czecho-Slovaks, who
had tried farming in Guatemala, to abandon their lands. Germans
in Panama did likewise because of the labor of coping with the jungle
and the difficulty of getting their produce to market. But to-day a
highway 300 miles long, connecting Panama City with David, passes
directly by the former German settlement. Were the same Germans
to try to colonize there now—8 years later—they would be far more
likely to succeed. The highway banishes isolation and opens a route
to outside markets.

Fours years ago Dr. Alejandro E. Bunge, the well-known Argentine
economist, prepared an interesting study, entitled Seventy Years of
Argentine Immigration. Heshowed that during that period 5,740,000

“a2 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

immigrants entered the country, and that Italans and Spaniards
constituted 79.6 per cent of the arrivals. Other immigrants from
non-Latin countries represented only about 15 per cent of the pro-
spective citizens. The same study indicated that while Italians had
come in the largest proportion, about 45 per cent, they had also re-
turned in the greatest number to their mother country. This migra-
tion of Italians west and east across the Atlantic gave rise to the
designation of golondrina, or ‘‘swallow”’ immigrant, so much used in
southern South America.

Within the past few years, however, there has been a change, and
we find a larger number of non-Latins among the immigrants to
Argentina. Poles, for instance, have been arriving in South Ameri-
can countries at the rate of 30,000 a year, and of this number 20,000
were credited to Argentina in 1930.

Argentina’s population has gradually risen to about 11,660,000,
while her immigration has declined or remained practically stationary.
Indeed, a few years ago, on account of economic conditions, it was
thought necessary to limit the coming of immigrants, and Argentine
consulates in Europe became stricter in accepting prospective settlers.
“And,” says Doctor Bunge, whom we have already quoted, ‘‘last
year (1931) Argentina ‘exported’ more people than she ‘imported’.”’

If we look backward over the decade 1921-1930 and review the
compilations of the Revista de Ciencias Econémicas of Buenos Aires,
it is seen that the banner year for Argentine immigration was 1927,
when 388,865 immigrants entered the Republic. Although 276,989
left the country, there was still a net gain of 111,876. In the period
1921-1929, inclusive, there were 2,428,713 arrivals, 1,580,462 de-
partures, and a net gain of 848,251, or a yearly average of 94,250.
In 1930 immigrants entering Argentina numbered 124,006, and in
the first six months of 1931 there arrived 32,731.

During the year 1931 Brazil received a smaller number of immi-
erants than in any of the five previous years, the arrivals being only
31,410. In 1926 there were 121,569; in 1927, 101,568; in 1928, 82,061;
in 1929, 100,424; and in 1930, 67,066. This makes an average entry
of 94,538 persons per year. In 1931 Portuguese outnumbered all
other newcomers, 8,152 having been admitted. Next in number were
the Japanese, of whom 5,632 came to Brazilian shores. Fifty-four
other nationalities were represented in the arrivals. Santos and Rio
de Janeiro were the main ports of debarkation. During the 10-year
period 1920-1929, statistics show that 58,284 Japanese entered Brazil,
an average of 5,828 per year. Many have disembarked at Para, their
destination being the plantations of the Japanese colonization com-
pany at Acara, in the State of Para, known as the Fukihara Conces-
sion. The birth of many children swells the Japanese population.

TRENDS OF IMMIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS ales

From Lisbon comes the news that during the early part of 1932
some 700 Portuguese returned to their native land from Brazil, owing
to the fact that Brazilian decrees of last year and the year before stipu-
late that two-thirds of the workers in industrial establishments must
be Brazilian citizens. The same dispatch states that while 188,874
Portuguese emigrated to Brazil during the past five years, 108,660
returned in the same period.

For many years only a small current of immigration has set toward
Chile. A news dispatch from Valparaiso in December, 1915, stated
that from 1905 to 1914, 25,544 immigrants, or about 2,500 a year,
arrived in Chile. Statistics for the decade 1920-1929 indicate, how-
ever, that Chilean immigration exceeded emigration by about 40,000,
or an average of nearly 4,000 a year. In 1929 a special effort to secure
settlers was made by Chilean consuls in Germany, in accordance with
colonization plans of the Government, and about 140 families were
recruited and sent to Chile as immigrants. The Government had
anticipated their arrival by erecting a number of bungalows on public
lands in the region of Pefiaflor, 10 miles or more from Santiago. The
colonists found not only comfortable homes but other conveniences
of modern living. Each family was allotted a small area and granted
10 years within which to raise stock and crops and reimburse the
Government for the land and for other expenses. ‘This is said to be
the first systematic attempt in recent years to induce European
settlers to come to Chile.

A few years ago, when several of the political divisions of that
Republic were altered, a Government decree was issued with a view to
encouraging the return of many Chileans, 120,000 of whom, it was
estimated, were living in other countries, particularly in Argentina.
Most of this colonization land was in the newly created Territory of
Aysen, southern Chile. More than a million acres of land in the Island
of Chiloe were also set aside for settlement.

Commenting on the Chilean immigration problem, an editorial of
March 20, 1928, in La Nacién of Santiago, said, among other things:
“Tt is indispensable to set ourselves an immigration goal. There is
no difficulty in figuring out the number of immigrants that 1t would
be necessary to bring to our shores for the purpose of maintaining a
erowth proportionate to that of Argentina’s population. Starting
with our 12 per thousand natural increase, we must obtain an addi-
tional 15 or 16 per thousand to reach the same percentage of growth
obtaining in the case of Argentina. Considering our present popu-
lation of four millions, we come to 60,000 as our yearly immigration
requirement. This should be the aim of our immigration policy,
for such an increase is a vital requirement of national life.”

Immigration into Colombia is regulated by the general laws on the
subject enacted in 1920 and 1922, respectively. Under article 1 of

714 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

the first-mentioned law it is stated: ‘‘Except as otherwise herein
provided, the territory of Colombia is open to all foreigners.”” The
exceptions generally concern public health, order, and morals. This
law provides that the Government encourage the coming of settlers
‘if their object is to cultivate the land, establish new industries, or
improve existing industries.” . . . ‘Colombia needs more civilized
and progressive people.”’ Immigration boards at the ports of entry
are authorized to grant certain special customs concessions.

Immigrants entering Colombia are divided into two classes:
(1) Individuals who enter the country as laborers or journeymen, and
(2) business men who enter with the intention of establishing arts or
industries. Those embraced in the first class are not obliged to fulfill
any requirement as to their pecuniary capacity; those in the second
class must possess resources of not less than $200. The immigrant
must present his passport to the immigration board which operates
in each port of the Republic and at each frontier city where an immi-
gration office is maintained.

An act of December 18, 1931, establishes a quota for immigrants
of certain nationalities. In 1932 only 10 persons may enter from
each of the following countries: Bulgaria, China, Greece, India,
Lebanon, Lithuania, Poland, Palestine, Rumania, Russia, Syria,
Turkey, and Yugoslavia.

The 174,221 immigrants who entered Cuba in 1920 composed the
largest number ever received there in any one year. According toa
compilation appearing in the January, 1932, issue of the Revista
Internacional del Trabajo, Madrid, a publication of the League of
Nations, 108,176 immigrants arrived during the 4-year period 1926-—
1929, or an average of about 27,000 a year. Each of the above-
mentioned years shows a gradual decrease—from 32,269 arrivals in
1926 to 17,179 in 1929. Another report indicates that these immi-
grants came from a great diversity of nationalities. Spaniards headed
the list, followed in number by Poles, Portuguese, Russians, Germans,
Greeks, and citizens of almost 50 other countries. It is also to be
noted that there has been a decided falling off within recent years of
Haitian and Jamaican laborers who are temporarily imported for
work in the sugarcane fields.

In 1930 only 12,219 immigrants arrived; this is the smallest number
recorded in the history of the Republic, but it is thought that when
figures are given out for 1931 the total will be still lower than in the
previous year. Haitians led in 1930 immigration with 5,126 arriv-
als, followed by Spaniards to the number of 4,243. There were 332
Polish immigrants. ‘‘ The invasion of the Poles,” as a Cuban source
phrases it, took place in 1924 with the entry of 2,554 persons of that
nationality; since that year the general trend of Polish immigration
has been downward.

TRENDS OF IMMIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS 715

Opportunities for the settler in Ecuador are in some ways more
inviting than formerly. Speaking of conditions of four years ago, a
well-known Ecuadorean official said: ‘‘It is imperative for the farmer
in Ecuador to be near a railroad or good highway in order to market
his wheat, corn, meat, or dairy products. Without roads, colonists
would find it impossible to obtain the necessities of life; they could
not obtain funds to carry on work, since their products call for
modern transportation. This does not exist generally in Ecuador.
For these reasons it would be a mistake to colonize unpopulated
regions of Ecuador at present.’”’ To-day, however, several hundred
miles of new motor highways are in operation. For instance, that
long stretch from Babahoyo (a town 50 miles by steamer from
Guayaquil) through the lowlands, up the western slopes of the
Andes, and thence northward via Quito to the Colombian border at
Rumichaca, opens several virgin regions of Ecuador and_ places
prospective farmers within comparatively easy reach of consuming
markets.

The United States census of 1930 shows that at that time there
were in the United States 1,422,533 Mexicans; of these 758,674 were
males and 633,859 females. Texas had nearly 700,000; California,
368,000.

Among those who have given serious study to United States-
Mexican immigration and emigration problems is Prof. Paul 5S.
Taylor, of the University of California. We quote from the fourth
report of this authority as it appeared in the New York Times in
July of the present year: ‘“‘A survey of the employment rolls of 16
railroads in the maintenance-of-way department shows that the
number of Mexicans increased from 206 in 1916 to 5,255 in 1926, and
then decreased to 3,963 in 1928, when the survey was made. In 15
industrial plants the number of Mexicans employed increased from 1
in 1913 to 7,050 in 1928. From an investigation of 2,016 Mexicans
in four large industrial plants it appears that more than 69 per cent
of them have arrived in the district since 1923.” Professor Taylor
points out that the Mexicans have not taken jobs away from native-
born white men, but have replaced immigrants who formerly came in
great numbers from European countries. In two large steel plants
he found that the percentage of Mexicans increased from zero to 9.4
per cent between 1912 and 1926.

The Mexican Government has assisted in repatriating nearly 200,000
laborers from the United States from 1930 to the present, the number
returning between January and May of this year having been 36,000.
During the last-mentioned period, about 4,000 tourists visited Mexico
and 2,736 immigrants were admitted.

A Mexican news release of August 23, 1932, quotes the following
statement from the Department of the Interior: ‘‘The Mexican

716 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Government permits entry only to persons fulfilling all requirements
of the immigration act.’’ Further discussion of the attitude of the
Mexican Government toward immigration is found on pages 735-737
of this issue.

Numerous attempts to plant colonies in eastern Peru were made
before the advent of modern roads and also before regular airplane
services were in operation between Tarma and Iquitos. Both of
these agencies have a powerful influence on the new settler. Distance
from centers of population and the slowness of trail transportation of
products to market had proved to be barriers to success. But within
the past five years, aided by motor and air transport, the pioneers in
this part of Peru seem to be better satisfied and are really attaiming
some degree of success.

In 1928 a Polish company acquired 2,470,000 acres of land in the
Cepa region, and shortly thereafter 140 immigrants arrived from
Warsaw at the expense of the Peruvian Government. But in April,
1932, the concession was declared canceled on account of the com-
pany’s inability to bring the required number of settlers. The
original arrivals, however, are reported to be holding on and anticipat-
ing success in their new field. _

The American Consul General at Callao, Peru, reporting on immi-
eration matters under date of May 15, 1930, said: ‘The first impor-
tant contingent of immigrants to arrive in Peru in recent years reached
Callao a few months ago. The party consisted of approximately 350
Russians and 100 Austrians. Their passages were paid by the
Peruvian Government. These immigrants have been sent into the
interior of the country to colonize Government lands.”

If the stranger arriving in Peru wanders about the streets of Callao
and Lima he is likely to be surprised at the large number of Chinese
and Japanese who are engaged in all branches of commerce. More
than 20,000 Japanese are already in this and other districts of the
Republic. ‘And,’ says La Prensa of Lima, “‘they have practically
monopolized all the smaller industries. A large percentage of the
grocery and meat stores, restaurants, and bars is run by them. The
Nipponese, like their cousins of the Celestial Empire, can subsist on
very little, and generally do. They not only hire out for low wages,
but storekeepers among them undersell their competitors. Peru-
vian trade-unions are making a strong drive for restricted immigra-
HOM.” 5 2

Uruguay received immigrants at the rate of about 12,600 a year
from 1921 to 1930, inclusive. In 1928 the number dropped to 3,570
and in 1929 to 2,797, but in 1930 those entering the country num-
bered 18,116. Spaniards headed the list with 3,389, followed by
2,424 Rumanians, 2,125 Poles, and 1,760 Italians, according to the
Diario Oficial of March 16, 1931.

TRENDS OF IMMIGRATION IN THE AMERICAS CA

Since the inrush of immigrant labor, drawn to Venezuela by reason
of the enormous petroleum development in the Maracaibo region,
there has been a decided drop in arrivals. During the 5-year period
from 1918 to 1922 the annual inflow averaged 11,883. After that time,
according to available statistics, new immigrants reached Venezuela
at the rate of about 3,000 a year, but in 1930 immigrants numbered
62,621 and 61,408 persons emigrated elsewhere, leaving the excess of
arrivals over departures at the low figure of 1,213. The curtailment
of oil production has sent many laborers to rural districts, and some
have left the country.

In conclusion, it should be added that some of the Latin American
countries appear to have published little or nothing during the past
few years on immigration and emigration. Moreover, numerous dis-
crepancies in figures were found everywhere statistics were presented.
One of the most satisfactory sources for data was the monthly Record
of Migration of the League of Nations, but this excellent journal
ceased publication with the December, 1928, issue. This article,
therefore, lacks many facts that might add to its interest. It is to
be noted, however, that the current of prospective settlers from EKuro-
pean countries to Central and South America is considerably smaller
than during several pre-war years; that ‘‘selective immigration”’ is
being given more attention than formerly; and that several countries,
including Panama and Colombia, have put sharp restrictions into
effect. On the other hand, as has been stated, the immigration
authorities and concessionaires are now providing in advance of immi-
grant arrivals certain primary requisites and comforts. Another fac-
tor of vital importance to the progress and contentment of the new-
comer in any rural district is the gradually lengthening highway,
which provides an outlet for his products; the radio, which helps to
supply diversion at the trading posts where colonists are wont to
gather; and even the airplane, which drops letters and papers at
many an isolated settlement. Indeed, the standard of living seems
to be rising in the virgin solitudes of the Americas

ist 32=Bull, 10-4

FERMIN TANGUIS
FATHER OF PERUVIAN COTTON

By Jost L. Cotom

Chief, Division of Agricultural Cooperation, Pan American Union

SHORT time ago there died in Peru Fermin Tangiiis, a man who
will long be remembered among the cotton growers of that coun-
try. It was from the experimental and selective breeding of cotton on
his plantation in the Pisco Valley that he produced the wilt-resistant
variety, known since as Tangiiis, which proved such a boon to the cot-
ton industry and thus to Peruvian economic conditions in general.
Few men have been able, like Tangiiis, to add millions of dollars a
year to their adopted country’s wealth. Born in Puerto Rico, this
successful agriculturalist commenced his life in Peru as a miner.
Cotton wilt has for a long time been well known in the United
States. It was introduced into Peru by means of varieties of cotton
sent from the former country for experimental planting. About 25
years ago it became a menace to the entire cotton industry of Peru
because of its quick-spreading tendencies. Wilt is caused by a fungus
known scientifically as Fusarium vasinfectum, a microscopic plant
living in the ground upon various forms of organic matter. Its
only known living host is the cotton plant, into the sap stream of
which it penetrates by way of the roots. It is able to live in the soil
for as long as five years without the presence of any growing cotton.
Fermin Tangiiis, an intelligent and industrious planter of Pisco,
soon discovered that the only effective means of combating the dis-
ease was by evolving a variety of cotton which would be resistant to
the wilt. By carefully selecting the healthiest plants from several
types which he was growing (thought to have been an Egyptian type,
such as the Mitafifi, and one of the short-stapled upland varieties)
and planting only the seeds from these, after several generations of
cross breeding he was able to claim a new hybrid variety which was
entirely resistant to wilt. Having produced it, Mr. Tangiiis protected
it by means of careful selection of seed and by eliminating all plants
which bore characteristics differing from those of the one now called
by him the “Standard” or “Special” type. He himself said that
so different and distinct was his special cotton that after the second
year the workmen recognized it easily. After the fifth year he began
selling seed to the farmers of Pisco Valley, whence the variety soon
spread to all of the cotton-growing valleys of southern coastal Peru.
By 1927 it constituted 60 per cent of the entire cotton crop of Peru.
718

FERMIN TANGUIS, FATHER OF PERUVIAN COTTON 719

Some idea of the importance of this crop may be gathered from the
fact that in the year mentioned Peru exported 57,116 metric tons of
cotton valued at nearly $25,280,000.

While Fermin Tangiiis was interested mainly in the wilt-resistant
quality of his new plant, he was foresighted enough to preserve, wher-
ever possible, plants having other advantages. As a result, the Tan-
gis cotton yields well in practically any type of Peruvian soil,
produces three to four stubble crops (that is, from the same roots)
on a commercial basis without incurring marked decreases in the
second and third stubble crops as with the Egipto, and yields 40 to
42 per cent of lint, as against 33
per cent for the Egipto. In addi-
tion, its fibers are highly uniform
in length, lending themselves to
easy Classification and being readily
distinguishable from all other varie-
ties. The quality and whiteness of
the fiber are superior to those of
any other Peruvian cotton, and the
best Tangiiis cotton, bearing the
mark “‘Superfine,”’ is eagerly sought
on the British and other Kuropean
markets. Because of the whiteness
and woolly consistency of the lint
it lends itself to mixture with wool
for manufacturing purposes.

Unfortunately, the wonderful re-
sults achieved by Fermin Tangiiis
were not preserved undiminished
by the cotton growers of Peru. By
1926 1t became apparent that the
breed was deteriorating, this being
apparent from the greater variation in the length of its fiber, as
well as differences in its color, luster, and resistance. The chief
cause for this lay in the laxity or complete abandonment of the prac-
tice of seed selection. Since cotton crossbreeds rapidly, so that nearly
10 per cent of every crop grown from pure seeds is hybrid, it is seen
how necessary a constant selection of plants of the original breed
becomes. This was not followed in Peru. Tangitis cotton, too, was
found to be very susceptible to environmental changes, these being
noticeable chiefly in the fiber. Fortunately, the problem of improv-
ing the Tangiiis cotton was taken up by the Planters’ Association of
Cafiete, which some years ago established an experiment station in
that valley. Its principal object was to produce improved types of

FERMIN TANGUIS

Who died August 24, 1932.

720 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

cotton and pure and selected seeds of such types. This work has
been proceeding with a fair degree of success.

Perhaps more important still was the announcement in 1928 by
Dr. E. V. Abbott, plant pathologist of the experiment station main-
tained by the National Agricultural Association, that he had dis-
covered the rather widespread prevalence of wilt in Tangiiis cotton
growing in several valleys around Lima. This exploded the former
belief that this variety wasimmune. Doctor Abbott gave as possible
explanations the degeneration of the variety due to lack of seed
selection and the gradual adaptation of the wilt-producing fungus
to the Tangiiis variety. He gave the following three ways of com-
bating wilt: (1) Development of a resistant variety; (2) suppression of
the development of the fungus in the soil by the use of a green manure;
(3) crop rotation. After discussing the last two and calling them at
best expedients, Doctor Abbott offered the rebuilding of a wilt-
resistant variety as the only real method for preventing the recurrence
of wilt.

In this way it has been shown how the very qualities which made
of Tangiiis cotton a salvation to Peruvian growers were almost lost
through their neglect and carelessness. But Peruvians have not for-
gotten the way out of their difficulty that was shown by the pioneer,
Fermin Tangiiis, and are attacking cotton wilt and varietal degenera-
tion in the same manner that he so effectively employed.

UNITED STATES TRADE WITH LATIN
AMERICA, FISCAL YEAR 1931-32

By Matinpa PHILLIPS

Chief, Statistical Division, Pan American Union

NITED STATES trade with Latin America during the past fiscal

year, ended June 30, continued to suffer from the world-wide
depression which began in the fall of 1929. Further reduction in
commodity prices and decline in the output of finished manufactures
were the leading factors in the trade decline during 1931-82.

The total trade of the United States with the 20 Latin American
Republics for the fiscal year 1931-32, amounting to $632,726,000,
compared with a similar trade in 1930-31, valued at $999,673,000,
showed a decline of $366,947,000, or 36.7 per cent. Imports as well
as exports recorded a decrease as compared with the preceding fiscal
year. Imports, amounting to $404,802,000, declined by $130,939,000,
or 24.4 per cent, and exports, totaling $227,924,000, decreased by
$236,008,000, or 50.8 per cent.

UNITED STATES TRADE WITH LATIN AMERICA 721

From the northern group of countries imports in 1931-32, amount-
ing to $151,178,000, showed a decline compared with 1930-31 of
$42,303,000, or 21.8 per cent. Imports from South America, aggre-
gating $253,624,000, declined by $88,636,000, or 25.8 per cent.

Exports in 1931-32 to the Republics of North America, valued at
$118,106,000, showed a falling off of $100,353,000, or 45.9 per cent,
compared with the preceding fiscal year, while exports to South
America, totaling $109,818,000, declined by $135,655,000, or 55.2
per cent.

The following table, compiled from reports of the Bureau of Foreign
and Domestic Commerce, United States Department of Commerce,
shows the trade of the United States with Latin America during the
past two fiscal years. In addition to the trade with each country,
totals are shown for the Republics of North America, the South
American Republics, and all Latin America, respectively.

Trade of the United States with Latin America, 12 months ended June 30

[Values in thousands of dollars; i. e., 000 omitted]

Imports Exports Total trade
Country
1931 1932 1931 1932 1931 1932

INIONIOO Raa 2S os ee 59, 238 42, 273 85, 265 35, 148 | 144, 503 77,421
Giumigmal, . 2 <a ee eee 5 741 3, 776 6, 168 3, 643 11, 909 7,419
BES alvad Orme sre oes oe 2, 924 647 3, 854 2, 633 6, 778 3, 280
TEIGMGInG: ee ee ee ee eee LE 22 10, 473 7, 095 5, 539 18, 817 16, 012
IN Cana Ct eee ee re eee we 2, 627 1, 871 4, 085 2,781 6, 712 4,652
(COStABR I Cateeeeen res Seen ee Le 4, 329 3, 350 4, 122 2, 930 8, 451 6, 280
ayaa). 225 S35 se ss ee ee pe nee 4, 860 3, 799 28, 227 19, 019 33, 087 22, 818
(Ci ees es a eee eS 96, 780 79, 032 66, 017 36,318 | 162, 797 115, 350
WomimnicanwRe pub lice == eae “ 4, 541 5, U7 7, 760 5, 560 12, 301 10, 731
Ef eens mes RC ee I yaa 719 786 5, 866 4, 535 6, 585 5, 321

North American Republics__________ 193,481 | 151,178 | 218,459 | 118,106 | 411,940 269, 284

| ' ;

ANTREO TON ETN ie eee Se 35, 409 28, 864 88, 814 37,231 | 124, 223 66, 095
Oli apleeeeseas Ee ee els 107 29 2, 690 1, 249 2, 797 1, 278
TE asiZATo -— s S e g o T 120, 707 98, 397 37, 745 27,617 | 158, 452 126, 014
(CUT 5 ae 43, 432 25, 004 38, 077 7, 929 81, 509 32, 933
Wolomilp aeepinae Sater tame Wo Se 84, 306 69, 182 22, 449 10,581 | 106, 755 79, 763
Ey CC OT eee eine pecs VED Se ee 4,719 3, 024 3, 975 2, 048 8, 694 | 5, 072
ZA ST NY eee es eee is eS Al 228 68 905 394 1, 133 462
ACT Umut ret ate ees fed Fee ble 13, 385 5, 466 10, 598 5, 930 23, 983 | 11, 396
Ty eS = = SUE eee ee 5, 210 2, 763 16, 422 5, 010 21, 632 5008
MENG ZIClameemman no cues See Pe 34,757 | 20,827 23, 798 11, 829 58, 555 32, 656

South American Republics__________ 342,260 | 253,624 | 245,473 | 109,818 | 587,733 | 363, 442

Total Latin America_______________- 535, 741 | 404,802 | 463,932 | 227,924 | 999, 673 632, 726

1 United States statistics credit commodities in considerable quantities imported from and exported to
Bolivia and Paraguay via ports situated in neighboring countries, not to the Republics of Bolivia and
Paraguay, but to the countries in which the ports of departure or entry are located.

COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY NOTES

Books on Ecuador.—The Pan American Union has been informed by
the Consul of Ecuador in Seattle, Wash., that he has recently made
connections in Ecuador which will enable him to supply books on that
country to librarians and students who may desire them.

Book catalogues.—Two books of special interest to bibliographers
have been received during the past month. One is a catalogue of the
library of the School of Sciences of the University of Buenos Aires and
the other a semiannual bulletin of the National Library of Brazil.
This last is in the nature of a national bibliography of recent books
and, in addition to full entry of author, title, and publishers, includes
the price of many of the items. Both of these publications are listed
in detail elsewhere in these notes.

A special American library—The Argentine National Library in
Buenos Aires is reported to be establishing a special American library,
which is being catalogued and classified as a section of the main
library. So far over 20,000 catalogue cards have been completed.
In an effort to make the collection as extensive as possible, lists have
been prepared of the books by each American author now in the
library. These lists were submitted to the authors with a request for
contributions of additional books to the collection, with the result
that great interest has been created in developing the section. A brief
history of the Argentine National Library is found on page 681 ff. of
this issue.

Since the last report in the BuLuerin the library has added 363
volumes and pamphlets to its shelves. Among the books received
during the past month are specially noted the following:

Manual del cafetero colombiano. Federacién Nacional de Cafeteros. Bogota,
Litografia Colombia, 1932. 399 p. 12°.

122

COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY NOTES U2

Prontuario de jurisprudencia criminal correspondiente a los afios de 1909 al 1912;
sentencias del tribunal supremo de la Reptiblica de Cuba. Extractadas y com-
piladas por Diego Vicente Tejera (hijo). 1%. edicién. Habana, Jesis Mon-
tero, editor, 1932. 419 p. 8°. Biblioteca Juridica de Autores Cubanos y
Extranjeros, vol. 6.

El divorcio (Cuba). Ley de 6 de febrero de 1930 y toda la jurisprudencia
(1918-1932). El divorcio y los extranjeros; el divorcio en Espana; formulario de
demanda; formulario de recurso de casacién. Por el Dr. Ratil Lépez Castillo.
12. ediciédn. Habana, Jesis Montero, editor, 1932. 223 p. 8°. Biblioteca
Juridica de Autores Cubanos y Extranjeros, vol. 7.

Bulletin de la commune de Port-au-Prince. Port-au-Prince, Imprimerie du
Service National de l’Enseignement Professionnel, 1982. 70 p. illus. 8.

Problemas urbanos. Trafico y transportes. Por Ratl lLerena-Acevedo.
Montevideo, Imprenta Uruguaya, 8. A., 1982. 118 p. 8.

Biografia de don Juan Nepomuceno Fernandez Lindo, presentada al concurso
literario abierto por el poder ejecutivo por acuerdo de 13 de junio de 1930. [Por]
Romulo E. Durén. Tegucigalpa, Tipografia Nacional, 1932. 122 p. 8.

Bocetos dantescos. [Por] Fausto Merino Correa. México, Ediciones Botas,
1929. 205p. 12°.

Versos y prosas liricas. Por Luis Enrique Antolinez. Temas cientfficos,
educativos e histéricos. Por Daniel Martinez. Bucaramanga, Imprenta del
Departamento, 1932. 196 p. 8°. Biblioteca Santander, vol. 2.

Escritos de don Pedro Fernandez Madrid. Publicados con noticias sobre su
vida y su época. Por Raimundo Rivas. Tomo 1. Bogotdé, Editorial Minerva,
1932. 599 p. 8°.

Imagen: Poemas. Por Fernando Diez de Medina. La Paz, Editorial ‘‘ Amé-
rica,” 1932. 96p. 12°.

Catalogo de la biblioteca de la Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Fisicas y Naturales.
Serie A, publicacidn No. 6. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Buenos Aires,
Imprenta de la Universidad, 1930-31. 1359p. 8°.

Anuario de Entre Rios (1. edicidn). Gran guia general. . . . Parana,
Argentina, J. O. Cavalli, director, 1932. 72,263 p. 4°.

Boletim bibliografico da Biblioteca Nacional: Obras recebidas por contribuicéo
legal no 1° semestre de 1931. (Separata do Boletim do Ministerio da Educacao
e Satide Publica.) Rio de Janeiro, Oficinas Gradficas da Inspectoria de Demo-
erafia Sanitaria do D. N.S. P. 32p. 8°.

New magazines received for the first time during the past month are
as follows:

Gaceta juridica trimestral. Dr. Amenodoro Rangel L. and Dr. Luis Loreto,
directores, San Cristébal, Venezuela. (Quarterly.) Afio 1, No. 1, julio-septiem-
bre, 1982. 74 pages. 6%4 by 9%4 inches. Price, 16 bolivares per year.

Revista de indentificacién y asuntos generales. Organo de la Secretaria de
Gobernacién, Habana, Cuba. Afio 1, No. 1, mayo, 1932. 83 pages. ilus.
7 by 10% inches.

The Central American News. Published weekly by Inter Latin News Service,
F. Lehman, editor, Guatemala City, Guatemala. (Weekly.) Vol. 1, No. 3,
August 7, 1932. 8 pages. 11% by 18 inches. (In English, Spanish, and
German.) Price, 10 cents per copy.

‘UOIU() UBILIOULY UB_ OY} JV o[GVpIVAR BVP 0} BUIPAOdOB ‘ZEGT ‘GT LoquIoJdog 07 posTAdrY, “SUMOTNTOSoA SIT YIM AQTUTLOY
-U0) UI P[OY SOOUI.LoJUOD LOY JO JB PUB S9}VIG UBOLIOULY JO oOOUDLOJUOH [VUOTZVUIOJUT YAXIG OY} JV PoUSIS SUOTJUOATOD PUR SOT}Vo.A} OY} JO SN4BIS OY SMOYS Jey STL

SNOILUNHANOO GNY SHILVAUL NVOIBMHNVY NVd

| few foefen? Te] fT [se]
mi: ae es uoT},0e401d TeforeuMoo pues YiveM epery,

(6Z6T NOLONIHSYM)
GONGUGANOD SUV Gave

(Too0g;0rd) UoTgZer4TQLe aATsserdo0rIg

UOTAZRIATQIe UBOTLOWWY—194UT

UOTZETTTOUOO UeoTIswy-Lo4Uy

2-8c6T NOLONIHSVM
NOILVGLIGUY ANY NOILVITIONOD NO GZONGYEANOO

UOTUN UeoTIoUy ued
MBL TeuoTyeuraqgUT o2eATId

Aqyzadord of4styz2e pue AreraqtT

uoTAeTAe TeTOramMoyH

@9JTI48 [TTATO FO 4uona
au} UF 894e48 JO SaTANp Pue sqysTY

VOOVaVOIN
OOIxaR

HOCVATYS Ta
TIZvVud 2

NV AY, GONGYRANOO HLXIS

SaLViS

CaLINa
ow
Ayhdyaya

VIGAZSNaA
women | | | | tt

VIAITO@
VNILNORY

PAN AMERICAN PROGRESS

AGRICULTURE

Argentina improves its hog breeds.—Indicative of the way in which
the swine industry of ARGENTINA is assiduously cultivating its breeds
was the organization of an exposition train of pedigreed hogs by the
Asociacién Argentina de Criadores de Cerdos, which, with the coopera-
tion of the national and provincial Ministries of Agriculture and the
Pacific Railway, recently toured the Province of Buenos Aires. Upon
arrival at certain towns, where the pig raisers of the surrounding
districts had already congregated, experts delivered lectures on the
various swine diseases and their prevention and cure, and followed
them by practical demonstrations of the methods discussed. Moving
pictures illustrating various phases of the swine industry were also
shown and books and pamphlets on hog breeding distributed among
the audience. This was followed by a sale of pedigreed hogs for
breeding purposes.

The Province of Buenos Aires is the region of Argentina in which
the breeding of hogs has made the most progress, having within its
borders almost one-half the hogs in the country. According to the
national livestock census of July 1, 1930, Argentina had then 3,768,738
hogs, as compared with 1,436,638 in 1922, 2,900,585 in 1914, 1,405,591
in 1908, and 652,766 in 1895. The breeds most commonly found are
the Duroc-Jersey, the Berkshire, and the Poland China, the 1930
census showing 1,073,992, 719,875, and 500,579 hogs for each of these
breeds, respectively.

As may be deduced from the above figures, the rearing of swine in
Argentina has not made as rapid progress as the favorable natural
factors of the country, such as the abundance of grain for feed, would
seem to warrant. Despite the emphasis which has been placed upon
the industry during the last decade, the number of hogs is very small
when compared with the large flocks of sheep and cattle.1 Unlike the
situation in the United States, about 80 per cent of the large annual
Argentine corn crop is exported, and it has been suggested by the
press and the breeders’ association that a larger percentage should be
fed to the hogs on the farms and thus converted into pork for export.
This argument gains weight when the price of corn falls as it has in
recent years.

An unusually large corn crop was produced in Argentina last year,
exports increasing from 4,670,309 metric tons, valued at 107,025,561
gold pesos, in 1930 to 9,767,201 metric tons, valued at 169,259,858

1 The number of sheep and cattle, according to the last census, was 44,413,221 and 32,211,855, respectively.

725

726 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

gold pesos, in 1931. Prices were low, and, as may be seen from the
above figures, the larger returns were due to the larger quantities
exported rather than to the profit per ton. The increase in exports was
due to a stronger demand for corn in Europe, and it has been argued
that ‘‘inasmuch as a large part of Argentina’s corn crop goes directly
to the Continent as food for swine which are slaughtered for local
consumption and for exportation to other countries, such as Great
Britain, it is believed that it would be highly desirable to eliminate
this step and to achieve the same operation within Argentina itself.”’ ?

Hogs produced in Argentina are sold chiefly to the packing plants
and slaughterhouses located in Buenos Aires and the surrounding
region. Of the hogs slaughtered, the domestic market takes the
largest share; for example, of the 31,985 tons of pork produced last
year, 19,953 tons were produced for the domestic market and 12,032
destined for export. It is believed, however, that if there were any
increase in the production of hogs Argentina would have to look
abroad for a market. The domestic market is not large and there is
no possibility of increasing it in the immediate future. The people
of Argentina prefer beef to pork, as shown by the per capita consump-
tion of meat in Buenos Aires during 1930, which was as follows:
Beef, 109 kilograms; mutton, 11 kilograms; pork, 14 kilograms. One
reason why pork is not more widely consumed is financial, for in the
local markets the price is approximately 50 per cent higher per kilo-
gram than that of similar cuts of beef or mutton.

As in the case of beef and mutton, the United Kingdom is Argen-
tina’s principal export market for pork and pork products, with
Italy, Belgium, and the Netherlands the next most important con-
sumers. The annual requirements for pork and pork products in the
United Kingdom are greater than those for chilled beef and mutton.
Should the Argentine swine industry develop to a point where the
export trade in pork is an important item in the foreign trade of the
country, it is hoped that that nation would be the principal foreign
market. Argentina’s competitors in this trade would be Denmark,
the United States, and Canada.

FINANCIAL MEASURES TAKEN BY COLOMBIA TO MEET
THE ECONOMIC CRISIS

The last few years have seen Cotomsia pass through one of the
most critical periods in its economic history. The prevailing depres-
sion in the world at large could not help but be strongly reflected there,
as it has been in the other Latin American Republics. Although

2 The Swine Industry in Argentina, by John C. Shillock, ‘‘Comments on Argentine Trade,’’ Buenos
Aires, December, 1931.

FINANCIAL MEASURES TAKEN BY COLOMBIA C20

Colombia is rich in natural resources, its economic welfare depends to
a large extent upon coffee, the principal export product, representing
about 60 per cent of the total value of the country’s exports. Petro-
leum and bananas are also important exports; but since these two
products are controlled by foreign companies, their exportation affects
the trade balance and the international exchange position of Colombia
to a lesser degree than export statistics would indicate.

Since coffee prices are responsive to changes in world prosperity
and adversity, the value of the coffee exported from Colombia during
the last three years has fallen sharply. The decline is due not to
overproduction, since Colombia finds no difficulty in disposing of her
product—which is of the so-called ‘‘mild” variety and used chiefly
for blending—but primarily to the general decline in coffee prices in
sympathy with the decline in the prices of most agricultural com-
modities.

A diminution in the proceeds from the sale of the Colombian coffee
crop abroad is reflected in all phases of the economic life of the
country. For one thing, it means less gold with which to pay for the
manufactured articles the country must purchase abroad, so that
such imports must be restricted. Since a large share of the nation’s
ordinary revenues is derived from customs duties, therefore a decrease
in the price of coffee means also a curtailment of Government revenues
and a subsequent lessening of the Government’s capacity to meet its
current expenditures and the service on its public debt.

This, however, was not the only nor the most important effect of
the depression upon economic conditions in Colombia. From 1925 to
1929 Colombia borrowed heavily abroad, chiefly for the construction
of public works. This expansion in public works construction pro-
duced a strong demand for labor, which in turn led to an increase in
wages and domestic purchasing power and in general to the creation
of an abnormal state of prosperity. The depression caused a stoppage
in the flow of international credit, and the cessation of foreign loans
to Colombia meant that the ambitious plan of public works construc-
tion which the country had started must be discontinued. The
result was declining wages, unemployment, and a general contraction
in all economic activities.

Of the depression years, 1931 was perhaps the most difficult for
Colombia. During that year the clouds of the world storm gathered
and burst over Europe with such fury as to shake the economic
structure of the most powerful nations to their foundations. These
events made themselves felt in Colombiain the form of an abrupt
cancellation of the credit which for many years foreign commercial
banks had granted to Colombian banks. The panic which this
created in Colombian financial and commercial circles in turn caused
the flight of capital from the country in such proportions as to cut

728 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

in half the gold reserves of the Bank of the Republic. This loss of
gold not only endangered the stability of the peso and caused a
contraction of the currency, but created a great credit stringency.

Faced with this situation, the Colombian Congress, in accordance
with its constitutional prerogatives, invested President Olaya
Herrera with extraordinary powers to enact such emergency financial
and economic measures as should be necessary to meet the crisis
through which the country was passing.! The President exercised
these extraordinary powers from September 24, 1931, to July 31,
1932. During the last sessions of Congress their duration was
extended for another year.

The decrees issued by President Olaya Herrera during this
critical period of Colombia’s history were intended to meet pressing
emergencies In which hesitation on the part of the administration
would have compromised the future of the country. The Minister
of Finance, Sr. Esteban Jaramillo, presented a report this year,
from which the following information is largely drawn, in which he
states:

It would be absurd and puerile to maintain that the measures which have been
adopted are a panacea which will transform, as if by magic, a situation of pro-
found economic uneasiness into a state of confidence and well-being, or even to
claim that they are not open to more or less well-founded objections and criticism.
The intervention of the State in the national economy of a country, when this
step is indispensable as a measure of protection for the public weal, can not be
accomplished in a perfect and unobjectionable manner, for the very reason that,
in order to bring it to pass, individual interests must be affected, systems hal-
lowed by tradition abandoned, and many a legal status and existing situation
modified, because their continuance would make defensive action impossible.
In the struggle between public and private interest we must always expect
resistance and protest from the latter. On the other hand, measures like those
we have had to adopt in this time of crisis are frequently the result of choice, not
between a good thing and a better one but between lesser and a greater evil, a
fact which makes such measures more vulnerable to criticism. ?

CONTROL OF EXPORTS AND FOREIGN EXCHANGE

As long as the decrease in the gold reserves of the nation did not
assume alarming proportions, Colombia maintained itself within
what may be termed the classical form of the gold standard; that is,
there were no restrictions upon the trade in or the circulation of
gold, and the notes of the Bank of the Republic could be freely
exchanged for gold coin or drafts on foreign banks payable in gold.
By September, 1931, however, the gold holdings of the Bank of the
Republic, which in December, 1928, amounted to 64,658,000 pesos,
had been reduced to 14,000,000 pesos, thus endangering the position
of the bank and the stability of the currency.

1 Laws No. 99 and 119 of Sept. 24 and Nov. 16, 1931.
2 Memoria de Hacienda, 1932, Imprenta Nacional, Bogota, 1932, p. 5.

FINANCIAL MEASURES TAKEN BY COLOMBIA 729

To prevent the complete extinction of the gold reserve, President
Olaya Herrera issued on September 24, 1931, Decree No. 1643, by
virtue of which the free movement of gold was temporarily suspended
and its export prohibited. The Bank of the Republic was given the
right to buy, sell, and export gold, and to negotiate in international
exchange. Other banking institutions were allowed to buy and sell
exchange only with the permission of a commission appointed to
control all foreign exchange operations and the transfer of funds
abroad. This commission was empowered to restrict exchange
transactions to those which in its opinion were indispensable to the
commerce and industry of the country. The decree also provided
that the notes of the Bank of the Republic could be redeemed only
through the sale of sight drafts on New York, upon authorization of
the commission.

Several measures were enacted to complement this decree. One,
Decree No. 1723, of September 30, required all banks to deposit their
metallic reserves in the Bank of the Republic, and all citizens holding
deposits abroad amounting to more than 1,000 pesos to inform the
commission of the amounts of such deposits. Still more important,
however, was Decree No. 1187, of October 21, whereby another com-
mission was appointed to control exports. By the terms of this
decree exporters were required to sign an agreement stating that they
would engage in no transactions which would promote the flight of
capital from the country. Upon approval of the details of a pro-
posed export transaction the commission was to grant the exporter a
permit to ship his merchandise, precautions being taken so as not to
cause him undue delays. The decree, however, did not require
exporters to sell to the Bank of the Republic the exchange obtained
through the sale of their merchandise abroad.

There were several weaknesses in the methods established by the
Government in these decrees, partly because the Bank of the Re-
public did not have the exclusive right to buy and sell foreign ex-
change, since other banks could do so with the permission of the
Control Commission; partly because the two commissions were not
directly subordinate to the bank and there was a lack of coordination
between the commissions themselves and between the commissions
and the bank; but primarily because exporters were not obliged to
sell to the bank the foreign exchange obtained through the sale of
their products.

To remedy these deficiencies, Decree No. 2092 was issued on
November 27, 1931, providing that the purchase and sale of foreign
exchange could be made only by or through the Bank of the Republic.
The two commissions set up little more than two months before to
control foreign exchange and exports were done away with and the
Office of Control of Exports and Foreign Exchange was created as a

730 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

direct dependency of the Bank of the Republic. Since the promul-
gation of Decree No. 2148 of December 4, 1931, this office has been
functioning with the advice of a board of three members, representing
the National Government, the directors of the Bank of the Republic,
and the Superintendent of Banks.

The office is divided into two sections, one granting export licenses
and the other permits for the purchase of foreign exchange. No
merchandise may be exported from Colombia unless the exporter has
first obtained from the Office of Control a license, which is granted
only when the office is assured that the proceeds in foreign currency
derived from the transaction will be placed at the disposal of the
Bank of the Republic.

The control of exchange was made even more strict through the
regulations enacted in Decree No. 421 of March 7, 1932. According
to this decree, in the case of debts originating from merchandise
imported prior to September 24, 1931, the Office of Control can
authorize permits to buy foreign exchange only in amounts not exceed-
ing 20 per cent of the total. The payment of other obligations
assumed before September 24, 1931, is subject to the same regulation;
that is, the debtor may obtain foreign exchange for the payment of his
debt only in periodical quotas of not more than 20 per cent of the
total obligation. At the time this decree went into effect all those
having foreign obligations contracted before September 24, 1931,
were required to submit to the Office of Control, within 30 days, a
statement of their obligations substantiated by documents. The
debts so reported amounted to 33,000,000 pesos.

The Office of Control has limited the amount of exchange which may
be purchased for the expenses of Colombians abroad, or of foreigners
in business in Colombia and their families, to 250 pesos a month for
the head of the family, 150 pesos for the wife, and 100 pesos for each
dependent child. Such drafts pay a tax of 10 per cent of their face
value except those for students abroad, who may receive sums of not
more than 150 pesos a month tax free. The regulations relating to
the purchase of exchange for the payment of the foreign debt and for
the purchase of external bonds are discussed elsewhere.

Owing to the restrictions placed upon foreign-exchange transactions
many foreign investors have large sums in Colombian currency de-
posited in the banks of Bogota. The Office of Control, wishing to
put this money in circulation and help national industries, will permit
the withdrawal of the interest or dividends derived from the reinvest-
ment of such capital in distinctly Colombian enterprises. If the
situation of the gold reserves permit, the office will also authorize
the withdrawal of the principal within two years, in such a manner
as it may then accord. No less important is the provision by which

FINANCIAL MEASURES TAKEN BY COLOMBIA 731

the Office: of Control will authorize the withdrawal of any new
foreign capital which may be introduced into Colombia after August
12, provided that the office is given proof that the conversion of the
foreign currency into Colombian pesos was effected through the Bank
of the Republic.

The graph below shows the gold reserves of the Bank of the Re-
public from September, 1931, to July, 1932, in millions of pesos. The
arrows point to the state of the gold reserves when the three most
important exchange control decrees were issued. Despite the fact
that during this period the Office of Control has sold considerable
amounts of exchange for the payment of foreign credits of the Bank of
the Republic and the commercial banks of Colombia, as well as for
the payment of interest on the national foreign debt and that of the
Agricultural Mortgage Bank, for the importation of merchandise, for
the purchase of external bonds, and for various other less important
items, the exchange control measures have been instrumental not
only in stopping the dwindling of the gold reserve but in increasing 1t
from. 14,000,000 pesos on September 24, 1931, to over 16,000,000 pesos
in July, 1932. Another factor which should further increase the gold
reserves of the Bank of the Republic during the present year is the
increased production of gold in Colombia. During the first seven
months of the year this production amounted to 3,008,295 pesos, as
compared with 4,126,051 pesos during the whole of 1931, and it is
expected that the total amount produced in 1932 will reach 6,000,000
pesos. The Bank of the Republic is buying this gold at a premium.

Sept.| Oct.

GOLD RESERVES OF THE BANCO DE LA REPUBLICA, BOGOTA
For the period of September, 1931 to July 1932
(Seale in millions of pesos)

A, Decree No. 1683, September 24, 1931; B, Decree No. 2092 of November 27, 1931; C, Decree No.
421 of March 7, 1932.

732 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

RESTRICTION OF IMPORTS

On September 27, 1931, three days after the control of exchange
was established in Colombia, President Olaya Herrera issued Decree
No. 1706, by terms of which the importation of many so-called luxury
articles was prohibited and import duties on a long list of products
were substantially increased. By thus restricting imports it was
expected that the flow of gold from the country would be further
checked and a more favorable balance of trade effected. Among the
articles whose importation was prohibited were silk textiles and
apparel; automobiles, when the factory list price was over $1,000;
watches; precious and semiprecious stones; pianos; phonographs;
radios; cigars; cigarettes; perfumery; playing cards; and liquors.
The rates on such foodstuffs as rice, wheat, corn, potatoes, sugar,
condensed milk, and lard, on such wearing apparel as shoes and straw
hats, and on furniture and various textile manufactures were doubled.
On many other products it was increased by one-half and on still
others by one-fourth.

Through these strict restrictions the emergency was met for the
time being, while a detailed study of the question could be made by
the Government. The outgrowth of the study was the decision to
increase the import duty on luxury articles rather than to prohibit
their importation, a procedure which was likely to cause reprisals.
Thus Decree No. 2194 was issued on December 31, 1931, providing
for a new tariff schedule. Any modifications of the import duties
provided in this decree must be solicited by a substantial group of
persons representing an important commercial, industrial, or agricul-
tural activity and have the backing of the Ministers of Finance,
Industry, and Agriculture. Before any modification may be con-
sidered, the opinion of the Agricultural Society of Colombia, the
Federations of Industrialists and of Producers, and the Chambers
of Commerce must be heard on the matter.

The new import duties have not only restricted the importation of
luxury articles, thus checking somewhat the outflow of gold, but
have produced a rapid growth in domestic industry and agriculture.
The production of foodstuffs for home consumption, especially, has
been materially increased. As in all cases where import duties are
raised, custom revenues in Colombia have declined and contraband
trade has increased. If the duties were lowered, the reverse would no
doubt be true, but the gold reserves would be affected. Therefore, in
the opinion of the Minister of Finance, there is little probability that
the tariff schedule will be substaatially modified in the immediate
future.—G. A. S.

AID FOR BRAZILIAN BANKS ry)

(The decrees concerning the public debt, the creation of various
credit institutions, the relations between debtors and creditors, and
other pertinent matters will be discussed in the next issue of the

BULLETIN.)
—__<9 000 —__

AID FOR BRAZILIAN BANKS

One effect of the world economic crisis in Braziu has been the curtail-
ment of credit due to widespread lack of confidence. To relieve this
condition, the Provisional Government has enacted a law creating a
new financial institution, called the Caixa de Mobilizacéo Bancaria
(Banking Mobilization Bureau), whose purpose is to put in circulation
the money lying idle in bank vaults and to aid banks in emergencies
by loaning them money with their frozen credits as collateral. All
banks established in the country, whether national or foreign, are
required by the law to deposit in the Bank of Brazil, which will finance
the bureau, all cash on hand in excess of 20 per cent of the sum total
of their deposits. For the use of this money, which may be recalled
by the banks at any time, the Bank of Brazil will pay interest at the
rate of 1 per cent per annum. On the other hand, the law requires
all banks in the country to maintain in ready cash funds corresponding
to 15 and 10 per cent, respectively, of their total sight and time
deposits.

The bureau is authorized to make loans to national and foreign
banks on frozen credits if such credits are sound aside from delayed
liquidation and were contracted before the date of issue of the law
(June 9, 1932). Banks may draw on the bureau only when their
cash funds have fallen below the legal limits, and these loans may be
used only to cover amounts withdrawn by depositors. The loans
may not be made for a period of more than five years; the mintmum
interest rate is 6 per cent and the maximum 10 per cent. The banks
will make payments to the bureau monthly as their deposits are
restored to the previous level or the securities given as collateral for
the respective loans are liquidated. Should the demands on the
bureau exceed the resources of the Bank of Brazil, the National
Treasury will furnish the necessary coverage through a credit opera-
tion or the issue of paper money. The bureau is to be established for
a period of 10 years.

A contract by which the Bank of Brazil takes charge of the financing
of the bureau was signed on July 7, 1932, by Dr. Arthur de Souza
Costa, president of the bank, and Dr. Oswaldo Aranha, Minister of
Finance, and approved by the Chief of the Provisional Government,
Dr. Getulio Vargas, on July 14 last.

1388341— }32— Bull. 10 5

LABOR

First Latin American Labor Congress—The First Latin American
Labor Congress, held in Santiago, CHiLE, under the auspices of the
Centro Internacional Obrero de Solidaridad Latinoamericana, was
formally opened with brilliant ceremonies on May 1, 1932, before an
assemblage containing representatives from Mexico and various
Central and South American Republics. At a preliminary meeting,
held the day before, the delegates had paid homage to outstanding
Chilean labor leaders of the past and elected the officers of the
congress.

The opening address of the inaugural session was made by the
President of the congress, Sr. Manuel Correa O. He reviewed the
events which had led to the calling of the congress and set forth its
aims. In speaking of the former, he recalled that the incident which
first demonstrated the possibility of a labor congress where workers
from all Hispanic America should be represented was a meeting of
Chilean and Peruvian workers held in Lima during 1913. From the
associations made at that conference came a new bond of friendship
between the workers of the two nations and the inspiration for the
Centro Internacional Obrero de Solidaridad Latinoamericana in
Santiago, Chile, which was instrumental for the calling of the First
Latin American Labor Congress. It had originally been planned to
hold such a meeting between the years from 1918 to 1920, but cir-
cumstances were such that this was impossible and it was postponed
until the present date.

According to Sefior Correa, the underlying purpose of the congress
was to seek means for improving the conditions of the worker and
giving him a more hopeful outlook for the future. To do this, he said
that it would be necessary for the congress to study production and
commercial interchange and the problems of cooperative and mutual
benefit agencies and labor organizations. At the same time he pointed
out the need for uniform legislation throughout the Americas on labor
and family relationships and the civil and political rights of women,
and recommended the appointment of labor attachés at all legations
and embassies.

The first plenary session was held the following day; at that time
commissions were appointed to study and pass upon the papers and
resolutions to be presented. All subjects coming before the con-
gress were first submitted for the approval of one of the five general
commissions appointed to deal with economic, biological, cultural,
political, and juridical matters.

734

LABOR 735

A large number of subjects of national and international importance
were considered, and the congress went on record as approving a
confederation of Latin American labor organizations; campaigns to
eradicate social diseases; the modification of labor accident laws to
allow greater benefits for the worker; the establishment of maternity
insurance; the standardization of the wages of women throughout
Latin America; greater protection for children; the introduction of
methods used in progressive schools; the substitution of reformatories
for prisons; reduction of the working day; the organization of life
insurance and other cooperative societies; issuance of special postage
stamps, the proceeds from whose sale would be used to alleviate
suffermg among the unemployed; creation of national social welfare
councils in all countries; the establishment of a Latin American bank;
and the adoption of a single unit of exchange for all countries. The
abolition of customs barriers and the creation of a Ministry of Labor
in each of the Latin American Republics also claimed the attention
of the congress.

The closing session of the congress took placeon May 8. Following
the consideration of the principal subjects still pending, the congress
embodied its resolutions in the form of a constitution for the Latin
American Labor Confederation. Many social events were held both
during and upon the conclusion of the congress in honor of those
attending, and after the close of the sessions a trip through the south-
ern part of Chile was arranged for the foreign delegations. It was
announced that the Second Latin American Labor Congress would
be held in Lima, although no definite date was set for its meeting.

In addition to the Chilean organizations forming the Centro, the
majority of which are mutual-aid associations, cooperative organiza-
tions, or trades-unions, the following organizations from other
countries were represented at the congress: The Workers’ Federation
of La Paz, Bolivia; workers’ organizations of Guatemala, Paraguay,
and Colombia; and the Peruvian workers’ organizations of Lima,
Callao, Arequipa, and Cuzco. The Mexican Government was repre-
sented by an observer, and several labor organizations of other coun-
tries expressed by letter their interest in the work of the congress.
Among the latter were the General Confederation of Labor of Argen-
tina, the Railway Union of Buenos Aires, and the Spanish General
Federation of Labor. The Workers’ Federation of Panama declared
its willingness to support the conclusions of the congress and sent a
report which was to have been delivered by its delegate in person had
it been possible for him to attend.

Mexican Immigration Conference—Under the honorary chairman-
ship of the President of the Republic and the Secretary of the Interior,
the Third Mexican Immigration Conference began in Mexico City
on July 23 last and remained in session until August 2. Don Andrés

736 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Landa y Pifia, Chief of the Bureau of Migration of the Department
of the Interior, presided at the sessions, which were attended by dele-
gates representing the various branches of the Government interested
in immigration, the chambers of commerce of the nation, and the
principal steamship, railroad, and aviation companies, national and
foreign, which operate in Mexico.

Among the most important topics studied by the conference, the
following may be mentioned: The possibility of improving the immi-
gration inspection service, in order to render all possible facilities to
travelers and at the same time protect the country against the illegal
entrance of undesirable aliens; a clearer definition of the status of
aliens in Mexico; repatriation of Mexican laborers; promotion of
desirable immigration; and promotion of tourist travel.

In regard to the first of the above-mentioned subjects, the confer-
ence was of the opinion that entrance into the country should be
made as easy as possible for bona fide immigrants and tourists, but
that certain inspection requirements must be enforced to bar those
trying to enter without meeting the necessary requisites, or arriving
under the guise of tourists with the intention of staying permanently.
With a view to insuring the efficiency of the inspection service, the
conference declared itself in favor of having it administered under
the provisions of a civil-service law, thus guaranteeing the permanency
of the personnel.

Another declaration expressed the belief that all foreigners who
migrate to Mexico should expressly renounce the diplomatic protec-
tion of their respective Governments. It was felt that those who wish
to participate in the advantages offered by the country should also
be willing to share any possible disadvantages. The conference also
held that all Mexican women who marry foreigners should retain
their Mexican nationality.

The repatriation of Mexican laborers constituted one of the most
important subjects under discussion and was given extensive con-
sideration. More than a million Mexicans have emigrated, mainly
to the United States, causing their native country a severe loss.
Nearly 250,000 laborers have been brought back to Mexico through
the efforts of the National Government, and adequate means of
providing work for them and for the rest of the nation’s unemployed
must be devised. To achieve this, it was proposed that communal
and cooperative agricultural colonies be created under the direction
of a Federal colonization commission.

The promotion of immigration was considered as highly desirable,
and certain recommendations were made about the type of immigrant
best suited to Mexico. It was felt that the country does not require
at the present time additional numbers of city dwellers or of field
laborers. It does need, and should welcome, small landed proprietors.

ART, SCIENCE, AND EDUCATION Mtl

The conference considered tourist travel as highly desirable, and
recommended that propaganda in favor of it be developed in foreign
countries by the Mexican diplomatic and consular representatives.
It was also recommended that inspection requirements for tourists
be reduced to a minimum, and that the country be shown to those
visitors not only from the private point of view but also from what
might be termed the official standpoint. The Government should
arrange for tourists to become acquainted with the commercial and
industrial opportunities the country offers, and also with its historic,
artistic, and sociological aspects. A reorganization of the National
Tourist Commission was deemed desirable. This body should be
made up of a representative of the President of the Republic and two
representatives of the commercial interests of the nation.

The efforts of the Third Mexican Immigration Conference to achieve
a better understanding of the country’s population problems and to
evolve adequate measures for their solution undoubtedly constitute
a great step forward in the march of progress in that nation.

ee 0 oo

ART, SCIENCE, AND EDUCATION

Teachers’ associations help popularize education in Brazil.—A recent
release issued to the Brazilian press by the Ministry of Education and
Public Health praises the work of teachers’ associations in promoting
popular education throughout the country. Faith that coming years
will see a continued development in educational activities in BRazin,
says the Ministry, is fully justified by the growing movement toward
association apparent among members of the teaching profession. By
coordinating their enthusiasm and energy and speaking with authority
and prestige, Brazilian teachers have been endeavoring to focus public
attention upon educational problems, seeking solutions adapted to
the peculiar administrative, political, and social conditions of the
country. This movement for the promotion of popular education,
characterized by a spirit of voluntary cooperation, is of great benefit
to the nation, for groups of private individuals are responsible for the
study of technical educational questions and, in many cases, for the
establishment of educational institutions, sometimes maintained at
ereat sacrifice.

The work of the Brazilian Association of Education may be cited as
an example. Organized in October, 1924, it has grown rapidly and is
to-day one of the strongest forces in spreading popular education in
Brazil. The specific purposes for which this organization was founded
include the maintenance of a center for lectures and an educational
library and museum; the publication of educational works; a special
study of ethics, civics, and physical education, such agencies as the

‘O0UB1} UO UPBUT OY} JO 4Jor OY} 07 Yey4 SI ‘ZEET ‘9 AINE poeorpep sem
YOIYA “pojdo.10 WOTOos Say oy,T, ‘poorduroo uoym rvodde [TA JI SB ‘Tunesny|] BIABPVATY OUIPBUOg oy 10j BUIP[IMG oY} SMOYS YoOOYS $yooqryore SITLL

VNILNGDUYV ‘SHUIV SONANE ‘AUOLSIM IVUNLVN 40 WOASKIW TYNOILVN MON

UBUIEJOD *A eDUeINYT JO AsaqInN0D

ART, SCIENCE, AND EDUCATION 739

radio, the library, and interschool correspondence, and the care of
abandoned children, the permanent organization in Brazil of educa-
tional statistics, and the collection of national and foreign educational
legislation; and the organization of educational conferences.

Important as it is, the work of this cultural institution does not
comprise the whole contribution of the Brazilian teachers to the social
upbuilding of the country, for local associations have been established
in many of the States and are doing their share to make a success of
this national educational movement. The Natal press, for example,
gave considerable publicity to the celebration by the Teachers’ Asso-
ciation of the State of Rio Grande do Norte of the second anniversary
of the establishment of the Aurea de Barros Kindergarten, founded
by the association in 1930. A feature of this celebration was the
inauguration of a physical culture center installed in ample quarters
and provided with the most modern of apparatus. Last April the
association inaugurated a lecture course on the care and training of
children at the Antonio de Souza School, also founded by the asso-
ciation, and recently it has organized a literary club among the stu-
dents of this institution.

New building for Natural History Museum.—On July 6, 1932, the
first section of the new edifice for the Bernadino Rivadavia Museum
of Natural History of Buenos Aires, ARGENTINA, was dedicated in
the presence of the President of the Republic, Gen. Agustin P. Justo,
Cabinet Ministers, the rector of the university, eminent scientists,
and friends of the museum.

The Bernadino Rivadavia Museum, a national institution, is not
only one of the oldest in South America but also one of the few with
an organized group of private supporters. The Sociedad de Amigos
del Museo was founded in 1923, when the museum celebrated its first
centenary, with a threefold aim—to help finance exploration and
publication, to secure special collections, and to provide lectures for
the public. At the same time the Government increased the duties
and responsibilities of the museum to include, among others, scien-
tific studies throughout the Republic and the diffusion of scientific
knowledge among the people.

The museum will head, when completed, the Parque Centenario,
a small oval park in what is becoming a scientific center, for the
Pasteur Institute and the Institute of Physiotherapy already occupy
sites facing it. It is hoped in time to make the entire park an adjunct
to the museum as an outdoor section, where trees, plants, works of
art, and other objects will have an appropriate relation to each other
and to the museum. One of the projects is the erection of statues in
memory of internationally famous scientists who have made special
studies in Argentina; among these men are Azara, Darwin, D’Orbigny,
Humboldt, Hudson, Ameghino, Bompland, and Burmeister, whose

740 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

collection of insects is one of the many interesting exhibits in the
institution.

When finished the museum will occupy four blocks; the main
building, with a central tower and two wings attached at an angle,
will occupy the two blocks at one end of the park, with two more
wings on each of the adjacent lots. Although the museum is to be
a single unit, the side streets are to be arched over by covered bridges,
so that traffic will not be impeded; there will also be subterranean
communication between the different sections. According to present
plans, the basement will be devoted to shops and storage, the first
three floors to exhibition rooms, the fourth floor to the library,
laboratories, study rooms, and offices, and the tower to the adminis-
trative and executive chambers and apartments for the director and
the superintendent. <A lecture hall with a seating capacity of 600
will be a part of the finished project. The inner courts and outer
gardens will be used for open-air exhibits.

The section dedicated in July will be the extreme end of the main
building; a second section now under construction is already far
advanced. The whole structure when completed will not only be
a notable contribution to the architecture of the city, but also an
important step forward in the progress of the institution toward the
accomplishment of its ideal.

oe oo _—_

PUBLIC HEALTH AND SOCIAL WELFARE

Guatemala’s new sanitary code.—One of the last laws issued by the
National Legislative Assembly of GuaTEMALA during this year’s ses-
sions was the Sanitary Code of the Republic, which became effective
on June 6, 1932, upon publication in the official organ of the Guate-
malan Government, the Diario de Centro América. The enforcement
of health laws and regulations is in charge of the President of the
Republic, as Chief of the Sanitary Service, the Minister of the Interior
and Justice, the Director General of Public Health, the Superior of
Public Health Council, the jefes politicos and military commanders
of the Departments, the Departmental doctors, the Director General
of the National Police, the agents of the General Bureau of Sanitation
at ports and frontier towns, and the sanitary inspectors appointed by
the Superior Sanitary Council. In carrying out their duties they will
be aided by the staff and students of the School of Medicine and the
School of Natural Sciences and Pharmacy of the National University,
the municipalities, the directors and physicians of the public hospitals,
the Guatemalan Red Cross, and the diplomatic and consular repre-
sentatives of the Government abroad.

PUBLIC HEALTH AND SOCIAL WELFARE 741

The organization and administration of the Sanitary Service created
by the code will be in charge of a Bureau of Public Health. The head
of this department, the Director General of Public Health, as well as
the members of the Superior Council of Public Health which is to
assist him, will be appointed by the President. The Council will be
composed of the director general as chairman, three physicians—one
to act as assistant director in charge of the work of epidemic preven-
tion, another to act as secretary, and the third to be the chief of the
bacteriological laboratory—two chemists to take charge of the
chemical and biological laboratories, respectively, a consulting
attorney, a public health judge, a sanitary engineer, a pharmacist,
and a veterinarian. The new code was drawn up to include in a
single document not only the most important provisions of former
codes but also all scattered laws and regulations dealing with the
matters falling within its scope.

The Bureau of Public Health is to issue all port, boundary, and mari-
time sanitary regulations and those dealing with land or air traffic;
define communicable diseases and take measures for their prevea-
tion; keep a register of all those practicing in any branch of the
medical or allied professions; establish an Office of Sanitary Statis-
tics, to compile such medical statistics as the council may indicate
from reports submitted by hospitals, physicians, and the General
Bureau of Statistics; wage an antialcoholic campaign; and be respon-
sible for carrying out regulations concerning cemeteries.

The Public Health Council will regulate the importation, manu-
facture, storage, and sale of narcotics, medicines, and medicinal
products, as well as the importation and sale of foodstuffs and bever-
ages; indicate punitive measures to be taken in cases of adulteration
or falsification; impose such livestock quarantines as may be advis-
able; approve all projects involving the work of sanitary engineers,
which include not only the planning and construction of new settle-
ments and all drainage, sewerage, and paving projects, but also the
requirements to be fulfilled by public services, including schools and
hospitals, and by industrial plants; regulate industrial hygiene and see
that, in accordance with the provisions of the code, every agricultural,
industrial, mining, or other business enterprise having 100 or more
employees maintains a physician or authorized agent of the bureau;
dictate measures on prenatal, infant, and preschool hygiene; carry on
an educational campaign by means of an official publication, the
daily press, and lectures in schools and industrial establishments;
establish schools of public health, to provide a group of specialists in
public health and sanitation from which to draw the personnel of
the bureau and its dependencies, and health institutes, for the prepara-
tion and supervision of vaccines and serums; and have extraordinary
powers in times of serious epidemics or like calamities.

742 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The code establishes public health tribunals, to be presided over
in the capital by a public health judge and in other districts by the
jefes politicos. These tribunals shall have exclusive jurisdiction over
all matters relating to public health in accordance with the provisions
of the code.

Compulsory medical certificate for servants.—By virtue of a regulation
recently issued by the President of the Domrnican ReEpustic, all
persons employed as servants, nurses, wet nurses, or in other similar
domestic service, will hence forth be required to have a medical
certificate attesting to their freedom from skin and other communi-
cable diseases. The certificate may be secured from any registered
physician or public health doctor. The latter shall make no charge
for the examination, and all analyses made by the National Laboratory
shall likewise be free. Local public health authorities are authorized
to require a new examination whenever there is any doubt as to the
legality or accuracy of a certificate. Those whose employees in
domestic service are not provided with the proper certificate will be
responsible before the law and subject to penalties corresponding to
offenses against the public health.

Antituberculosis campaigns in the Americas——Tuberculosis is
one of the diseases most successfully combated during recent years.
The struggle against it will never be won, however, until there is
complete cooperation between its potential victims, government
authorities, and the scientists who have been instrumental in pro-
viding mankind with the weapons with which to fight it. The
dissemination of accurate, definite, and easily understood information
about the prevention, care, and cure of the disease is as 1mportant
as the establishment of clinics, and both means are now being uni-
versally used to stamp out the scourge. Reports of recent activities
in this direction in the Americas indicate that the seriousness of the
problem is fully recognized by governments, medical authorities,
and socially minded citizens.

The report for the year 1931 of the Antituberculosis League of
ARGENTINA shows that the society continued active in its task of carmg
for tuberculosis victims and their families. In its two free dispensaries
there were 50,937 consultations and 58,462 prescriptions given, and
8,725 pesos expended to meet the needs of patients. Medical atten-
tion and social relief were given to 7,700 patients, of whom 1,005
proved to be tubercular. Both dispensaries have separate consulta-
tion rooms for children, dealing not only with those who have already
contracted the disease but also with those who have been exposed to it.

PUBLIC HEALTH AND SOCIAL WELFARE 743

In this way an extensive preventive program has been carried out,
especially in cooperation with the José Elordy Preventive Home for
children of tubercular parents, a social agency of great value in
Banfield. It was established to help such children escape contagion
or to prevent the active development of the disease in those already
infected.

In 1931, on the initiative of Prof. Francisco Destéfano, Christmas
seals were put on sale in Argentina for the first time, the proceeds
to be used for the antituberculosis campaign. These seals, first
introduced in Denmark in 1904, have been adopted in many European
countries and in Brazil, Canada, and the United States; the first
Argentine seal carried a picture of the hornero (oven bird), the national
bird of the Republic.

The Red Cross of Costa Rica has recently taken an active interest
in antituberculosis work, as the result of official statistics published
last year, showing that a large porportion of the inhabitants of the
capital were infected. Toward the end of 1931 an antituberculosis
dispensary was established, with the approval of official and medical
authorities and social agencies. The Antituberculosis League, an
independent society, was established by the President of the Republic
to collect and administer the necessary funds. For the six months’
period, November 28, 1931, to May 28, 1932, 681 people were exam-
ined and 1,383 analyses and 2,890 radioscope examinations made.
In his final message to Congress on May 1, 1932, former President.
Gonzalez Viquez reviewed the progress made during the previous
six months, and, while commending the steps already taken for the-
hospitalization in existing institutions of those suffering from the
disease, recommended the construction of a special tuberculosis
sanatorium.

The Medical Association of Tegucigalpa has presented to the
President of Honpuras a request that one of the wards to be added
to the San Felipe Hospital be used for tubercular patients. This
would supplement the work of the new tuberculosis sanatorium in
Santa Rosita, constructed in accordance with the latest dictates of
science.

The antituberculosis campaign in Mexico is under the direction of
the Bureau of Public Health, which has begun a well-planned con-
crete program against the ravages of the disease. A report has just
been published by the bureau setting forth what has been done and
what remains to be accomplished in the national campaign. The
report contains an explanation of the ‘‘Gea Gonzalez Plan” for
conquering the plague.

744 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

This plan, which deals with every phase of the subject and is based
on the most advanced scientific knowledge, is to be carried out by
direct and indirect means in the Federal District and the various
States. The fundamental agency is the dispensary, to which is
intrusted diagnosis, educational work, visiting, the selection and
separation of those infected, and, in general, all preventive measures.
The visiting nurses attached to the dispensaries are charged with dis-
covering patients who would not visit the dispensary voluntarily,
seeing that medical prescriptions are followed at home, teaching
hygienic measures, and trying by all means at their disposal to secure
isolation in the home, their principal aim being to put into practice
the theory that an educated tubercular patient is a barren source of
contagion.

The patients at the dispensaries are classified; those whose lesions
are not severe are not put to bed, although kept under the supervision
of visiting nurses, while those with graver lesions, but whose cases are
considered curable, are sent to the tuberculosis sanatorium at Hui-
pulco, where they are treated and allowed to return to society,
although still under the control of the institution. Before being dis-
charged they are sent to a special school to be taught a new trade that
will not impair their health, or given positions in appropriate estab-
lishments or on cooperative farms.

Work on a tuberculosis sanatorium now under construction on the
outskirts of Mexico City is far advanced. The site is between
Mexico City and Cuernavaca, at an elevation of nearly 7,500 feet,
on a wooded tract of over 130 acres. The buildings will have eight
wards, seven public and the other private, and only curable cases
will be admitted. Other provisions for tubercular patients in and
around Mexico City are to be found in the General Hospital, where a
ward has been set apart for them, and in hospitals in Tlalpam, one of
which is for infected employees of the National Railroads and the
other for the army.

In Peru, where the ravages of the disease have been great, the anti-
tuberculosis work has been under the charge of the Bureau of Public
Health since May 6, 1927. The bureau has accepted, however, the
collaboration of lay organizations already in the field, of which the
two outstanding were the Women’s Antituberculosis League and the
Public Welfare Society. The former was a pioneer in private efforts
to combat the disease; the results of its labors were of such proven
worth that in 1925 the Government granted it a subsidy to further
the work. All executive action is now in the hands of the Public
Welfare Society, which has three committees, of men, of women,
and of the clergy, respectively. The work of the Women’s League

PUBLIC HEALTH AND SOCIAL WELFARE 745

still continues, but under the direction of the women’s committee of
the society. The committee of men is the latest, founded in January,
1932. The main object of these committees is to obtain from public
authorities the passage of regulations, ordinances, and laws which
shall contribute more effectively to the suppression of tuberculosis.
They have also taken over the task of raismg the funds which the
league and other agencies need for carrying out relief already begun
or initiating new enterprises.

SEATRAIN “NEW ORLEANS”

This vessel, the first of its kind, has been plying between New Orleans and Habana for nearly 4 years.
It has a capacity of 90 freight cars, which are lifted from the pier into the hold of the vessel. Once the
cars are on board, they are locked in place so that, irrespective of the state of the sea, the contents reach
their destination as they were originally packed. On account of the success with which this vessel has
been operating, the owners decided to build two more similar ones of 100-car capacity to sail between
New York, Habana, and New Orleans. Among the advantages of this new type of carrier are the
speed with which the trains can be loaded and unloaded, the elimination of handling changes, the ease
and safety of the transportation of liquid and perishable commodities, and the fact that the shipping of
various commodities may be simplified, for grain need not be bagged nor machinery packed. The
New York, Habana, and New Orleans freight services are to be inaugurated on October 6, 1932.

NECROLOGY

On June 20, 1932, Sefior Juan Elias Moscoso, jr., died in Santo
Domingo after more than a year of painful illness. Sefior Moscoso
was not only an able writer and journalist but also prominent in
politics and diplomacy. Under different administrations he served
as Minister of Justice and Public Instruction and of Promotion and
Director General of Posts and Telegraphs. His career as a diplomat,
though brief, was noteworthy, for he represented the Dominican
Republic as Minister to Haiti at a time when delicate negotiations
were in progress.

Just a month later, on July 20, the last surviving founder of the
Republic of Panama, Sefior Tomas Arias, died in Panama City at
the age of 77. He had been a member of the Provisional Board of
Government, which took office on November 3, 1903. Sefior Arias
was Minister of Foreign Affairs and of the Interior in the first
Cabinet, and later represented his nation abroad, in Europe and in
America. At the time of his death he was president of a bank
established to promote building.

Three days of national mourning were decreed by President
Alfaro. After lying in state at the National Palace, Sefior Arias
was accorded a State funeral.

The Argentine Consul General in New York, Sefior Alejandro T.
Bollini, died suddenly at his home there on August 12. Sefior
Bollini had spent the last 7 of his 25 years of foreign service in New
York; previously he had served as consul of Argentina in England,
Germany, Brazil, Canada, and Hungary. At the time of his death
he was president of the Society of Foreign Consuls, which was organ-
ized in New York five years ago and which counts in its membership
representatives of 52 nations.

746

SUBJECT MATTER OF CONSULAR REPORTS

REPORTS RECEIVED TO SEPTEMBER 17, 1932

Subject Date Author
ARGENTINA 1932
Excerpt from report on general conditions in Argentina | July 15 | Embassy, Buenos Aires.
from June 28 to July 11, 1932. (Lack of knowledge
regarding other countries in America. Rosario tram-
way service. Argentina foreign trade.)
Project for the control of the medical profession in the | Aug. 26 | Avra M. Warren, consul at Buenos
Argentine. Aires.
BRAZIL
‘Commercial agreement between Brazil and India______-| Aug. 2 | Embassy, Rio de Janeiro.
Motor roads in the State of Para________________________ Aug. 16 | A. J. Neu, vice consul at Para.
CHILE |
S@mtnorn (ClillOse AS eee ee eee eee ey ees eee ee Feb. 23 | Thomas D. Bowman, consul at San-
tiago.
Chile’s National Library celebrates its one hundred and | Aug. 30 | Thomas D. Bowman, consul at San-
nineteenth anniversary. | tiago.
COLOMBIA
ANTTULOC MASON e hiwialyiSae== =. = ee ee ee Aug. 19 | Raymond Phelan, vice consul at
| Medellin.
COSTA RICA
Report on construction of road approved, Turrialba to | Aug. 19 | David J. D. Myers, consul at San
Juan Vinas. Jose.
Report on regulations governing the functioning of the | Aug. 24 | David J. D. Myers, consul at San
public registry of Costa Rica. Jose.
ECUADOR
Annual report of the Ecuadoran Minister of Public | Aug. 11 | Legation, Quito.

Works, 1932.

747

RCIA EAM AORAOC CILIA OTN

Pe - BULLETIN
| OF THE

PAN AMERICAN
UNION |

PLAZA LIBERTAD, MONTEVIDEO

NOVEMBER 1932

WE NICO BOO MANTA S EAN NIE CAE

OCWAUWS aC SOOT TC Oke BRON DONA OO TWO TIE OIC OD]

GOVERNING: BOARD-OF-THE
PAN-AMERICAN
UNION

Mr. Henry L. Stimson, Chairman
Argentina____-___-- Sefior Don Feuirpe A. Esprit,
1806 Corcoran Street, Washington, D. C.

IBOMVIRG 2 ote ae Senor Don Enrique 8. pe Lozaba,
2830 Forty-fourth Strest, Washington, D. C.

Brasilien s Sey Snhr. Dr. R. pz Lima E Sinva,
2437 Fifteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

Chiles s7522 S23 ae Sefior Dr. Micguret Crucaaca TocornaL,
2154 Florida Avenues, Washington, D. C.

Calomibiags 22) Ube Sefior Dr. Fasto Lozano,
Hill Building, Washington, D. C.

Costa Rica.) -_ .- Sefior Don ManvuEt GonzALEz,
$451 Newark Street, Washington, D. C.

Cuba os tee Sefior Don Oscar B. Cintas,
2630 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

Dominican Republic. Sefior Don Rosperto DEsPRADEL,
Woodward Building, Washington, D. C.

Heuader. 8 er Sefior Dr. Gonzato ZALDUMBIDE,
2633 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
El Salvador___-_---_- Sefior Don Rozerto D. ME.Leénpez,
National Press Building, Washington, D. C.
Guatemala_.__._--- Sefior Dr. ApRrAN REcINos,
1614 Kighteeuth Street, Washington, D. C.
Haemh asee en genes M. Dantks BELLEGARDE,
1703 Q Street, Washington, D. C.
Honduras___--~---- Sefior Dr. Cétro DAviua,
1160 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
Mexicoss2 242824 Sefior Don Pasito HERRERA DE HUERTA,
2829 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
Nicaragua 22228425 Sefior Dr. Luis M. DEBAYLE,
1711 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C.
PAHANG) (3005 oon 3ik Sefior Dr. Horacio F. Auraro,
1535 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C.
Paraguay---------- Sefior Don Panto Max. YNSFRAN,
1726 Irving Street, Washington, D. C,
PRN esas Sia oes Sefior Don M. pz Frere y SANTANDER,
1300 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
United States__-__-- Mr. Henry L. Stimson,
Department of State, Washington, D. C.
Uruguay: oo. es Sefior Dr. Jacopo VaRELA,
1317 F Street, Washington, D. C.
Venezuela___..----- Sefior Dr. Pepro Manveu ArcarYa,

1628 Twenty-first Street, Washington, D. C.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
José Matias Delgado: 18832—November 12—1932______________________ 749
By Victor Jerez, Member of the Salvadorean Academy of Letters and of the American
Institute of International Law.
The New President of Panama, Dr. Harmodio Arias____________________ 759
Farewell Luncheon to the Retiring Minister of Bolivia, Sefior Don Luis O.
AIDC CPMOKOOIROTOD yes ee ee ae eer neen neath Beer ar Spee pee, 762
UTEUSR TDD ENGL NY OUST a me ee Ia Oe 763
By ‘‘Elisabetta.’’
Medical Research in Latin America___________________________________ 779
By A. A. Moll, Ph. D., Scientific Editor, Pan American Sanitary Bureau.
AIL SMInGdedshatin Amenca-. ==) 52.5.5) 2 ee a ee ee 794
By Adam Carter, Pan American Union Staff.
A Pan American Winter Institute in Florida___________________________ 803
Financial Measures Taken in Colombia to Meet the Economic Crisis______ 806
By Guillermo A. Suro, Editorial Staff, Bulletin of the Pan American Union.
Columbus? Memorial library, Notess--—- == 2 2 2 ee 822

The contents of previous issues of the BULLETIN OF THE PAN AMERICAN UNION can be found in the READERS’
Dp ;
GUIDE in your library)

JOSE MATIAS DELGADO

This marble bust of the patriotic priest of El Salvador, a leader in the Central American revolt for inde-
pendence, was presented by the Salvadorean Government to the Gallery of Patriots of the Pan American

Union.

Vou. LXVI NOVEMBER, 1932 No. 11

JOSE MATIAS DELGADO
1832—NOVEMBER 12—1932

By Victor JEREZ

Member of the Salvadorean Academy of Letters and of the American Institute of
International Law

HE discovery of America was one of the most portentous events

in the history of humanity. Noble and generous Spain which, in
the words of the East, is temperate and mild as Yeman, abundant in
flowers and fragrance as India, closed the medieval period with strong
hand and high soul and opened a new world to the labors of modern
civilization, labors which have brought forth a beautiful blossoming
of the spirit and a flourishing development of human society.

The unique act of discovery was followed by the immense work of
conquest. With the redeeming cross of the missionary and the flash-
ing sword of the soldier, in deeds which surpass the bounds of fantastic
legend, the conquest rescued from barbarism a group of peoples which
to-day participate in progress and culture and welcome the prodigies
of science, the wonders of industry, and the marvels of art.

But the task was not complete; with the passing of the years the
wondrous sun of liberty illumined the pathway which the coun-
tries of Central America were to travel toward the heights of their
oreat destinies.

The spirit of democracy, which had triumphed in the prosperous
cis-Atlantic colonies of England and which had fought in France the
absolutism of monarchs, passed with increased strength from Europe
to the coasts of the Spanish colonies, and in a hundred battles in
which heroes fought against heroes these colonies achieved the lasting
victory of the ideals by which they were inspired.

To bring to a happy ending the great work of the political emanci-
pation of America, there arose a group of illustrious citizens, men of
high courage and clear vision, with hearts consumed by love of coun-

749

750 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

try, who reckoned sacrifice for their cause a privilege and who saw in
the difficulties which beset their path only a challenge to victory.

Among this notable group of men, who are to-day reverenced by
America and admired by the world, the figure of Father José Matias
Delgado stands forth with singular boldness of outline. This paladin
of lofty and imperishable fame was of noble lineage. His father was
Don Pedro Delgado, of the family of the Lords of Polén in Toledo,
and his mother, Dofia Maria Ana de Leon, daughter of an illustrious
Salvadorean house, was a descendant of Don Sancho de Barahona,
the first alcalde of Guatemala, who with Don Pedro de Alvarado con-
quered a great part of Central America.

Education had made little progress in the city of Guatemala in the
last half of the eighteenth century, and if this was true in the capital
of the Captaincy General, one may judge of its state in a provincial
city such as San Salvador, where Delgado was born on February 24,
1767. On the completion of his primary instruction, he was sent to
Guatemala, where he entered the seminary, thanks to a scholar-
ship granted him by Archbishop Francos y Monroy. In that center
of sound teaching and simple customs, he distinguished himself by
his keen intelligence, rectitude of character, and exemplary behavior,
winning the esteem of his fellow pupils and the praise and trust of
his teachers. After obtaining the degree of bachelor of philosophy,
he devoted himself to the study of theology and civil and canon law,
with such marked success that because of his extensive knowledge
he was often called upon to fill vacancies in the teaching staff created
by the absence or illness of the professors. After fulfilling the neces-
sary requirements, he received the degree of doctor of laws and was
also ordained.

Shortly thereafter, he was appointed to a parish in San Salvador,
his birthplace, which now became his residence. Here he labored in-
defatigably and with deep solicitude for the spiritual welfare of the
people under his care. As a shepherd of souls he undertook his
apostolic ministry with high devotion and evangelic abnegation; his
ardent concern for the needy made him spend his personal fortune on
their behalf, and so great was his sacerdotal zeal that to him came
people of all classes of society in search of counsel in their difficulties,
cuidance in their affairs, and succor and refuge in their need.

Gifted with rare virtues, Father Delgado led a life which was a
mirror of uprightness and a pattern of purity, as even his enemies
could not but acknowledge. So considerable was his influence over
his countrymen, and so great was his reputation for wisdom, that any
decision of his was accepted as a judgment from which there could
be no appeal. He was also characterized by an ardent patriotism,
an unshakable love of liberty, and an untiring activity in the cause of
freedom.

JOSE MATIAS DELGADO on

His firm conviction and singleness of purpose in regard to the politi-
cal evolution of his country early decided him to labor energetically
for independence. About 1811 his longing for liberty was intensified,
and for the purpose of furthering the movement toward emancipation
he joined Don Nicolas, Don Manuel, and Don Vicente Aguilar, three
other priests of San Salvador, Don Manuel José Arce, who was des-
tined to become the first president of the United Provinces of Central
America, and other prominent citizens. This group organized a
general insurrection of the province of San Salvador.

Everything pointed to the triumph of their efforts; at the head of
the conspiracy was Delgado, with his great prestige among the lower
classes, his eloquence, his gift of personal magnetism, his never-failing
energy, and above all, the singular influence which his character,
tempered like Toledan steel, exercised over all those who came into
contact with him. Many of the more important centers of popula-
tion were ready for revolution, and reliance was placed upon the
sympathy of some of the other provinces of the Captaincy General.
The excusable impatience of the conspirators, however, and a well-
erounded fear of the exposure of their plans to the authorities caused
these knights of liberty to launch themselves prematurely into action.

Success at first crowned the efforts of the patriots. At break of day
on November 5, 1811, they took possession of the munitions found in
the barracks; the authority of the Spanish commander, Don Antonio
Gutiérrez de Ulloa, was set aside; Spaniards were removed from office,
and national independence was proclaimed from the steps of the city
hall of San Salvador by the illustrious patriot Don Manuel José Arce.

This first effort toward our emancipation, this dawn of our inde-
pendence, was the work of Delgado’s great spirit.

The opposition of those elements in the population which were in
favor of Spanish rule was responsible for a temporary setback to the
work of the insurgents. The authorities in Guatemala, on hearing
of the events in San Salvador, sent emissaries, whose efforts were at
first thought to have been successful, as in appearance peace and
tranquillity were reestablished.

As a precautionary measure, Delgado was transferred to Guatemala
City, where he could be watched more closely. However, three years
had hardly passed before a new insurrection broke out, and all evidence
points to the conclusion that it was the constant activity of Delgado
which once more gave a vigorous impulse to the revolutionary faction
of 1811. Although living in the political center of the Captaincy
General, he communicated frequently with the Salvadoreans and
cultivated close relations with various inveterate opponents of the
Spanish régime.

When the provincial committee was organized in Guatemala, he
became a member of that notable body, which was composed of men

52, THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

high in the social life of the country. Outstanding among them was
Father José Sim6n Cafias, a famous citizen who in later years was
responsible for the abolition of slavery in Central America.

The motions passed by the committee were varied and of far-
reaching importance. The resolution, however, which exercised the
ereatest influence on political and social life was that which induced
the Captain General, Don Carlos Urrutia y Montoya, to invest the
assistant inspector of the army, General Gabino Gainza, with the
powers of government.

The new Captain General was of a fickle nature and was disposed
to accept all of the resolutions passed by the committee which would

THE REVOLUTIONARY PLOT OF 1811

This historical painting depicts the group of revolutionists who, under the leadership of Delgado, organized
the insurrection against Spain which began November 5, 1811.

permit him to continue in the enjoyment of the high office to which he
had been appointed. Delgado, aware of this, induced his fellow
patriots in San Salvador to write General Gainza urging him to
proclaim independence, establish the republic of Central America,
and assume the office of president, for which purpose the rich and
populous province of San Salvador would immediately place herself
at his command and contribute with all her resources to bring the great
enterprise to a successful termination.

It is not presumptuous to suppose that such a flattering offer had a
considerable part in inducing Gainza to assume an attitude favorable
to independence.

JOSE MATIAS DELGADO 753

At the meeting held on that memorable 15th of September, 1821,
to consider the momentous subject of independence, those present
divided into two parties, one which advocated a more or less lengthy
postponement of definite action, and another which saw the necessity
for prompt action and was impatient with any procedure involving
delays or raising obstacles of any kind. To this second group
belonged Delgado, and after an exchange of ideas, it was decided to
proclaim immediately the independence of Central America.

The solemn document setting forth that vital decision bears, among
others, the signature of the great protagonist of independence, Father
Delgado, who on that day, after heroic sacrifices and constant effort
through a long period of years, saw at last the realization of his
patriotic desires and the consummation of his most cherished aims.

The happy news was received in San Salvador with great rejoicing.
And this could not have been otherwise, for this province had been, as
reported officially by Captain General Bustamente y Guerra to the
Ministry of Justice in Spain, the first to lift the flag of revolt in the
Captaincy of Guatemala; the region that even before September 15
was in agitation because of the delays placed by the Spanish authori-
ties in the way of national emancipation; the province, in short, that
initiated with glory, maintained with firmness, and defended with
valor, republican principles and independence.

A few days after the events recorded above, a serious blow was dealt
the movement in San Salvador as a result of the arbitrary action of
the Intendant, Don Pedro Barriere, who threw the leaders of the
independent party into prison and later sent them under guard to the
jails of Guatemala. The provincial committee had no sooner learned
of this action on the part of the Intendant than it sent Father Delgado
to San Salvador, investing him with full authority in the hope that he
might restore peace and quiet through the exercise of his well-known
talents and influence.

One may well marvel that this occurrence in San Salvador, to all
outward appearance of no great significance, probably the result of
the youthful and feverish impatience of one party in the province and
the conservative habits of another, had an unquestionably powerful
influence on all future events concerning the political life of the
confederation which came into being as the United Provinces of
Central America.

Promptly on his arrival in San Salvador Father Delgado removed
from their positions various individuals who were known to be hostile
to the new régime, disbanded the company of volunteers, which had
incurred the enmity of the people by its despotic proceedings, and
called an election to the provincial committee.

The first acts of this committee, of which Father Delgado was made
president, were to increase the public revenues, create primary schools,

154 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

and reorganize the militia. No one at that time could have suspected
that this modest local governing body was destined to bring about far-
reaching changes in the social order and to exercise a notable influence
on the future of the country.

By one of those mysterious coincidences which baffle human com-
prehension, on the very day of the installation of the new adminis-
trative body General Gainza placed before the Central Committee in
Guatemala the communication in which General Agustin Iturbide
proposed to the Central American Provinces that they should be
annexed to Mexico. The party antagonistic to independence received
the proposal of Iturbide with great rejoicing, for its members were
thus presented with the occasion and the method by which the
privileges they had enjoyed under Spanish domination could be
preserved. The members of this party, the monarchists of the
previous régime, began their labors with great promptness and activity.
They induced a great number of civil and ecclesiastical bodies, high
officials, and even private individuals of wealth, to write enthusiastic
congratulations to the Mexican Congress and to General Iturbide
on this momentous resolution. They saw in the proposed union with
Mexico the means by which an end could be made of our bitter civil
struggles, and untold benefits assured the people of Central America.

After mature deliberation, the Committee in Guatemala resolved to
have Iturbide’s communication, together with the manifesto issued
by General Gainza, printed and distributed to all the town councils
of the Captaincy General. They were asked to determine in open
session whether or not the offer made by Mexico should be accepted.

This resolution was carried out in all save one particular. The
exception was that, on the advice of two influential individuals, the
Captain General refrained from sending copies of the two documents
to the authorities of San Salvador, for it was anticipated, and not
without reason, that the province which had in its pre-Christian era
so tenaciously resisted the Iberian conqueror in a bloody and unequal
struggle that he found it necessary temporarily to suspend his fight
for the domination of the country; that during the colonial period
had shown herself restless and rebellious; that had been the first to
manifest her intention of throwing off the alien yoke, disregarding the
persecution of the despot, and nobly offering up the tranquillity of
her homes and the lives of her sons, could not under any conditions
accept such an ignominious proposal, a proposal which would render
fruitless all the efforts she had put forth for so many years and nullify
her great sacrifices.

Upon learning of the decision of the central authorities, Father
Delgado immediately convoked the provincial committee and this
body, convinced that the struggle for independence would be lost by
annexation to Mexico, resolved to reject the proposal as unpatriotic

JOSE MATIAS DELGADO 755)

and illegal, and to resist with all available resources the odious imposi-
tion of a foreign government.

Energetic communications were sent to the Captain General and to
the Central Committee, giving an exposition of the fundamental
juridical reasons against annexation and the patriotic motives opposed
to such a strange and unusual procedure, contrary to the obligation
entered into when independence was declared, and predicting that
such an arbitrary step would force the people to resort to arms and
produce appalling results, ‘‘for it is eternally true that when a govern-
ment breaks its compact with the people, they are freed from any
obligation to recognize that government and may appoint other
authorities to rule them.”

These representations were not heeded, and the province of San
Salvador flew to arms to resist the forces of General Filisola, sent by
Emperor Iturbide to subjugate Central America.

Then followed ominous days, full of vicissitudes and anxiety, but if
the danger was great, greater still was the will to overcome it.

Guatemala and almost all of the other provinces accepted the
Empire. San Salvador, however, opposed annexation, and refused to
be the docile instrument of the invader’s ambitions and desires. She
did not stop to weigh in the balance her inadequate resources for
defense, nor the insurmountable obstacles against the recognition of
her incontestable right to liberty; she saw only the greatness of her
ideal and the justice of her cause.

In the clashes which took place between the Imperial and the Salva-
dorean forces, the latter, although outnumbered, gave impressive
proof of their energy and valor, but in view of the superior resources
of the enemy and the utter impossibility of confronting him on equal
terms, it was decided, rather than to surrender, to march to the neigh-
boring frontier and there to secure new means by which the struggle
could be renewed.

Through the resistance offered by San Salvador to the Empire,
Father Delgado achieved his object, and his attitude had a consider-
able part in bringing about the downfall of Iturbide. Confirmation of
this statement may be had in the words of the famous Mexican, Gen.
Guadalupe Victoria, to Col. Rafael Castillo: ““You may have the
satisfaction of knowing that San Salvador has been the thermometer
of the movements in Mexico.”

The spirited and high-minded conduct of Father Delgado resulted
in the complete success of his plans, and the Proclamation of Casamata
dashed Iturbide’s ambitions to the ground.

Delgado’s unshakable resolve that the people be given an oppor-
tunity to elect a constitutional assembly which would organize the
Central American nation was finally realized by the installation of the
august body which, on July 1, 1823, issued the decree by which the

756 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

provinces of the former Captaincy General of Guatemala declarep
themselves independent of Spain, Mexico, and of any other nation,
whether of the old or the new world. Delgado as president of the
assembly was the first to sign this notable document, which thus
attests the national recognition of the immense labors and surpassing
virtues of that outstanding citizen.

First made famous by the triumphs of November 5, 1811, Father
Delgado, after the successful struggle against the pretensions of the
imperialists, attained the full stature of immortality as the liberator
of his country.

The inexperience of our people, who passed abruptly from the vas-
sallage of the colonial period into the liberty of the Republic, resulted
in the formation of extremist factions which rapidly brought two
important states of Central America to civil strife. Delgado labored
actively and persistently to prevent the horrors of war and to procure
an agreement which would end the conflict. He ably utilized every
possible means to reach a peaceful solution between the contestants,
but his efforts were in vain, his counsel was ignored, and the country
was stained with the blood of brothers.

With the restoration of peace that devoted priest returned to the
service of his parishioners, and the eminent citizen to the presidency
of the Legislative Assembly. In the functions of this office he directed
all his attention to the passing of laws and resolutions which would
assure the welfare of the people and the efficient administration of the
country.

Father Delgado’s incessant and fruitful labor could not exhaust his
spirit, but vexations and disillusionment, the inevitable accompani-
ments of political strife, the insidious attacks of his adversaries, and
the unjustifiable lack of comprehension of his noble motives and high
aims embittered and saddened the last days of this illustrious patriot.

Early in 1832 a grievous illness attacked the venerable leader.
Careful medical attention and the solicitous devotion and care of his
family could not stop the advance of his malady, but although his
body was scourged by pain, his spirit remained serene and his faculties
unimpaired to the last. Knowing that his end was near, he summoned
the leading men of the city and made them swear that they would
accept death rather than see their country deprived of liberty.

After receiving the last rites of the church, that great leader, who
had consecrated his life to the good of humanity and to the greatness
of his country, expired at nightfall on November 12, 1832.

No sooner had his death become known than the entire city and
neighboring towns gathered to pay him a tribute of respect, of homage,
and of admiration, and to offer prayers over the mortal remains of the
man who had strengthened them with his counsel, inspired them by
his virtuous example, and guided them in the paths of glory.

JOSE MATIAS DELGADO CAG

His death brought into the homes of Salvadoreans the sadness of a
personal loss. It was as though a universal anguish wrung the heart
of the entire nation. For the citizens were conscious that they had lost
the one man who had been the unfailing guide of their ideals, the very
spirit of their enterprises. In success or adversity they had turned
to him with trust and confidence; he personified all that was best in
the people of his country; for them and with them he had suffered,
he had made their good his goal, and in their behalf he had traveled
the road of sacrifice.

El Salvador has never experienced a more sincere and profound
erief. The people knew that the eminent citizen whom they mourned
THE DELGADO MONU-
MENT,SAN SALVADOR
This commemorative monu-

ment stands in San Salva-
dor where Delgado was

born February 24, 1767,and
died November 12, 1832.

had loved his country with the tenderness of a son, and that in her
defense, with never the shadow of a doubt or a moment of misgiving,
he had not faltered.

In a white coffin, symbolic reminder of his purity of life, amidst
tears and bent heads, and beneath showers of flowers thrown by the
hands of children, his remains were carried through the streets for
Christian burial in his own church.

The Legislative Assembly, official mouthpiece of the national grief,
voted that funeral masses for Delgado should be said for 10 years,
that his portrait should be hung permanently in the Assembly’s Hall
of Sessions, and that he should be called ‘‘The Father of his Country.”

758 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

And the nation which honored him as the most esteemed of her
sons, which during his life accorded him respect and veneration and
at his death tearfully covered his grave with flowers, to-day returns in
spirit to that grave. The flowers live again in the warmth of her
remembrance of him who, while laying the cornerstone of her inde-
pendence, inflamed the valor of the warrior and inspired the genius
of the poet.

A century has passed since the death of that eminent and devoted
patriot who personified the civil virtues, who with republican fearless-
ness defied the menace of an ancient power, and who gave his life to
sacrificial service.

The violent attacks of his adversaries seemed but to strengthen his
personality and his spirit, the obstacles and dangers of his course to
add greater firmness and stability to his convictions. Against the
background of Salvadorean history he looms as the embodiment of
our national glories and as the most honored figure in our public life.

Thanks to his lofty virtues and his extraordinary talents, the dark-
ness of oblivion will never conceal his noble and majestic figure nor
obliterate that name which, like an inextinguishable beacon, illu-
mines our national history.

Cast in the heroic mold, possessing rare public and private virtues,
giving life to legend and impulse to history, Delgado belongs to that
immortal company of predestined men whom God sends to nations in
their hours of need to guide them to the heights.

To honor the glories of the past is but just, and to perpetuate the
memory of those glories as a stimulus and example to future genera- _
tions is truly patriotic.

Let Central America sculpture the name of her illustrious son on
commemorative stone, while El Salvador is moved with pride, and
with a profound gratitude awakens that name to new life, graving it
in the serenity of marble and the majesty of bronze, and giving it to
institutions and parks. Under the inspiration of Delgado’s benign
countenance she holds the meetings of her academies, the classes in her
schools, and the deliberations of her legislators, and among palms of
immortality she enshrines the memory of him who was first in inde-
pendence and is first in the hearts of his countrymen. ;

THE NEW PRESIDENT OF PANAMA,
DR. HARMODIO ARIAS

N October 1, 1932, Dr. Harmodio Arias was inaugurated Presi-

dent of Panama for the 4-year term ending in 1936. Sefior
Florencio Arosemena, before resigning the Presidency on January 2,
1931, accepted the resignation of the Secretary of Government and
appointed in his stead Doctor Arias, who constitutionally assumed the
provisional exercise of the executive power pending the arrival of the
First Designate to the Presidency, Dr. Ricardo J. Alfaro, then
Panama/’s minister to the United States. Following the inauguration
of Doctor Alfaro on January 16, Doctor Arias accepted the post the
Chief Executive had left vacant in Washington and served his
country in the capacity of Minister Plenipotentiary and Envoy
Extraordinary until November, 1931, when he returned to Panama
as presidential candidate of the Doctrinary Liberal Party.

The elections were held on June 5, 1931, President Alfaro winning
the respect and admiration of all parties by his untiring efforts to
maintain order during the trying electoral period and secure a free
and honest expression of the people’s will at the polls. Indicative of
the high example of civic culture set by the people of Panama on that
occasion was the gesture of the losing candidate in gracefully acknowl-
edging his defeat and in expressing his congratulations and best
wishes to Doctor Arias when the National Electoral Board announced
that the returns so far received, although not complete, insured the
election of his opponent by a considerable majority.

The new President, although relatively a young man, is one of
Panama’s most distinguished lawyers. He was born in the city of
Penonome, capital of the Province of Cocle, on July 3, 1886. Edu-
cated first in his native city and later in the capital of the Republic,
at the age of 18 he won a scholarship to study abroad. He sailed for
England in 1904 and after completing his preparatory studies at
Southport entered the University of Cambridge, where in 1909 he
received the degrees of bachelor of arts and master of laws. He then
continued his studies at the University of London, graduating in
1911 as a doctor of laws. .

Returning to Panama in 1912, Doctor Arias was appointed Assistant
Secretary of Foreign Affairs and in the same year opened a law office.
In 1914 he was appointed a member of the commission entrusted with
the codification of the laws of the Republic and in 1918 professor of
Roman Law in the National Institute. Doctor Arias represented

759

Photograph by Uaderwood & Underwood

HIS EXCELLENCY DR. HARMODIO ARIAS, PRESIDENT OF PANAMA

His inauguration for a 4-year term took place October 1, 1932,

NEW PRESIDENT OF PANAMA, DR. HARMODIO ARIAS 761

his country abroad for the first time in 1920, when he was appointed
delegate to the first Assembly of the League of Nations. During the
same year he was elected a member of the Permanent Court of
Arbitration at The Hague and in 1921 served as Minister Pleni-
potentiary and Envoy Extraordinary of Panama in Argentina. In
1924 he was elected to the National Assembly and at the request of
the Republic of Uruguay represented that nation at the Bolivarian
Congress held in Panama in 1926.

Dr. Harmodio Arias was married in 1916 to Sefiorita Dofia Rosario
Guardia, a charming member of Panaman society. While President-
elect of Panama, Doctor Arias visited the United States where he
was received in special audience by President Hoover and entertained
at the White House, as well as elsewhere in official and private circles..

141901—32—Bull. 11——2

“pieog SUImIBAOy) oY UO
IOPBATRS [A JO oATVV{UESeIdEY [vIDNdg ‘zopUgTET] OJ1OGQOY “Aq ‘WOJSUIYS’ AA Ul WII1OJUI pe SoleYY .p 9s1vyH pur ‘ejonzous A pur eqny ULoIyD Jo Jo4sturyAy ‘OT[O_.
SpivApy OUI “Iq ‘1opendy JO Jo\SIUIyA ‘OplquinplezZ O[Vzuoy) “Iq ‘ejenzeueA JO JO4SIUIT, “BAVOIY jONULI, OIPEg “Iq ‘AeNsNI_Q Jo Jojsiu1lyy ‘vporVA “f “IG
‘[[ze1g JO Jopessequry ‘eATIS 9 BUTT 9p “Y “Iq ‘oqndey uvolulTMOd 9Y4 Jo JeysIuIPY ‘Jepeidsoqd OJ1OGoy UO J0UNg ‘eqnyH Jo solleyy.p ssieyO ‘uoIeg ‘7
gsOf “Id ‘voly BISOD JO Sole YP 9sieyH ‘zoezuoyH jonueyy UO JOU ‘UOIUYA UdIJEULY UL SY} JO [BIOMOL 1OJOOIIG ‘OMOY “GT ‘AC {VIAI[Og JO soley ,p
gs1eyO ‘epezoT op ‘g onbi1uq UO 10U9g ‘OoIxey] JO Solleyy .p gs1eyH ‘ej1on}{ op esdsIOFT O[G¥q UO j0UeY ‘svinpuoT Jo JO4sIUIPL “eTIAeC Os9]9O ‘Aq {euy
-uesr1y JO Jopessequry ‘[ldsqy “Vy edIjeq “Iq ‘pivog sUIMIOAOYy 94} JO URMIIeYH puB {e419 Jo S1e40100g ‘MOSuIT}Y "T AlUey “UO ‘1]9qQy 1OUVeg ‘41e Fy JO Jo4sTUIPy
‘epiezol[og soured “IAT ‘vuIeUeY JO IOJSIUIT, ‘OILITY “7 OlOVIOR “IC SensvILOIN Jo soley .p ydrvyH ‘eAvqoq ‘JW siny Aq ‘uoluUy UvolIoMY Ue 94 Jo 104
ddI JURISISSW ‘SesIOg [LH “AW IC :4Jo] 0} IY sII WOT] ‘ore OG vq OY} PUNOIL pozLOS BSOY) ‘PUNOAZEIOJ JO] JV BSuIUUIZIg = “ZEBT ‘Zz Iaquieydeg uO UOIU,) ULOTIOUTYy

ued 94} JO plvog suIUIOAOy oY} A 1OUOY SIY UI pelopus, UOSYOUTT] B 4” 4SoNns OY} SVM I[[OdV °O SINT UOC IOUNG ‘eIAI[O JO JoqSIUI]A, SB UOTYCUSISOI SI SUIMOT[OT

VIAITOW HO UALSINIW ONIYVILAY AHL OL NOHHONNT TTAMAAVA ;

URUGUAYAN MUSIC

By “Eursaspetra’”’!

RUGUAY, the youngest independent South American Republic,

is probably also the youngest of them all in musical history, since
the other countries which form that immense sisterhood of nations are
known to have had music of some nature among their mountains,
valleys, plains, and hills earlier than any mention of it occurs in
connection with Uruguay.

On the east coast and far into the center of the South American
Continent, the Indian tribes possessed some knowledge of tone, as is
evident through the discovery of rude instruments, such as drums and
roughly hewn flutes of bamboo and reed. I have seen similar instru-
ments in use comparatively recently in the interior of Brazil. As for
Uruguay, I do not know that she had any primitive instrument of her
own, since the Charriias, Bohanes, Yaros, and a few other tribes
which roamed the land before our European discoverers arrived seem
to have possessed none; at least, no historical mention has been made
of any. Nevertheless it is probable that their war dances were
accompanied by beats of some drumlike instrument and the striking
and blowing of reeds; we also know that the call to battle was blown
on rude trumpets. Since these aborigines appear to have had only
the vaguest idea of rhythm, and since, in place of the comparatively
tuneful songs of the indigenous tribes of other parts of America, our
Indians used only screams and shouts without any tone chracteristics,
there was no ethnological tradition or characteristic favorable to the
development of music in our native peoples.

Naturally the Europeans had their own knowledge and conception
of music, but the African tom-tom and elongated barrel-shaped drums
of our first negroes, who were brought by our conquerors as slaves or
servants at the commencement of the eighteenth century, constituted
the introduction of tone and rhythm to our native Indians. Unfor-
tunately, the Indians were practically exterminated long before our
national writers of music began their work, and therefore we do not
know whether the Indians developed any musical sense.

As our national instrument we claim the guitar, the old and beau-
tiful Spanish instrument which undoubtedly was brought to our land
by the brave settlers some time after 1726, and which has become
part of us. From Spain also came the bagpipes of Galicia (which,
however, have disappeared completely, never having been played

1K. M.S. de Pate.
763

764 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

extensively in Uruguay) and the accordion, or bandoleén, which, with
its plaintive sound, is an important instrument in our native orches-
tras of popular music (orquestas tipicas).

It was not until after 1726, when the capital city of Montevideo
was founded, that groups of lovers of music were formed. As far
back as the year 1800 European visitors were agreeably surprised at
the music rendered and the lovely voices heard at the tertulias, as
evening receptions were then called.

We may say of Uruguay, as of the majority of American nations,
that music runs in two distinct currents: One following the native
bent and the other that of the mother country. These were com-
pletely different at the beginning of the last century when our native
music was in its first stages and the music of Europe was being brought
to our ears. It is very probable, too, that we are greatly indebted
for our love of European music to the Spanish and later to the Italian
priests who chanted the masses in our cathedral, whose foundation
stone was laid in 1790.

Like all nations, Uruguay has its folk music, with its haunting
descriptive melodies in the minor keys; its picturesque and expressive
themes, its longing homesickness, its songs of love, its seductive
rhythm. We may say that the Gaucho, the mythical yet powerful
founder, the visionary and patriotic descendant of our amalgamation
of nations and their virtues—the first real owner of Uruguay—also was
the first real composer of our folk music. Wandering far, crossing
again and again the land of his birth, whistling his thoughts in lone-
someness, with his guitar swung across his saddle he would sing at
eventide of his love, his sorrows, his joys, his impressions of nature’s
beauty and the future glory of his land.

Also, like other lands, ours has its legends and I will digress a
moment to transcribe here the legend of our guitar according to one
of our most famous writers of native phantasy, whose tale goes some-
what as follows: ‘‘There was once a handsome young Gaucho of the
first that were born in the new land, who was much sought after, since
he was charming and gifted in poetry, but whose wandering spirit
never found the maid to whom he could give his heart’s love, some
one whose heart would beat in unison with his own. One day he
wandered far on his spirited horse, his best friend, to consult a wise
man of the hills in his perplexity. After hearing his troubles, the
wise man said to him, ‘My son, thou art too good to be so punished;
I will give thee comfort; thou shalt have the most faithful of com-
panions. I will place in thy arms a beautiful piece of wood, shaped
like a woman’s body, with the smooth satin polish of her skin and the
perfume of her breath; in her breast a cavity into which thou shalt
mold the verses from thy lips, bringing forth in living throbs the
heart of sound which there lies dormant; thou shalt see the shining

El Poncho

3
:
3
2

€1u-ded,

“EL PONCHO” BY EDUARDO FABINI

known songs by the gifted composer Eduardo Fabini, who uses Uruguayan
folk themes,

This is one of the well-

768 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

tresses of her hair lying entangled and, as thy left hand caresses her
neck, thy right hand shall smooth those tresses, and caressing them
thou shalt ever hear the sweetest harmonies faithfully sounding and
recording the pictures of thy brain, and the passions, sorrows, and
joys of thy heart.’”? Such was the legendary birth of our national
instrument and of our payador (a payador is an impromptu versifier
on any given subject, the verses being sung to simple chords and runs
on the guitar). In colonial days, payadas (two payadores calling to
and answering one another) were one of the most popular amuse-
ments, attracting large and enthusiastic crowds as listeners.

As the Spanish-speaking Gauchos also belong to Argentina, natur-
ally Uruguayan folk music does not stand entirely apart. I believe
we can truly claim only one theme as our very own, that being the
music of the native round dance called the pericén. This has been
proven to be Uruguayan, since many of the different figures were
danced in Uruguay long before anywhere else. As for folk songs, we
have the estilos, vidalitas, milongas, and zambas, and as dances,
besides the well-known River Plate tango, the zamba, gato, cielito, and
ranchera. :

It is probable that many of our first themes are lost, as a century
ago the Gaucho simply sang to chords played on the guitar, almost in
a recitative. We can trace the Spanish influence in the measure of
his improvised poetry, since many verses had four lines, each of
eight syllables, somewhat like the cwartillas or cantares. Later came
the estilos, verses of 10 lines. and also the vidalita of 4 lines with the
word vidalita (an exclamation which may signify diverse feelings or
emotions), occurring -between every line, also the tristes. These
themes, like all folk music, are beautiful in their simplicity; they use
many minor intervals. In the estilo, 9s in the vidahta, the penulti-
mate chord in relative mediant tone is held as long as the performer
wishes and ends in the diatonic pure and simple.

The pericén, in three-quarter time of great simplicity, has been pre-
served to us by the ability of one of our native artists, Prof. Gerardo
Grasso, who transcribed it for piano score. There have been other
versions, one score with variations for band by L. Diaz, one by this
writer, and lately a very beautiful and intricate one by Cluzeau
Mortet (modern folk music composer). .He wrote it on the old theme
as a gift to the eminent pianist Arthur Rubenstein who, charmed by
the ait and rhythm, wished to include a pericén in his concert repertoire.

=: We can not think of folk music without sending a grateful thought
ys - > to)

“to our pioneer actor, not only in Uruguay, but also in the whole River
Plate region. This is Don José J. Podesta, still living at a ripe old
age. He, with his four brothers, built the foundation of our national
drama, acting and singing his way into the hearts of his people with
his renditions of music on the guitar in the native style. One of this

URUGUAYAN MUSIC 769

writer’s most precious memories is having met him when she was a
child, and enjoyed his inimitable native art.

Probably the first martial music to be heard in Uruguay was the
patriotic strains of bugles and cornets in 1816, during our struggle for
independence, and the first lyrics when our first lyric theater was
opened in 1824. In the same year the first pianos arrived from the
old world; this instrument, we can assert, was subsequently wel-
comed into the majority of the homes. In 1825 war reigned and our
music was hushed, only to be revived with enthusiasm after we
became an independent nation in that year. Our first symphony
orchestra was then developed under the able direction of Antonio
Sdenz, composer and musician. Spain and Italy sent us their artists
and we enjoyed the grand operas of the times, but to Antonio Sdéenz
we owe the first musical institution founded in Montevideo. Every-
thing pertaining to music was taught in this school, and from it came
forth our first real Uruguayan musician. <A splendid musical library
was attached to the conservatory.

We should mention in this early period the birth of our national
anthem. According to history, this was first picked out on the
guitar by an amateur named Quijano, who called it Canto Patridtico.
The first written score was arranged by Prof. Bernardino Barrios;
flutist and composer. When Acufia de Figueroa wrote the words for
our hymn, Maestro Luis Smolzi arranged the ‘music for it, but later,
in 1845, when the poem was revised and officially adopted, the music
was altered and instrumented by Prof. José Debali.

But it was in the year 1856 that the inauguration of the Teatro
Solis, our own opera house (still much used) gave the great impulse
to our study of music. Orchestras were formed and the cultivation
of voices was very widespres4, culminating in the founding of our
native conservatory, La Lira, followed goon after by the opening of
the Instituto Verdi, the latter being directed by its owner, the national
composer Don Luis Sambucetti. It is evident that at this period we
began to see that our music should be preserved and enjoyed. The
conservatories were producing promising pupils, Italian and Spanish
maestros came to stay in the new country and gave generously of
their knowledge and art in the new field opening before them. There
they found willing, eager youths, born with the love of music in their
veins, who reverently enjoyed the works of old and new masters of
the universal art. ® o

In 1858 Tomas Giribaldi was born; 20 years later he was to reveal...
himself as our first great maestro and inspired composer. A pupil of
Stringelli and Bottesini, he left to the world many works, amongst
them a 4-act grand opera Parisina; Manfredo di Svevia, in five acts;
Inés de Castro, in four acts; and Magda, in three acts; also many
symphonies, of which Ateneo and Escenas Militares are well known;

Del Camino

Tiemps de Vida lita

R
3
tS
S
:
:
:

b dee gp
i as

“DEL CAMINO” BY{VICENTE ASCONE

This is a development by a contemporary composer of an Uruguayan Vidalita

Va THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

and a beautiful orchestral work on Detaille’s painting Le Réve. A
composer of austere sincerity and intense feeling, he wrote with a
vigorous dramatic colormg which was influenced shghtly by the pure
harmonies of the Italian school.

The second of our trio of great masters was Don Luis Sambucetti
(1860-1926), author of the grand opera San Francisco de Asts, a
work which won the gold medal at the Milan Exhibition in 1906,
and of many others, including /ndiana, Suite, Antoine, and Vieur
Carillons, besides concertos and quintettes for flutes and violins, which
are considered notable scores.

In 1877, Leén Ribeiro, one of the directors of the old conservatory,
La Lira, began to devote himself to composition and displayed a
vigorous artistic temperament. A perfect technician and a splendid
interpreter of the lyric drama, he devoted his last years to the com-
pletion of the intensely beautiful Liropeya, his master work.

These three maestri form our national trilogy of classic composers,
though the works of Dalmiro Costa, written from 1860 to 1895, are
conceptions marked by genius, even at times by audacity. His
songs without words are especially delicate in their melancholy
strains and are amongst the richest of our native works.

In later years we have had the more modern works of Alfonso
Broqua and Rodriguez Soca, the latter being the author of the opera
Alda, which had its premiére in Milan. Broqua, who resides chiefly
in France and who was a pupil in the Schola Cantorum in Paris,
shows a marked French romantic style in his musical writings. His
best work is undoubtedly the dramatic and descriptive symphonic
score to the epic poem Tabaré by our late poet laureate Juan Zorrilla
de San Martin.

About 1879, famous concert artists commenced to come to our
shores, one of the first being the American composer Louis Gottschalk,
who enthralled his hearers with his interpretations of his own char-
acteristic compositions. Through the years since that period to the
present time we have applauded the most eminent artists of the
world.

Among the founders of our musical achievement, three more of our
artists merit especial mention: Camilo Giucci, Italian-born pupil of
Lizst, who directed the Franz Lizst Conservatory and who left his
artistic heritage to his children; Virgilio Scarabelli, distinguished
native violinist and conductor of the National Orchestra, who directs
the Conservatorio Montevideo, and Vicente de Pablo, pianist,
owner of the Conservatorio Uruguay.

The greatest artistic development known in our history came about
through the initiative of Don Luis Sambucetti and our President Don
Claudio Williman, under whose guidance the state cooperated in the
founding of our National Symphony Orchestra. This was the first

URUGUAYAN MUSIC deo

Bajo el Alero de las Pestanas

“BAJO EL ALERO DE LAS PESTANAS”

L. Cluzeau Mortet, a present-day composer, has given a haunting melody to one of Amado
Nervo’s poems.

opportunity, I believe, that Uruguayan composers had of hearing and
conducting their own works, and it was a joy indeed. Among the
first national composers on the programs we recall Sambucetti,
Maino, Fabini, Maria Galli, Maria E. Vaz Ferreira, and the writer.
The orchestra began to play in 1908 with early seasons of 90 consecu-
tive nights and, although interrupted by events and consequences of
the World War, it was reorganized in recent years and is now develop-
ing and broadcasting its semiweekly concerts. Next in order to the
orchestra came our first chamber music association formed by
Professors HE. Fabini, violin; De Pablo, pianist A. Banos, ’cellist; and
Fiammengo, viola. At the present time we have three chamber
music clubs, each with large numbers of adherents and splendid
eroups of artists.

To-day, we may say that the highest place of honor amongst our
composers is held by the creator and compiler of our native folk
music, Eduardo Fabini. This artist is gifted with the most exquisite
sentiment and purest inspiration among the Uruguayan writers of
folk music in instrumental and symphonic form. As early as 1900,
while a student of violin in Brussels where he won the gold medal of
honor, he began to harmonize tristes for the guitar, and in 1907,
inspired by the nature he knows and loves so well, he composed

Zurciendo Hojas

Luss PEDRoMon? IN 0

“ZURCIENDO HOJAS”

A modern composition by Luis Pedro Mondino, whose work has been attracting much attention.

URUGUAYAN MUSIC Me)

Flores del Monte and Flores del Campo. Since then he has continued
to devote his time and inspiration to our folk music of the highest
erade, climaxing his successes by producing Campo, probably the
most perfect symphonic work on our folk music, La Isla de los Ceibos,
and La Melga. These constitute the trio of his folk music symphonies
to date and crown him as a world-famous artist. Never tiring, he
has produced, and continues to produce, many beautiful folk songs,
amongst them El Poncho, La Giieya, and El Nido, showing faithfully
in all of them a profound knowledge and comprehension of native
songs and a perfect instrumental technique.

To this generation also belongs L. Cluzeau Mortet, whose keen
understanding of his native folk lore is permitting h'm to write works
of value, sovgs and fantasias of haunting, pure melodic strains,
among which we can recall the musical setting of Amado Nervo’s
beautiful poem Bajo el Alero de las Pestafias; also Noche Blanca de
Luna, Evocacién, Criolla, Pericén, and Carreta Quemada.

During these later years, many other composers have been busy.
One is Vicente Ascone, who scored a triumph with his Suite Uru-
guaya, and whose latest work, a ballet called Za Carreta (based on a
poem from the pen of Victor Pérez Petit), is a revelation tous. This
had its premiére in August, 1932 Without losing for an instant
the melody of our folk music, the richly colorful nstrumentation and
surprising orchestral effects permit this work to be classed with the
most modern compositions and to belong to universal music. Pilades
Stampanoni (codirector of the Conservatorio Montevideo) has just
completed a notable suite of new and harmonious instrumentation,
which he modestly names Impresiones Sinfénicas. The young
maestro Marott:, after writing many minor works, has recently pub-
lished a suite for grand orchestra, entitled No. 1. Calcavecchia,
bandmaster of the Municipal Band, shows his inspiration in the
symphonic works Uruguay and Preudio. And amongst the most
prolific composers is Félix Peyrallo, concert viola, founder of the
Centro Enciclopédico, whose chorus and orchestra he conducts.
He has written many beautiful works, especially choruses; the best
is probably the centennial hymn Uruguay, composed in 1930 on the
conclusion of the celebration of the first century of our independence.
Among our very modern song writers we recall Luis Pedro Mondino,
whose original songs are bringing him fame in Europe and his own
country.

We also have our women composers, the most versatile probably
being Maria Galli, whose valuable works, full of character, have
brought her fame. A little Italian influence is discernible in her
romances and songs. Her sonatas are inspired indeed, and her
descriptive native themes, such as Alborada and Cabalgada, are truly
worthy of admiration. To the same generation belongs the composer

Un Sogno

EMS de Palo

a
i

ia
int

URUGUAYAN MUSIC 700

iy ¢

“UN SOGNO” BY E. M. 8. DE PATE (ELISABETTA”)
The score above and on the preceding page is part of a work for string quartette
who signs herself ‘‘Elisabetta,’’ author of many minor pieces such
as military marches and concert waltzes. It is considered that her
best orchestral works are Swte Uruguay-Italia (where native airs
mingle with Italian romance); Hlegia in Memoriam, written in homage
to our lost painter Carlos M. Herrera; Gypsy and Un Sogno, the latter
for string quartette.

There are so many writers of music, typical and otherwise (as the
production of popular native music is enormous), that we believe it
is impossible, however pleasant the task might be, to give, in a few
short notes, a lucid idea of our love of music in every form or to name
all those who have contributed to it. Since our country is bathed
by the ocean, a circumstance which in the life of a nation entails
communication, travel, and progress, the influence of other national-
ities filters in. While it unites us with the uplifting spirit of the
great old masters of Europe, we still, in many cases, write in typically
Uruguayan fashion. It even seems probable that our music may
develop a still more truly native character, acknowledging more and
more the beauty of the descriptive airs which have been handed down
to us in simple form and are being developed into immortal works by
men like Fabini, Mortet, Ascone, and others.

As for vocal music, singing comes to us easily and naturally from
the Gaucho who in bygone days so softly plucked his guitar and so
cleverly voiced his thoughts as a payador. Enriched by education
and culture, the Gaucho persisted through the years, the same blood
running through his veins, mixed with the heritage from old Spain
and Italy; his song lived through the struggles on the broad plains
and valleys of the ‘Purple Land,” finally filtermg into the cities
through the conservatories and universities. The amalgamation of

141901—32—Bull. 11

DQ
v0

778 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

races from all climes, the vigorous blood that pulses under the
Southern Cross, has produced full-throated human songbirds, and it
is of interest to note that in the female voices, the mezzos and con-
traltos are balanced in number with the sopranos.

It can be said of Uruguayans that ‘“‘we sing because we love to
sing,’ and it is almost impossible to find a home, however modest, in
which folklore is not loved and where music does not reign in some
form. Choral work is highly developed, especially in Montevideo,
the oldest and largest association being La Coral which, directed first
by Kolischer, now has as conductor Carlos Correa Luna. Risler,
Rubenstein, Koschetz, and E. D’Hors have passed judgment in praise
of this mixed chorus which the eminent kapellmeister, Felix Wein-
gartner, conducted on three occasions, one program including Mozart’s
Hostia and Brahms’s Nanie. At the conclusion he autographed his
baton in a burst of admiring enthusiasm and presented it to the
association.

Although Uruguay is rich in concert artists, we have spoken here
principally of some of our composers, since these, even if they do not
travel, can, from their homeland, send to all nations loving greetings,
becoming faithful messengers of the sentiments of a race and speaking
to everyone in that universal tongue, a language, all its own, under-
stood by every human being on earth—wmusic.

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN LATIN AMERICA
By A. A. Mott, Ph. D.

Scientific Editor, Pan American Sanitary Bureau

NDOWED as all medical history is with a charm of its own, some

of its most fascinating and romantic as well as dramatic pages in
the investigative and also the more immediately practical fields have
been written in the Latin section of the New World. Carridn* stands
out to this day as the prototype of medical research, who, in the
pursuit of truth and in his love for humanity, does not stop even at
self-sacrifice, and almost in the same category we must place Miguel
Otero, Lazear, and Ricketts,* as well as Noguchi, who lost his life in
Africa while completing studies begun in America. In addition, some
medical events staged in the Western Hemisphere, for instance, the
discovery of cinchona and the conquest of yellow fever and hookworm
disease, are epoch-making deeds. The use of the Countess’s powder
inaugurates the era of scientific medication, and Finlay’s* theory
and its confirmation by Reed* and his group herald the advent of
modern mass sanitation and the reclamation of the Tropics for the
white race. Finally, the creation of national laboratories, second to
none in the world, and the development of a body of trained research
workers speak eloquently of the fostering of the scientific spirit, which
is one of the cornerstones of human progress.

I. Tue Past

The Indian treasure house.—The Indians must have had but the
barest idea of the wealth of curative material that they could offer
their conquerors. Rich as the Potosi mines proved, their value could
not approach that contained in the depths of the New World forests.
Even leaving aside quinine, or rather, cascarilla, never before or
afterwards in history has there been sprung suddenly upon the world
such a collection of remedies as those found in America—cannabis
indica, castor oil, chaparro, chenopodium, coca, condurango, copal,
curare, damiana, guaiac, hualtata, ipecac, jaborandi, jalap, krameria,
mandragora, the misnamed Peruvian balsam, sabadilla, sarsaparilla,
Tolu balsam, vervain.! Imperfectly deciphered monuments and rec-
ords testify to the aboriginal knowledge of rubber syringes, circumci-
sion, trephining, and embryotomy, as well as of embalming, cremation,

*The scientists of modern times will be discussed in the second part of this article, which the BULLETIN
will have the privilege of publishing in the next issue.—EDITOR.

1 After this imposing list, it is almost amazing to see how little the mineral kingdom of the Indies con-
tributed to the medical armamentarium,

de)

780 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

and surgical measures for pterygion and trachoma. How deep their
medical lore actually was must remain largely a matter of conjecture.
Some have even doubted their knowing the antimalarial properties
of the Loxa bark. Others credit them with the introduction of fever
therapy in general paralysis.

The Aztecs, for whom disease was, as for the Greeks, a divine
punishment, had already connected some ills, such as rheumatism,
colds, and gout, with chilling and dampness; others with the abuse of
drink and sexual contact. They also had some ideas of contagion
and had formed a group of infectious diseases, including epidemics.
In fact, one favorite method of getting rid of a disease was by passing
it on to some stranger or enemy. Diet was depended on a great deal.
Isolation was enforced, especially against skin troubles. Martial
made fun of the Egyptians who could find gods in their back yards.
The Aztecs had only to go on the open street to find drug sellers.
Moctezuma’s botanical garden, so highly praised by Prescott, could
furnish practically any herb prescribed by doctors. ‘There was at
least one plant against practically every disease and any number of
remedies against bleeding, diarrhoea, and parasites. Thus Hernandez
learned from Mexican Indians the names of over 3,000 plants used
by them in treatment.

Spain’s medical status —The Spaniards have been reproached rather
unjustly with failing to derive the fullest scientific advantage from
their early dealings with the Indians. The pages of the cronistas bear
eloquent testimony to the contrary. Even Columbus exhibited from
the very beginning a most meritorious, if untrained, curiosity into
the products of the New World and their possible use in medicine as
well as trade.2 Alvarez Chanea, the physician who went along on
his second trip, was undoubtedly the first medical man to study the
diseases of the Indians, and possibly to report scurvy. The Con-
quistadores can hardly be blamed for not leaving behind a more
perfect record; their deficiencies were the unavoidable consequence
of their times. Medical science drowsed then in a condition of chaos
from which the Renaissance was about to show the way out. The
first germ had still to wait nearly two centuries to be seen and over
three centuries to be identified. The microscope had not been dis-
covered, and almost two centuries elapsed before Kircher used it for
the investigation of disease. Smallpox, measles, scarlet fever, and
diphtheria had not been differentiated. Typhus fever, typhoid fever,
malaria, and influenza were vague entities, disguised under various
names, such as chavalongo, chucho, medorra, ete. Under those con-

2 The references to drugs on the part of Columbus and Peter Martyr de Angleria are purely incidental,
although the latter mentions guaiac as a remedy against the ‘‘ French disease’’ and the poisonous proper-
ties of the manzanillo tree. From a trip to Brazil, Yanez Pinz6én brought canna fistula. A discovery of
greater importance was that of coca by Vespuccio, to be described first by Monardes and more methodically
by Plukenet and Jussieu.

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN LATIN AMERICA 781

ditions it is easy to see how, even to this day, we lack conclusive
data as to the pre-Columbian existence in the New World of such
diseases as malaria, smallpox, leprosy, and typhus fever; while the
origin of both syphilis and yellow fever will probably remain a source
of dispute through the centuries, although modern research tends to
free America from blame for the introduction of either scourge.

To paraphrase one of Cajal’s purple passages, the wheel of science
had not fallen as yet off the chariot of Iberic culture.’ There were
already seven universities in the country, one dating from 1214, and
others were soon to be founded.* Palencia had had a chair of anatomy
since 1240 and Lérida had been (1391) among the first HKuropean
universities to authorize public autopsies. Spain had also led the
whole world in creating schools for deaf mutes and the blind. Toledo
proved for several centuries both the repository and distributing
center of Arabic culture. Arnold of Vilanova and Raymond Lull
maintained and revived the Aristotelian tradition of encyclopedical
knowledge. Mérida had a hospital (580) centuries before one was
built in England (St. Albans, 794). The great Isabella had organized
the first field army hospitals, and the military orders probably had
them as early as the XIIth century. The insane asylums at Seville,
Saragossa, and Valencia not only were among the very first in Europe,
but paved the way in the humane care of patients. An Aragonese
physician was soon to describe, fully a century before Harvey, the
circulation of the blood, already anticipated by the Cordovan Averroes.
The Spanish monarchs called to their side the best physicians in the
land, such as Gutiérrez, Torella, Villalobo, Laguna, Lobera, Montafa,
Mercado, Valléz, and, in addition, invited to the court foreigners
such as the great Vesalius. It may be recalled that, while there were
no physicians on the Mayflower, Columbus, Cortez, Magalhaes,
Balboa, and Mendoza carried medical men on their ships,® and, in
the 1492 agreement, Columbus was specifically required to do so.

Early research.—American research entered an orderly and promis-
ing phase with the advent of the first official cronista, Oviedo, who
made not fewer than eight trips to America, where he filled a number
of important positions. Not only did he describe and draw medicinal
plants but pointed out their alleged healing virtues, devoting to the
subject four books of his Historia General y Natural de las Indias
(1535). Don Gonzalo is entitled to more than passing recognition in
medical history, since the remarks on bubas (yaws) in his Sumario

3 The XVIth century is precisely the golden age of Spanish medicine, and Valladolid, with Montpelier
and Bologna, was one of the three great centers of medical study.

4 Salamanca University was founded several years before Oxford received her first charter.

5 Thus history repeats itself, as the first Latin American hospital, that in Santo Domingo (1503 or earlier)
anteceded by many years the first hospital in the English colonies (Long Island, 1663).

6 Sebastian Cabot was explicitly ordered to carry physicians and druggists on his trip to South America
in 1536.

782 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

(1526) mark the beginning of tropical medicine, and his statements,
with the later ones (1542) of Diaz de la Isla, initiated the bitter age-
old controversy as to the origin of syphilis.

Monardes, a Seville physician of Italian extraction (1508-1588),
went farther into the study of American plants and, although he
never crossed the ocean, built the first garden devoted to plants from
the New World. The wealth of material accumulated by him was
embodied in two books published in 1565 (De las Drogas de las Indias)
and 1574 (Historia Medicinal de las cosas que se traen de Nuestras
Indias Occidentales), which became a classic on the subject for several
centuries and was translated into various languages. Another and
higher milestone is represented by the researches of Hernandez
(1514-1587), Philip II’s own physician, who spent seven years (1571—
1577) in Mexico, on the first American scientific expedition. Through
a series of mishaps, Hernéndez’s monumental work (/istoria Natural
de las Indias), in 17 volumes remained unpublished for two centuries
and known only through mutilated versions. Poor Hernandez had
the grief of seeing his painstaking tomes buried with their splendid
illustrations in the Escorial vaults where fire was eventually to destroy
them.’ ;

Mexican priority.—Mexico, where Hernandez labored so well, had
(1580) the first chair of medicine in the New World® and one of the
first two universities. It also witnessed as early as 1576 the first
necropsies in the New World, and its first professor of medicine, de
la Fuente, deserves credit for some pathological studies in cases of
typhus fever. The first chair of anatomy there dated from 1621,
although the teaching of this subject was very deficient until much
later.2 It was perhaps only natural that the first medical books
published in America should also appear in the old Aztec capital.
Francisco Bravo’s Opera Medicinalia (1570) and Alphonso Lépez’s
Summa y Recopilacién de Cirujia (1578) were written by Spaniards;
but Fray Agustin Farfan’s Tractado Breue de Chirurgia (1592) had

7 Until its official publication in 1791, Hernandez’s work was known only through incomplete transcrip-
tions such as Ximenes’ (1615) and Recchi’s (1651). Another of Philip’s physicians, Fragoso or Fragosa,

was also to write, but at long range, on Las cosas aromaticas, arboles y otras medicinas simples que se traen de
las Indias.

8 Medicine, however, had been taught at the University of Santo Tomas in Santo Domingo since
1538 and in Mexico in the two schools for Indians organized by Bishop Zumarraga and Pedro de Gante.
The Lima school (authorized in 1551) dates from 1621, if not 1638; that of Caracas from 1721 (actually 1763);
Habana, 1728; Bogota, 1758 or 1760 (the Rosario College has existed since 1652); Chile, 1769 (professor ap-
pointed in 1756); Quito, 1787 (actually 1791-92); Buenos Aires, 1801; Guatemala, 1805 (Florez became teacher
of medical anatomy about 1785); Bahia and Rio de Janeiro, 1808; Léon, Nicaragua, 1811-12, Puerto Rico
(classes), 1816; Bolivia (classes), 1827; San Salvador, 1847; Haiti, 1860; Costa Rica, 1874; Montevideo, 1875;
Asuncion, 1898. Especially in the early times, such institutions were mere shells, if not pretenses. Prac-
tically all these schools had to be reorganized and almost recreated after the wars of independence.

® The Spanish Government authorized only reluctantly the study of anatomy even in the mother country
itself; for example, in Chile, despite frequent requests to that effect, permission to create a chair of anatomy
was given only in 1773, and in Buenos Aires, in 1801; in Lima, the amphitheater had to wait until 1792.

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN LATIN AMERICA 783

for its author a Mexican, one of the first medical graduates (1567)
in the University. Benavides’ Secretos de Chirurgia was written in
Mexico but published in Spain in 1567. In Cuba the first medical
book dates from 1707; in Guatemala, from 1782; in Brazil, from 1808;
in Puerto Rico, from 1866. Medical pamphlets were published in
in Caracas in 1804; in Buenos Aires, in 1805; in Chile, in 1820." It
may be well to add here that the first survey of a sanitary nature in
the New World was that ordered by Philip II in 1577, asking, among
other things, for data on the increase or decrease of the Indian popu-
lation and causes of this change. By 1599 the Viceroy Marquez de
‘Salinas had a census of Lima made, and, in 1612, Herrera did like-
wise with the Indians in the Rio de la Plata region. At Quito cen-
suses were taken in 1645 and 1757. ‘The first hospital statistics pub-
lished in America were also probably those appearing in the Gaceta
de México in 1785. In Mexico, too, her great viceroys, Bucareli
and Revilla-Gigedo, in the latter part of the XVIIIth century, had
censuses made of inhabitants, property, and occupants.

The first Czesarean section in the New World (1779) seems also
to have been a Mexican achievement, it having been performed by
two friars at Santa Clara. Another was recorded in 1795. In
Mexico, execution of the Cesarean by even laymen was urged as a
religious duty by the Viceroy Bucareli in 1772, following Charles
IIV’s 1749 pragmatic and the injunctions in the book published by a
Neapolitan priest in 1745. These were of course post-mortem opera-
tions. In Venezuela a Caesarean operation, probably the first on a
live woman in the Western Hemisphere, was performed in 1820 by
Ruiz Moreno, who also did the first lithotomy, the first embryotomy
and other operations, and introduced smallpox vaccination into the
country. The first Cesarean in the United States was not performed
until 1827, although the first Mexican operation may be assigned to
this country, since Santa Clara is located in California. The first
symphisiotomy was undoubtedly that at Mexico in 1784. In
Argentina the first successful Cesarean (mother and child surviving)
dates only from the last decade of last century.

Brazil.—Medical knowledge about the present Portuguese-speak-
ing part of America comes from a later date, but, even so, it is
earher than that of Inca-Araucan medical progress. During his
rule of the Dutch possessions in South America (Guiana), Maurice
of Nassau brought with him two prominent scientists, Willem Piso
and George Marcgrave, who spent six years (1637-1643) exploring

10 Dr. Pedro Lopez was the first graduate, in 1553, his name being also entitled to remembrance as the
founder of the first home for children in Mexico and probably in America (1582).

11 The different dates of the introduction of printing, in itself a reflection of the growth and culture of the
colony, had something to do with this: Mexico, 1540; Peru, 1584; Santo Domingo, 1600; Guatemala, 1660;
Cuba, 1700; Paraguay, 1705; Colombia, 1738; Ecuador, 1755; Tucuman, 1766; Buenos Aires and Chile, 1780;
Uruguay and Puerto Rico, 1807; Caracas and Rio de Janeiro, 1808; Panama, 1822.

784 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

the Brazilian coast. Their joint work appeared (1648) in Latin
under the title Historia Naturalis Brasiliae, Piso calling his contribu-
tion De Medicina Brasiliensi. Another volume, De Historie Naturalis
et Medicae Indiae Occidentalis, dates from 1658. Piso must be con-
sidered one of the fathers of tropical medicine, as he takes up suc-
cessively local diseases (fevers, dysenteries, hookworm disease, ulcers,
and amoebic abscesses of the liver) and their remedies. The first to
classify the marvelous Brazilian flora and fauna, thus providing the
South American counterpart of Hernandez’s work, he also discussed
parasitology before Redi did, maugurated research about snakes,
introduced necropsies and pathological studies in Brazil, and studied
and treated successfully the bicho do pe (Sarcopsylla penetrans).
This Dutch physician must likewise be credited with discovering the
emetic and antidysenteric properties of ipecac. As Schiaffino has
well brought out, Piso and Marcgrave supply the connecting link
between the work of Monardes and Hernandez on Mexico and that
of the Paraguayan missionaries.”

After Piso, medical lore about Brazil was practically nonexistent
until Ferreira da Rosa’s Trattado Unico da Constituigéo Pestilencial
de Pernambuco (1694) and Rocha Pitta’s description (1730) of the
1686 epidemic of a bicha, which seems to have been yellow fever.
Ferreira da Rosa’s book is a classic of tropical medicine giving the
first account of yellow fever by a European physician, with a descrip-
tion of the first autopsy in a case. However, a layman, Lopez
Cogolludo, in his Historia de Yucathan (1688) had already described
the 1648 peste in the Mexican peninsula.

South American missions.—The medical and sanitary phase of the
task accomplished by the Jesuits in South America is entitled to full
recognition, since, besides furnishing the Indians with medical and
nursing care, as the Franciscans did in Mexico, they studied plants
and classified anatomical and pharmaceutical knowledge.” Out-
standing among their number are Father de Torres, who, on being
appointed head of the missions in 1608, prescribed most elaborate
and far-sighted instructions for the building of towns; Ruiz de Mon-
toya (1588-1652), a remarkable linguist as well as nurse and apostle;
and especially Montenegro (1663-1728), whose collected teachings
served as a textbook on materia medica for several generations.
Others, such as the historians del Techo, Pastor Lozano (who was one
of the first to describe the cinchona tree and who also left a masterly
essay on yerba maté), SAnchez Labrador, and Dobrizhoffer (1717—

12 Tt is interesting to recall that Piso’s Brazilian work took place in Bahia, where the first Brazilian medical
school was organized, in 1808, and where the scientific study of tropical medicine was also to be initiated in
the early part of the X Xth century. A

13 Other orders, such as the Dominicans, organized the first medical schools, for instance, at Santo Do-
mingo, Quito, etc.

\nipicio et Benelicto

PMAVRITIL Cvs

Plante et Animalia

retiia ¢f Mores <*

v baie
cucunr HH, a
“ J

ade
ro 4
DA Ag)

Courtesy of the Library of Congress

TITLE-PAGE OF THE “HISTORIA NATURALIS BRASILIAE”

In addition to being a classic of tropical medicine, Piso’s volume is a source cf eternal joy to the
bibliophile with its beautiful colored illustrations of American plants.

786 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

1791) compiled valuable data on the local flora and on outbreaks of
disease.

An epoch-making discovery.—After such an intensive period of
productive investigation, as the novelty wore off (but mostly as Spain
settled into darkness under the reactionary Hapsburg régime), an
epoch of quiescence was to be expected. Yet it was during the twilight
surrounding the XVIIth century that a happy train of circumstances
led to the discovery of one of the supreme drugs of all times—cin-
chona. In spite of assertions to the contrary, the Quito Indians, or
at least their caciques, must have known the healing properties of
the querango bark they offered to cure, probably about 1630, the mala-
rial fever prostrating the corregidor of the Province of Loxa, Juan
Lépez de Canizares. By 1632 the Jesuit Cobo was already taking
some bark to Spain and Rome. The popularity of the drug dates,
however, from 1638, when it was used, at Cafizares’ suggestion, to
stop the chills which had made an invalid of Donia Francisca Henri-
quez de Ribera, the wife of the fourth Count of Chinchon, who was
Viceroy of Peru at the time.’? Linneus proved himself a good
courtier as well as a gallant scientist when he named the plant after
the Countess instead of the corregidor or the cacique.

French influence.—The Loxa bark proved a magnet, drawing
scientists to America in the hope both of studying it at close range and
of finding similar treasures. ia Condamine, who came with Juan and
Ulloa’s expedition (1735-1746), gave to the French Academy the first
scientific description of the tree which the botanist Jussieu (1739) had
been the first to describe. As a result of their two trips to South
America (in 1777-78), Ruiz and Pavén compiled (1794) La Flora
del Pert y Chile, followed (1798) by Florae peruviane et chilenses and
Sistema vegetabilium, and other studies on krameria, calaguala, etc.,
and by Ruiz’ Quinologia (1792).

The French influence, thus initiated in South America, had made
itself felt elsewhere even before. In Guadalupe, Fathers Breton and
Du Tertre, in the second part of the XVIIIth century, gave descrip-
tions of local diseases, including, perhaps, beriberi, and especially of
the coup de barre; this description many consider the first account of
yellow fever. At Martinique, the yellow fever epidemic of 1722 was

14 Philip II, in 1559, forbade any of his subjects to study abroad and put difficulties in the licensing of
foreigners to practice in Spain, thus effectively cutting off scientific interchange. For a long time the
practice of both surgery and medicine by one person was prohibited. As late as the X VIIIth century when
Esquilache tried to have the streets of Madrid cleaned, the physicians opposed the measure, claiming that
mephitic smells helped to improve public health. The American colonies fared even worse, the hospitals
becoming the real medical schools. The establishment of printing presses was discouraged, as well as the
entry of foreign books and journals. Unanue has left a masterly account of the disastrous condition of
medicine and its teaching throughout Latin America. :

15 Her husband is also entitled to remembrance for urging the King to create two chairs of medicine in
order to supply badly needed physicians for American towns.

16 There is little doubt that the priority belongs to Ferreira da Rosa (1686).

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN LATIN AMERICA Ties

described by Father Labat. Early in the XVIIIth century French
physicians in Haiti drew attention to the occurrence of intestinal
parasites, especially ascaris, and, about 1730, recognized that the
undue prevalence of tetanus among the newborn was caused by some
umbilical infection or pathological condition. Chevalier, in 1752,
described the presence of filariasis (nowadays extinct there), yaws,
and most probably leprosy. Desportes-Pouppée, in 1770, stressed
the danger of residing in regions infested by mosquitoes, stating that
these insects bred in stagnant waters. By 1785 Dazille blamed on
neighboring swamps the greater occurrence of “habitual fevers” in
certain Haitian towns, warned against the custom of keeping water
barrels near the houses, and advised putting lime in swamps; and,
finally, in 1800, Descourtilz, the author of Flore des Antilles (his
work appeared in 1816) also raised his voice against stagnant waters
as a cause of yellow fever, and urged the use of mosquito nets.”

The story of French influence, with its deep ramifications—political,
scientific, and literary—in America, both North and South, justifies
a long study. It was French explorers and pirates who first dented
the solidity of the Spanish colonial empire. Even the physician who
attended Bolivar in his last hours was from France.

To the list of French scientists connected with America must be
added Father Feuillée, who published two books (1714, 1723) on
medicinal plants of Peru and Chile, and Frezier, whose excursion
lasted from 1712 to 1714. With Ruiz and Pavén’s expedition to
Chile (1790) came Doctor Dombey, who did such valuable work
from both a research and medical standpoint that O’Higgins urged
him, but unsuccessfully, to stay in the country. His name is justly
borne by a number of Chilean plants. With Malaspina’s mission
(1794) 8 was another French botanist, Louis Née, most of whose
studies on the natural history of Chile remain unpublished.” Among
French physicians who left their mark during the XVIIIth century
on Chile, we must also mention Lasevinat and especially Nevin, the
most prominent Chilean physician of his time, who became the first
professor of medicine (1756) at the Santiago University 7° and presi-
dent of the protomedicate (examining board). With him we may
join later men, such as Sazie, who lost his life caring for patients
during the typhus epidemic of 1865, and Lafargue, who wrote an

17 In the very first issue of the first medical journal published in Haiti, Delorme recommended, among
other sanitary measures, the filling in of swamps in the neighborhood of Port au Prince.

18 Malaspina’s expedition had also been joined by the German scientist Haenke, who remained in South
America until his death, in 1817, and who, in addition to collecting and describing plants, was one of the
early practitioners and protagonists of vaccination in Bolivia.

19 Some of the United States’ earliest and greatest naturalists, including Long and Lesueur, were of
French descent, a blood that at least four American presidents had in their veins. Thoreau and Agassiz
were also of that same strain, and the pioneer, Audubon, not only was of French origin, but was born
in Haiti.

20 Nevin may have been of Irish extraction. His classes only began in 1769.

788 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

extensive and rather severe essay on health and medical conditions
in Chile (1840-41). To the same nationality belonged the illustrious
Dumont, who revived and almost introduced anatomy in Mexico
about the middle of the XVIIth century, and Bompland (1773-1858)
who, after visiting South America and Mexico with Humboldt, in
1798-1804, returned in 1816 to explore both Argentina and Paraguay
and died in Uruguay, as if he wanted to connect his name with the
three countries of the Rio de la Plata. In Brazil we find, among
the five founders of the Academy of Medicine, Faivres, and especially
Sigaud, the organizer of the first Brazilian medical journals and author
of that classic of American medicine, Climate and Diseases of Brazil,
published, it may be noted, in French, in Paris (1844). <A Pole, but

j FRANCISCO JAVIER
EUGENIO DE LA CRUZ
Y ESPEJO

A champion of Pan A merican-
ism, a martyr to his convic-
tions, and a glory to medi-
cine.

with French connections, was Chernoviz, author of the first Brazilian
formulary and a Diccionario de Medicina, very popular among the
masses. Mme. Durocher, who went to Rio in 1816, when 7 years
old, deserves special notice, as hers was the first diploma granted by
the newly organized medical school in 1832, and she was the only

woman ever elected a member of the National Academy of Medicine

21 The history of science hardly has a more pathetic career than that of Aimé Bompland (né Goujeaud),
thus nicknamed by his father for his love of nature, trailed by a series of misfortunes throughout his life
and even after death. After organizing the first botanical garden in Buenos Aires and being appointed
there professor of natural history and materia medica, Bompland reintroduced the cultivation of yerba maté
in Corrientes. His property and collections destroyed in a raid ordered by the tyrant, Francia, the scien-
tist was held prisoner for over nine years in Paraguay, despite Bolivar’s pleading. His new flourishing
plantation was again razed in 1839. Bompland organized the Museum of Natural History of Corrientes,
in 1845. While his embalmed body was lying in state, a drunkard, who happened by, stabbed it several
times, mistaking for scornful silence the serenity of death.

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN LATIN AMERICA 789

until Mme. Curie’s election in 1926.%~ With the French school we
must also group Beauperthuy, a native of Guadalupe, who, as early
as 1854, stated, in Venezuela, that his 14 years’ study pointed out
that mosquitoes were the cause of yellow fever and malaria and even
mentioned the species with striped legs (Aedes aegypti) in connection
with yellow fever.”

Under the auspices of Sigaud, who had a sightless daughter, a
method for teaching the blind was introduced by Alves de Azevedo,
who had studied in Paris, and shortly after his death in 1854 Sigaud
organized the first institute for blind children in Brazil.

French influence was, however, going to be counterbalanced, in
Chile, with the advent in the early part of the XI Xth century of two
of the country’s most illustrious physicians—the Irishman Blest, who
did so much for medical teaching and devoted himself earnestly to the
study of Chilean diseases, and the Welshman Cox, a pioneer in health
work. A contemporary of these men was Abbé Molina, a Chilean
who spent most of his life in Italy where he published (1782) his
Saggio sulla Storia Naturale del Chile and all his other works. Molina’s
industry was duly praised by Humboldt, and, altogether, he is the
ereatest scientist produced in colonial times in Chile. Next to him
in scientific rank we should place Pedro Franco Davila, of Guayaquil,
who was appointed by Charles III Director of a Museum of Natural
History at Madrid; and, especially, the versatile Mutis (1732-1808),
a Colombian by adoption, who added so much to our knowledge of
cinchona, and, justly praised by Linnzus, made his mark as a botanist,
a physician, an astronomer, a linguist, and a sanitarian. He also
furthered medical education and advocated smallpox inoculation in
addition to developing a scientific school whose most prominent
member was Caldas, distinguished alike as a botanist, an astronomer,
a geologist, and a writer. A Brazilian, Ferreira Leal, after studying
in Vienna, was invited by Pombal to become professor of materia
medica and pharmacy at Coimbra.

Awakening in the XVIIIth Century.—The medical activity in the
XVIIIth century embraced all parts of the mainland. A more

2 Another French lady, who influenced the development of obstetrics in South America, was Mme.
Fessel, a translation of whose work was published in Lima in 1827. Durand, another Frenchman (whose
name is borne by a hospital), the first real professor of obstetrics (1822) in Buenos Aires (Fabre had given
a course in 1805), was killed by a man whose wife, in labor, he was trying to save. The first licensed mid-
wife in Argentina (1827) was also French, Véronique Pascal. The most famous midwife in Buenos Aires
was, however, the native-born Dofia Luisa Ravassi, who attended over 6,000 deliveries. In Mexico the
first chair of obstetrics dates only from 1833; in Chile, from 1834, when it was in charge of the Frenchman
Sazie.

231t detracts from Beauperthuy’s merit that he extended his mosquito theory to a number of other dis-
eases, as Nott, the New Orleans man, had done before him. He even considered yellow fever a variety
of malaria and thought the mosquito brought from marshes the infectious matter. Beauperthuy felt that
his doctrines should not be published until supported by further evidence. A world of distance separates
Finlay’s close-knit reasoning from Beauperthuy’s loose theories. Among other French physicians in
Venezuela was Juliac, the first to make in that country an autopsy on a yellow-fever case. His museum
at Puerto Cabello was highly praised by Humboldt and Bompland.

790 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

enlightened rule in Spain, which then sent to the New World some of
its best viceroys, served to prepare that group of American scientists
so highly praised by Humboldt; some of them, alas, such as Caldas
and Espejo, fated to fall martyrs to their patriotism.** In Mexico,
this was the time that saw such men as Alzate, Serrano, Montafia
establish the groundwork of modern medicine. Medical papers were
published in the Gaceta de México (1722-1742), and the eminent
Bartolache founded the first medical journal in all America, the
Mercurio Volante (1772-73). The historiographer Leén lists 154

JOSE MARIA VARGAS

The first and the greatest of
Venezuelan surgeons and re-
searchers, who also excelled
in languages, mathematics,
philosophy and theology,
and even found time to be
President of his country.
Vargas was called by his
father confessor the best
man he had ever known.

medical works, dating from the XVIIIth century, in Mexico, and
315 from 1570 to 1833.

In South America three remarkable physicians preeminently
embody the XVIIIth century spirit—Espejo, Vargas, and Unanue.
Bolivar came too late to become acquainted with the man whose
name remains one of the purest Ecuadorean glories and some of whose
doctrines he fully shared and was to carry out,” but his fame shines
all the brighter for his having been the steadfast friend of both Vargas

24 The Inquisition burned at the stake both European physicians, such as the French Wandiere and
Seniergues, and the Portuguese de la Vega, and local men, such as de Rivera, Quaresma, Silva, Maldonado.

25 Espejo, perhaps, even to a greater extent than Bolivar, thought in continental terms, thus being one
of the fathers of Pan Americanism.

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN LATIN AMERICA 791

and Unanue.”” Espejo, of Indian descent and entirely a native
product, was too many sided to center his efforts exclusively on medi-
cine. He was the leading patriot in Ecuador and an effective polemist
(if not a great writer), as well the first journalist and the first public
librarian in his country. Appropriately enough his best essay is the
one on smallpox inoculation. In an ironical and pitiless vein, which
recalls that of Swift, he uses the occasion to report on health conditions
in Quito and indict deficiencies in sanitation and hospitals while

JOSE HIPOLITO
UNANUE

He was justly called one of the
fathers of American medi-
cine, and his versatile brain
also cultivated statesman-
ship, finance, philosophy,
and oratory.

dealing with leprosy, venereal disease, tuberculosis, measles, and
quacks.””

Unanue, a favorite pupil of the famous Moreno, has been called,
and not idly, one of the fathers of American medicine. His work for
the creation in 1792, of the Lima anatomical amphitheater for practical
teaching of medicine, with the opening of the San Fernando medical

26 With them we could also group Bello, who, in his youth, thought of studying medicine, translated
several medical papers from French and English into Spanish, and left behind an essay on the origin of
syphilis. This subject, we may add, also attracted the attention of Espejo, who held views similar to
Bello’s on the non-American source of the disease. Wemight perhaps mention with Bello his contemporary
Larrafiaga, the founder of the first public library in Montevideo, whose name is still borne by the foundling
asylum he opened in 1818, and who abandoned the study of medicine to become a priest, leaving behind a
collection of unpublished first-hand observations in the field of natural history, a subject in which his
prominence was recognized, even abroad.

77 It is only fair to state that Espejo opposed inoculation but favored isolation.

792 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

school in 1811, makes him also one of the pioneers of medical research.
His many gifts as a scholar, a cosmographer, a sociologist, an orator,
and a statesman explain what-he was able to accomplish directly for
Peruvian and indirectly, by example, for American medicine.
Unanue’s Observaciones sobre el Clima de Lima (1806) (Gn which he
studied topography, climatology, and most common diseases with
their treatment) with his reports on dysentery, smallpox vaccine,
bicho, tobacco, coca, human longevity, show how much he could have
done had more normal times allowed him leisure to cultivate his
investigative tastes.* In addition to a mutual connection with
Bolivar, the remarkable Vargas (1786-1854), an English graduate,
had a great deal in common with Unanue. It was on his shoulders
that fell the task of reorganizing medical schools in Venezuela and of
starting the new era of medical research with his studies, about 1828, of
myiases, derrengadera, and dysenteries. His colleague, Hernandez,
the man to hold longest a professorship in Venezuela and first to
organize boards of health in the country—to this day remembered as
an example to his profession—wrote about the climate of Caracas in
1829.

While Argentina made a rather late start in the field of medical
research, she was to make up her delay by rapid strides in more recent
times. Her first protophysician, the Irish O’Gorman (a French
graduate whose name was hispanized into Gorman), has to his credit
the introduction of inoculation against smallpox, both in Spain and
the Plata colonies (probably shortly after his arrival in 1777) and of
issuing the first and most thorough instructions for the use of smallpox
vaccine in 1805.78 In the next generation, Mufiiz (1795-1872) stands
out, having discovered, about 1822, spontaneous cowpox in Argentine
cattle. He was also the first native paleontologist, a correspondent of
Darwin, and a leader in army hygiene, and finally fell a victim to
yellow fever when, as an old man, he came to help the sick during an
epidemic.

What Unanue, Vargas, O’Gorman, and Blest did for South America,
Montana achieved for Mexico. A chemist and a botanist, as well as
a physician, he assumed the chair of clinical medicine, in 1806, thereby
beginning the renaissance of medical teaching in his native jand.°*°
Munoz, a rather original character, introduced humanized vaccine

28 Unanue’s house used to be called the meeting place of all scientists.

22 While Charles IV’s government should be praised for its enterprise in outfitting the celebrated expedi-
tion for bringing smallpox vaccine to the Spanish colonies, it is proper to recall that before its arrivel the new
method had been introduced almost accidentally in a number of places—by a French ship, in Cuba, in 1802;
in Puerto Rico, from St. Thomas; in Venezuela, from Puerto Rico; in Peru, by a Spanish ship on her way to
the Philippines; in Mexico, from Cuba and the United States; in Montevideo, in 1805, by a slave ship with
some vaccinated negroes on the way to Bahia; in Buenos Aires, from Montevideo; in Chile, from Argentina.
In Brazil the vaccine had been brought by Mendes Ribeiro as early as 1798, the very year when Jenner
published his epoch-making paper. At Flores, Buenos Aires, the pacard tree under which the beloved
dean, Doctor Segurola, performed some of the earliest vaccinations in Argentina, is still shown.

30 Montafia was unlucky enough to allow himself to be drawn into an attack on the great patriot, Hidalgo.

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN LATIN AMERICA 793

into Mexico, made a name for himself as an obstetrician and an
opthalmologist, and designed a number of instruments.*!

The scientific development of Brazil began at a later date. Yet a
contemporary of these men was Alvares Carneiro (1776-1837), the
embodiment of the ideal healer, whose life reads like a romance. An
orphan in his earliest childhood, reared by charity, he became a
physician by sheer force of will. On his way to Europe in search of
learning, he was captured by pirates and sold as a slave in Africa.
Released by his master, whose daughter’s life he had saved, he became
a Portuguese ship’s physician, traveling for experience’s sake in Asia
and Africa. Eventually he returned to Rio to become physician to
the poor, whom he often paid instead of charging fees, and finally
died of a fall from a horse on his way to treat a patient.

The newly won national independence, which seemed at first to
muddle up things in the medical field, soon gave stimulus to research
and education, as students began going to Europe and schools were
reorganized on a wider basis. Pasteur’s discoveries, after the middle
of the century, also gave added impetus and orientation to the move-
ment everywhere. Fresh laurels were to be gathered by Latin
American medicine in this new period.

31 Munoz, in spite of religious opposition, did not hesitate to divorce (separate) himself from his wife on
his own authority, and in an emergency operated with high forceps on his own daughter, delivering a live
fetus.

141901—32—Bull. 11——-4

AIR-MINDED LATIN AMERICA

By ApAm CartTER,
Pan American Union Staff

O be air-minded at the present time is, no doubt, a token of

progressiveness. But to have been air-minded since the beginning
of the century is indeed a mark of true foresight. That Latin America
has earned such an honor may easily be seen if we hark back to the
infancy, and even to the very cradle, of aviation.

A Latin American won a prize for being the first to circle the Eiffel
Tower in a powered airship. That happened in 1901. Five years
later, that same Latin American was decorated by the French Goy-
ernment for the invention of an airplane. The Alps and the Andes,
which for many years remained unconquered by the airplane, were
first crossed by Latin American pilots. Early in the history of
aviation, the altitude record for the New World was held by a Latin
American. And finally, a Latin American nation was the first in the
world to have a successful commercial airway. This line is still in
operation and covers now a route of almost 3,000 miles.

Many Latin Americans have earned a place in the honor roll of
aviation’s dead. That they gave their lives for a worthy cause is
attested by the fact that their countries to-day are crossed by a net-
work of air lines which is lengthier than that of the United States
and at certain seasons of the year also surpasses the mileage of the
European system.

The name of a Brazilian, Alberto Santos-Dumont, stands firmly
linked to the beginnings of aviation. Santos-Dumont was born on
a coffee plantation near Sao Paulo on July 20, 1873. As a boy, the
novels of Jules Verne made him dwell in a marvelous world, and early
in life, with the determination of all true dreamers, he began his
efforts to make all those fancies of aerial navigation turn to fact.

He studied mechanics assiduously, made paper balloons and toy
helicopters, and even conceived a dirigible.

His faith in aviation was so firm that it surprised him greatly,
upon his first visit to Paris in 1898, to find that ships of the air were
then no more than little-known curiosities.

In 1900 he began to build dirigibles. That his attitude was one of
‘“‘science for science’s sake’’ was proven the following year when he
won the 100,000 frances offered by the French sportsman, Henri
Deustch de la Meurthe, for the first airship flight from the Pare
d’Aérostation at St. Cloud to and around the Eiffel Tower and return

794

AIR-MINDED LATIN AMERICA 795

to the starting point within the maximum time of half an hour.
Two-thirds of the prize money went to the poor of Paris and the rest
‘to the airman’s assistants.

In carrying out his experiments, Santos-Dumont not only went to
ereat expense but also placed his lifein jeopardy. The first elongated,
motor-driven balloon he built began to collapse while descending
after the first trial flight. To use his own language, “. . . the descent
became a fall. Luckily, I was falling in the neighborhood of the
grassy turf of Bagatelle,
where some big boys were
flying kites. A sudden idea
struck me. I cried to them
to grasp the end of my
geuide-rope, which had al-
ready touched the ground,
and to run as fast as they
could with it against the
wind. They were bright
young fellows and _ they
grasped the idea and the
rope at the same lucky in-
stant. By the manoeuver
we lessened the velocity of
the fall, and so avoided
what would otherwise have
been a bad shaking up, to
say the least. J was saved
for the first time!’

His adventures in the air
included forced landings on |
tree tops; falls in which a
kind fate allowed him to ts Bs

: 6 6 One of the world’s pioneers in aviation was a Brazilian,
escape alive while his craft Santos Dumont, who invented a dirigible before turn-
6 6 ing his attention to heavier-than-air craft.
burst open, ‘‘popping with
a great noise, like a blown-up paper bag’’; and, finally, success with
his Santos-Dumont No. 6.

Later on, at the air base he had established in Neuilly, Santos-
Dumont turned his attention to heavier-than-air craft. He built
several airplanes, in the first of which he flew 220 meters in 21 seconds,
at a height of 20 feet. This was the first public airplane flight ever
made in the world, and for it Santos-Dumont was decorated by the
French Government.

Afterwards, in a machine with a motor of about 20 horsepower
and a fuel supply sufficient for only three-quarters of an hour, he

ALBERTO SANTOS DUMONT

796 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

took to the air on several occasions and made a record flight of 12
miles.

In 1903 he piloted a dirigible over a military review at Longchamps,
and was afterwards ridiculed for predicting that aerial warfare would
be one of the most important phases of future military campaigns.
During the Great War he made another prediction: ‘The airplane
will be even more useful in peace than in war.”’ It is truly regrettable
that he should have died at 59, at the very time that his prediction
was beginning to come true, especially since he was strongly opposed
to the military use of aircraft and had protested against it to the
League of Nations.

Brazil’s claims to aeronautical honors are more than two centuries
old. A Brazilian priest, Father Bartholomeu de Gusm4o, invented a
flying machine in 1709, 74 years before the Montgolfier brothers began
their experiments with balloons.

Details are lacking in regard to the construction of Father Gusm4o’s
ship, but it is known that 1t was made of fine wooden boards, covered
with iron sheeting, and fashioned in the shape of a bird, with wings
and a sail on top, the head being the prow and the tail the rudder.

The ‘‘heart”’ and ‘‘blood”’ of the vessel, wherein lay the inventor’s
secret, were, respectively, two hollow metal balls, placed inside the
machine, and what in our day would be known as some form of electro-
magnetic energy. Familiar words, these, in the twentieth century,
but profound mysteries in 1709!

Father Gusm4o’s foresight and understanding of the usefulness of
aerial navigation are clearly proven by a report on his invention which
he submitted to His Majesty D. Joao V of Portugal: “‘. . . he has
discovered an instrument with which it is possible to travel through
the air in the same fashion as on land and sea and in much less time,
it being feasible to advance two hundred or more leagues in one day.
With these instruments, important messages could be carried to the

armies . . . business men could send letters and goods to all cities
. the Portuguese nation could have the glory of discovering the
regions adjacent to the poles of the world... .” Might not

reasons like these well be put forth by a modern airplane salesman?

The ship was constructed at the expense of the King of Portugal,
and tried in the courtyard of the House of the Indies at Lisbon on
April 19, 1709. It rose to the height of the palace, but crashed against
the top of a wall and fell to earth. No new experiments were made,
and Father Gusm4o, ridiculed and persecuted by the Inquisition,
fled to Spain, where he died in 1724 in abject poverty, his funeral
being paid for by the Brotherhood of Saint Peter.

Adversity has frequently stalked the path of Latin American air-
men. Jorge Chavez, a Peruvian, crashed to his death after completing
the first successful flight ever made over the Alps. Jorge Newbery,

AIR-MINDED LATIN AMERICA 797

‘ ”, iit

A FLYING SHIP OF 1709, INVENTION OF FATHER BARTHOLOMEU LOURENCO DE
GUSMAO

The inventor, a Brazilian priest, sometimes referred to as Father Laurent, in petitioning the King of
Portugal for exclusive rights for the manufacture and operation of the machine explained the drawing as
follows: (A) Represents the sails wherewith the air is to be divided, which turn as they are directed. (B)
The stern to govern the ship, that she may not run at random. (C) The body of the ship which is
formed at both ends scollopwise; in the concavity of each is a pair of bellows, which must be blown when
there is no wind. (D) Two wings which keep the ship upright. (E) The globes of heaven and earth
containing in them attractive virtues. They are of metal, and serve for a cover to two loadstones, placed
in them upon the pedestals, to draw the ship after them, the body of which is of thin iron plates, covered
with straw mats, for conveniency of 10 or 11 men besides the artist. (F) A cover made of iron wire in form
of a net, on which are fastened a good number of large amber beads, which by a secret operation will
help to keep the ship aloft. And by the sun’s heat the aforesaid mats that line the ship will be drawn
toward the amber beads. (G) The artist who, by the help of the celestial globe, asea map, and compass
takes the height of the sun, thereby to find out the spot of land over which they are on the globe of the
perth. (H) The compass to direct them in their way. (I) The pulleys and ropes that serve to hoist or
furl the sails.

an Argentine, held the altitude record for the New World when he
was killed during an attempt to cross the Andes.

As early as 1908, Jorge Chavez, who was then 21 years old, had won
distinction in the air. That year he set an altitude record of more than
5,900 feet at Blackpool, England. Afterwards, at Issy-les-Mouli-
neaux, France, he rose to 8,790 feet. On September 23, 1910, he took
off from Brigue, Switzerland, and in 43 minutes, by way of the
Simplon Pass, crossed the Alps to Domodossola, Italy, reaching during
his flight an altitude of some 10,500 feet. A faulty landing at Domo-
dossola wrecked his plane and injured him so severely that he died

798 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

four days later. To-day his memory is perpetuated not only by his
own country but also by Switzerland and Italy. The airdrome at Las
Palmas, near Lima, bears his name; two monuments rise in his honor
at Brigue, one in the main square and another at the airdrome from
which he started his wonderful flight; and in September, 1925, a
magnificent monument to him was erected at Domodossola, at the
inauguration of which King Victor Emmanuel III was present.

During 1913 and 1914 the aerial exploits of Jorge Newbery had
carried his name far and wide throughout Latin America. He held
what was then the altitude record for the New World—14,436 feet.

On March 1, 1914, after months of laborious study of topography
and atmospheric conditions, he set out to cross the Andes. An acci-
dent, which occurred shortly after his departure from Mendoza,
Argentina, sent him down to his death. His companion, Benjamin
Jiménez Lastra, was severely injured, but eventually recovered.

Flights over the Andes are now an everyday occurrence, but for
many years aviation found in those lofty peaks an impassable barrier:

As early as 1912, airmen were trying to overcome this mighty
range. In December, 19138, the Chilean Clodomiro Figueroa, who
had studied aviation in France. and at that time held the South
American records for distance, speed, and time of flight, made three
separate attempts to cross, following the route of the Uspallata Pass,
but failed because his engine was not sufficiently powerful. To this
same cause may be ascribed the failure of the Argentine Teodoro Fels,
who made several remarkable flights in 1914.

The first aerial voyage over the Andes was made in a balloon, in
1916, by two Argentines, Captain Zuloaga, of the national army, and
Engineer Bradley. They took off from the Chilean side and landed
near Mendoza. Their time was less than four hours, and the maximum
elevation reached 26,000 feet. The daring aeronauts were decorated
‘Pour le Mérit”’ by the President of Chile.

The development of better motors made other fliers take up the
challenge of the Andean range, which, after claiming the lives of
some pilots, and compelling others to turn back, finally bowed to the
airplane on April 15, 1918. This first crossing was made by Lieut.
Luis F. Candelaria, of the Argentine Military Naval School. Lieu-
tenant Candelaria took off from Zapalas, Argentina, and landed at
Curico, Chile, 112 miles away. The maximum elevation reached was
10,500 feet.

On December 12, 1918, Lieut. Dagoberto Godoy, of the Chilean
Army, made the first crossing from Chile to Argentina. During his
memorable flight, which began at Santiago and ended at Mendoza,
lasting an hour and thirty-five minutes, he reached an elevation of
17,300 feet and skirted the Tupungato, an extinct volcano which

AIR-MINDED LATIN AMERICA 799

rises to some 21,000 feet. The best possible account of this wonderful
achievement is that given to us by the flier himself:

‘At last I was to get a bird’s-eye view of the peaks upon which I
had so often gazed from the track of my airdrome. The plane mounted
into space for a time. I had not yet looked downward. I had to
watch my altimeter, my compass, the regular throbs of the oil engine,
and the revolutions of the motor. JI had to change the carburization
continually and regulate the motor; and then, when my altimeter
had passed 17,000 feet, I looked downward.

“T was in an unknown world. The mountain range stood out
wonderfully clear; everywhere were canyons, immense black-mouthed
valleys, gentle foothills, and icy slopes. At the left Tupungato rose
near me to my own height, or perhaps higher, like an enormous sky-
scraper, a magnificent yet graceful tower rearing itself toward heaven.
On one side it had a long, gradual, almost horizontal slope, like a
palm of the hand, white and frozen, but hospitable, inviting me to
alight and linger. But the impression was fleeting. I was going 180
or 190 kilometers an hour, hence the scenery altered rapidly. <A
moment later I crossed the frontier. My country was behind me;
before me lay the sister nation and triumph—my slight but longed-for
victory.

‘“‘At that moment the motor missed and nearly stopped. I guessed
what was the matter: The automatic engine was not working and the
gasoline could not reach the carburetor. I worked an instant and the
engine and rotary started up again before the change had affected the
apparatus. I had to land. So I lessened the supply of gas slightly
and began to descend slowly. The needle, which had reached a
maximum of 17,300 feet, gradually lowered. Then began the battle,
which lasted perhaps three or four minutes. The plane seemed to be
crazy. That morning there had been a windstorm on the Argentine
side. Perhaps that was the result of the cyclone. Then—calm
again. And there in the distance amongst the far-away foothills,
Insignificant when contrasted with the huge bulks I had just left,
rose the outline of Mendoza, beyond the great plain, covered by a
heavy veil of clouds.

“Ten minutes later I was over the historic city. . . . I came to
ground a little worn, my hands knotted from the cold, still rather
uncomfortable from the rarity of the atmosphere in the heights, as I
had not carried oxygen with me. I sprang to the ground and exper-
ienced a new, awesome emotion: I had realized the fulfillment of my
dream—I had crossed the Andes.”’

At that time, Lieutenant Godoy expressed the opinion that the
establishment of regular trans-Andean airplane services between
Argentina and Chile was a ‘“‘comparatively easy”? task. That cer-

SOO THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

tainly was not the case at the time of his flight, but the passage of a
few years has proven that he was right.

During April, 1919, another Chilean airman, Lieut. Armando
Cortinez, made the first Andean aerial round trip—Santiago-Mendoza-
Santiago, with a stop of several days at Mendoza.

New glory was given to Argentine aviation in March, 1920, by
Captains Parodi and Zanni, of the national army, and Naval Lieut.
Marcos Zar. Parodi and Zanni left Los Tamarindos airdrome near
Mendoza (the same field from which Newbery sailed to his death)
on the 9th of that month, at 5.55 a.m. After attaining a height of
12,000 feet, and on reaching the Tupungato at 7 a. m., Parodi ob-
served that Zanni’s airplane had disappeared. He returned to the
starting point where, without landing, he learned that motor trouble
had compelled Zanni to return to Los Tamarindos. Parodi flew
again toward the mountains and an hour later was at Tupungato
at an elevation of 15,500 feet. He then turned toward Santiago and
appeared over that city at an altitude of 9,300 feet. The trip from
Mendoza to the Chilean capital was made in three and a half hours, at
the rate of about 50 miles an hour. After manceuvering over Santiago,
Parodi turned back toward his starting point, crossed the Andes again,
and landed at Los Tamarindos at 10.30 a. m. The round trip
covered a distance of 275 miles and was made at an average altitude of
18,600 feet. The average velocity on the return trip was 125 miles
an hour.

Captain Zanni, using the same machine employed by Captain
Parodi, left Los Tamarindos early in the morning of March 16. He
crossed the Andes twice, rising to heights of more than 18,000 feet,
flew over Santiago and three and a half hours later was back at his
home airdrome.

On the same day that Captain Zanni was conquering the Andes and
paying a visit to the Chilean capital, Naval Lieutenant Zar completed
the first aerial voyage ever made between Buenos Aires and Asuncion,
the capital of Paraguay. This trip, which was carried out in three
sections, required 12 hours and was made in a hydroplane, following
the river courses, a distance of some 780 miles.

Before we leave the aerial trail blazers of the Andes, a tribute should
be paid to the Chilean civilian flier Clodomiro Figueroa, who had
attempted the crossing as early as 1913. At that time a public sub-
scription was started to buy him a machine sufficiently powerful for
his undertaking, but the World War intervened, and it was not until
1921 that he finally obtained the airplane he had so long desired. In
September of that year he took off from Santiago and landed safely in
Mendoza, carrying, during his flight, the first air mail to go from Chile
to Argentina.

The first flight which was ever made between Rio de Janeiro and
Buenos Aires can truly be classed as epoch-making. This journey

AIR-MINDED LATIN AMERICA SOL

had been unsuccessfully attempted by several aviators and had already
cost two lives when the Brazilian pilot Edi Chaves began it on the
morning of the December 25, 1920. As the distance to be covered
was more than 1,840 miles and the airplane’s fuel supply sufficient
for only five and a half hours, three stops had to be made en route.
These were carried out with remarkable precision, and on the after-
noon of the 29th Chaves landed at El Palomar airdrome in Buenos
Aires. A glance at the map is all one needs to understand the
importance of his feat. The regions he traversed, besides being at
that time a veritable terra incognita for airmen, are made up of
mountains, forests, and other natural enemies of atmospheric peace.

THE SCADTA AIRPORT, BARRANQUILLA, COLOMBIA

This is the headquarters at Barranquilla of the first successful commercial air line in the world, which at
the present time covers a route of nearly 3,000 miles.

An outstanding example of tenacity in the face of adverse condi-
tions was given by the Argentine civilian flier KE. M. Hearne, who
in February of 1921 made a trip from Rio de Janeiro to Buenos Aires.
On December 19, 1920, Hearne left El Palomar airdrome, near
Buenos Aires. He flew for four hours, landed to refuel, and took off
again.

Then his troubles began: Forced landings on rough ground, during
which the aviator was lucky to escape with only a broken tail skid or
a twisted axle. Encounters with dense fogs and storms, while flying
over a region of virgin forests, rugged mountains, and rough hills,
where a landing was extremely dangerous or entirely out of the
question.

S02 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Once a storm compelled Hearne to come down on what seemed to
be the only clear space in sight—a field occupied by ants whose
mounds are as hard as stone and rise to a height of 4 or 5 feet. He
landed, more or less successfully, but later on, when attempting to
take off, collided with two ant hills and severely damaged his plane.

Two days’ hard work on the part of the pilot and his mechanic
repaired the machine, but lacking plans and measurements, the ac-
curacy of their work left much to be desired. Nevertheless, Hearne
took off, and then the inevitable happened—the fuselage snapped
at an altitude of 160 feet, and it was only by a miracle that the two
men escaped with their lives.

The journey to Rio was completed by train, and there a new
machine was purchased. In this the journey to Buenos Aires was
begun.

Three consecutive storms, which required climbing to a height of
18,000 feet, were overcome, but a fourth, during which the pilot
reached 19,000 feet only to find that an additional rise of several
thousand feet would be required to clear the storm, made a landing
imperative, as he carried no oxygen for an even higher climb. The
landing, fortunately, was successfully accomplished on a small corn-
field surrounded by high hills.

After several adventures, including first-hand acquaintance with a
cyclone that played havoc with the surrounding trees, and a meeting
with an air-minded cobra, assistance finally came to Hearne, who re-
sumed his travels and reached Buenos Aires by the air route on
February 2, 1921.

Chaves had in the meantime completed his flight from Rio to
Buenos Aires, so that the honor of being the first to accomplish this
trip was denied Hearne. But he undoubtedly ranks as one of the
pluckiest and most tenacious men who ever undertook it.

Great interest in aviation has existed in Mexico ever since the days
when fliers were wont to say that being the oldest pilot on the force
might be preferable to ranking as the best.

In November, 1915, an aviation department was created in the
Mexican War Office, and a military airdrome and flying school estab-
lished. From that time on, Mexico has been training its own pilots.

An aviation factory was soon added to the flying school, and in a
short time it progressed from the construction of parts to the design
of airplane types especially suited to conditions in the country, and
then to the manufacture of these machines, including the engines.

As early as 1918 Mexico was building its own airplanes.

One of the first aeronautical expositions held in Latin America was
inaugurated in Mexico City on September 15, 1920. This exhibit
was made up mostly of the products of the national aeronautical
industry.

A PAN AMERICAN WINTER INSTITUTE IN FLORIDA 803

Mexican airmen have a lengthy and brilliant record of achieve-
ments, not only in flights within their own country but also in voyages
to the Caribbean Zone and the United States.

In June, 1928, Captain Carranza made his wonderful but ill-fated
flight to Washington, D. C. During August and September of that
same year, Colonel Fierro, one of Mexico’s veterans of the air, known
to his colleagues as ‘‘Old Man” Fierro, made a 5,000-mile tour of
Cuba, Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Panama,
beginning and ending in Mexico City.

The Latin American countries have always shown great interest in
aerial developments, and clubs and societies for the promotion of
aviation have existed in all of them for many years. Besides, all
countries have endeavored to establish their own schools and train
their own pilots.

In these nations, airplanes have been employed for many purposes.
Ranch owners use them as a means of transportation to their proper-
ties. Exploration flights have been made over trackless wildernesses
and mountains. Pay rolls, medicines, and supplies are carried to oil
fields, mines, and settlements in isolated districts.

As has already been said, a Latin American nation was the first in
the world to have a successful commercial airway. This line, the
‘“‘Scadta’’ (Sociedad Colombo Alemana de Transportes Aéreos), was
established in December, 1919, at Barranquilla, Colombia, and has
increased its services from 2,688 miles flown in 1920 to more than
800,000 flown in 1930.

To-day, there are more than 20 aviation companies operating in
Latin America, with a network of aerial routes that covers more than
10,000 miles.

A PAN AMERICAN WINTER INSTITUTE
IN FLORIDA

NEW privilege is offered this year to those who spend the months
AN of January, February, and March in the delightful city of Miami,
be they residents, northerners fleemg snow and cold, or regular stu-
dents in the University of Miami. That institution, which since its
inception has been a leader in the field of Latin American studies, will
this year hold for the first time a Pan American Winter Institute,
directed by Dr. Victor Andrés Belatinde, an eminent authority on
Pan American affairs.

The curriculum of the Institute is arranged in two periods of five
weeks each, beginning on January 9, 1933. The half terms are
planned to accommodate those who will be in the city for only part
of the winter.

S04. THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The Institute is an outgrowth of a Pan American forum conducted
in the years 1929 and 1932, which aroused so much interest in the
student body and the public that the university decided to concentrate
its Latin American courses in the winter term, thus affording an
opportunity to acquire special preparation in the Pan American field
within a short space of time.

Doctor Belatinde has been head of the Latin American department
of the university since its founding in 1926. A member of the Peru-

DR. ViCTOR ANDRES
BELAUNDE

Peruvian diplomat, legislator,
scholar, and author, who will
direct the Pan American
Winter Institute at the Uni-
versity of Miami beginning
January 9, 1933.

vian parliament and a former professor of the University of San
Marcos, he has the unique advantage of being connected with the
political and pedagogical life of Peru, besides having had a broad
experience in the life of the other Latin American countries which he
has visited as lecturer and diplomat. He spends the summer and fall
of each year in South America, and the winter and spring in Miami
lecturing on Latin American history, culture, diplomatic relations,
and comparative institutions and literature.

A PAN AMERICAN WINTER INSTITUTE IN FLORIDA 805

The Royal Academy of Madrid and the Academy of History of
Spain long since invited him to be a corresponding member, an honor
coveted by every Latin American intellectual. He has published
many books, essays, and pamphlets about international, philosophical,
and historical questions; his most important work, the Political
Thought of Bolivar, will soon appear in English and Spanish.

The courses offered in the first 5-week period of the Winter Institute
include: Latin American history, including early civilization, the story
of the Conquest, the Spanish settlement and the development of
colonial life; Latin American culture, a study of the native back-
ground and geographical environment and the development of litera-
ture, art, philosophy, religion, and government in colonial times;
Latin American diplomatic relations, dealing with Mexico and the
Caribbean countries, their relations among themselves and with the
United States; and Latin American problems, a seminar on the eco-
nomic, political, social, and international questions in Mexico and the
Caribbean countries. In the second period of the institute these
courses will be continued, the first two treating history and culture
in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and the last two the diplo-
matic relations and problems of the South American republics. A
course in comparative political institutions, conducted in seminar
form, will also be given for the full term if there is a demand for it.

In addition to the foregoing, courses in the economic geography
and economic legislation of Latin America and in the Spanish language
and literature are offered during the autumn, winter, and spring terms.

The great interest shown in the round table on Latin American
affairs at the Williamstown Institute of Politics, the similar discus-
sions at the Virginia Institute of Public Affairs, and the Seminar Con-
ference on Hispanic American Affairs at George Washington Univer-
sity, all held during the summer, augurs well for a large attendance at
the Pan American Winter Institute at the University of Miami. The
location of the city, almost next door to Cuba, is conducive to the
friendly and intelligent relations which it cultivates with its Latin
American neighbors through the University, men’s and women’s clubs,
and many other channels; the courses of the institute are compre-
hensive, and the leadership is inspiring.

FINANCIAL MEASURES TAKEN IN COLOMBIA
TO MEET THE ECONOMIC CRISIS

By GurILLEerRMo A. Suro
Editorial Staff, Bulletin of the Pan American Union

THE EXTERNAL DEBT

The external debt of Colombia in 1923 amounted to 21,969,933.55
pesos. That amount represented the indebtedness of the national
government, for up to that year the Departments, the municipalities,
and the mortgage banks of Colombia had not floated any bond issues
abroad. On June 30, 1932, the total foreign debt of the nation, its
political subdivisions, and the mortgage banks amounted to 210,226,-
532.07 pesos, as shown in the following table:

Public Debt of Colombia as of June 30, 19321

External Debt Pesos 2
IN GLO Ie ee a op EE Beas: LG ee ie ce etek ha a 79, 777, 632. 07
Depo err Grae Ty USPS sas, eae a A ae Ee ee 60, 183, 500. 00
aD Urry Cfo ANT GTS a ee a a eye Lee em nes oer ee ee 22, 216, 900. 00
IMOn Uae slo a Talks es a cape ete is eet ee ee ne are ae ty ee 48, 048, 500. 00
Totalvexternalid ebits= si sane = eae Se ee 210, 226, 532. 07
Internal Debt
MING 1 Oa pes I B= poate IRAE ge oe eet ca 44, 254, 571. 18
Departments:,2 Sess tency se po ee eee eS ie eee ee 21, 808, 594. 07
Miumietp alluties ys een © Soe tee 2 One Rea eo sie ye ee 12, 431, 296. 55
‘Rotaltimbernaledebtws .es2 2 Sa a ee ee oe ae 78, 494, 461. 80
Lotalwoulbblicrdebite ec ses see ae eae ee ee cee 288, 720, 993. 87

* In the last issue of the BULLETIN the writer, after a brief discussion of the effects of the depression in
Colombia, reviewed the first emergency financial measures taken by President Enrique Olaya Herrera in
accordance with the extraordinary powers granted to him by Congress to enact such emergency financial
and economic measures as should be necessary to meet the crisis through which the country was passing.
On September 24, 1931, the day on which Congress invested the Executive with these extraordinary powers,
the gold reserves of the central bank of the nation amounted to 14,000,000 pesos as compared with 65,000,000
pesos in December, 1928. The first measure enacted by the President in the exercise of his extraordinary
powers was intended to stop this dangerous depletion of the gold reserve by restricting and controlling foreign
exchange transactions. As asupplementary measure the importation of many so-called luxury articles was
prohibited and import duties on a long list of products were substantially increased. The various modifica-
tions which these two measures have undergone are discussed in detail in the October issue of the BULLETIN
OF THE PAN AMERICAN UNION; the other outstanding financial measures enacted during this critical period
of Colombia’s history are reviewed in the following pages.

Errata in October issue: For Decree No. 1643 and Decree No. 1187, on p. 729, read Decree No. 1683
and Decree No. 1871, respectively; for December 31, 1931, on p. 732, read December 11, 1931.

1 From the ‘‘ Memoria de Hacienda, 1932,” p. 183.

2 In converting the foreign debt in pounds sterling and dollars into pesos the Ministry of Finance used
the rate of 5 pesos to the pound and 1 peso to the dollar.

3 Does not include the internal debt of the municipalities in the Departments of Cundinamarca and
Magdalena, for which no figures were available.

806

FINANCIAL MEASURES TAKEN IN COLOMBIA 807

The external debt of the nation represents the outstanding balances
of five sterling and two dollar long-term loans and a short-term loan
obtained from a group of international bankers. The former, floated
before 1921, now aggregate £1,392,660 of an original principal of
£2,557,538, and the second, floated in the United States in 1927 and
1928, $55,863,000 out of a total of $60,000,000. The short-term loan,
payable in two currencies, amounts to $13,857,081.80 and 75,728, 102.45
French francs.

The loans of the Departments and municipalities of Colombia were
all floated in the United States, these dollar obligations being about
33% per cent greater than those of the National Government. The
total amounts of bonds issued by the various Departments and mu-
nicipalities, with the balances outstanding on June 30, 1932, are
reported by the Minister of Finance to be as follows:

Amount | Outstand-
issued ing
Departments:
LATO EA OY STC es en PS Se ne eo Ss oS $32, 350, 000 | $28, 679, 000
(Orca cl os I nS Pe eS es Sos re SO 10, 200,000 | 8, 791, 000
(CDS hin CR = Se at poe aa ee oe Se ee ee 12,000,000 | 11, 537,000
STG ATC OFAC Clas Wee ares een eee eee tee = epee (a ree tee (een ets eee 2, 000, 000 1, 791, 000
“ONG MO ss 5 cae sR ee eS es ee A a ee Ree re el 2, 500, 000 2, 112, 000
Werllll® Glo CEIGR 52 Bs ss Se ae ee eee See ee 8, 500, 000 7, 278, 500
Tafel cs shee oO Ce (eg RR a Re eg Oper aes Ts | 67,550,000 | 60, 183, 500
Municipalities:
BATRA OU ames eee es eRe Gainer ee OK Bo See ese 2, 500, 000 1, 780, 400
TBO ROG sn sarin aoa en mee isha Sere te ine DAU ENGEe ih Re EK CEO EN 8,700,000} 7, 006, 500
Ones ee eetes RAIA (C- cletocn tale. Ce ancl Aces SE eae 2,885,000 | 2, 408, 000
FIVTTe Gl ell ious ae ee el eee ao UN harp EN NE Aiea gh ONES ee Nee ay eesie te eae 12,000,000 | 11, 022, 000
TN Gf eae MR ae on DOE NAR PN BN ee EE, 9 yo ee ee | 26,085,000 | 22, 216, 900

Prior to 1928, the Departments and municipalities of Colombia
floated bond issues abroad without supervision by the National Gov-
ernment. On June 5, 1928, however, the Colombian Congress passed
a law giving the National Government complete control over the
contracting of future loans by these political subdivisions. The law
requires presidential approval for all Departmental and municipal
foreign loans, and provides that the authorization of the Chief Execu-
tive shall only be given when the proceeds of the loan are to be used
for public works and the service of the public debt of the Depart-
ment or municipality, including that of the proposed loan, does not
exceed 20 per cent of the ordinary revenues of the borrower.

The debt of the mortgage banks represents the outstanding totals
of the bonds issued abroad by the Agricultural Mortgage Bank, the
Bank of Colombia, the Mortgage Bank of Bogota, and the Mortgage
Bank of Colombia. These bonds, with two exceptions—a £1,200,000
loan to the Agricultural Mortgage Bank and a £2,200,000 loan to the
Mortgage Bank of Bogota—are all payable in dollars. The two ster-
ling loans represent the only long-term loans floated in Europe by Co-
lombia since 1920. The bonds of the Agricultural Mortgage Bank, a

SOS THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Government-controlled institution, are guaranteed as to principal and
interest by the Nation, so that the central Government, in addition to
its direct external debt, is also contingently liable for the foreign debt of
the bank—four dollar issues and one sterling loan, originally amount-
ing to $16,000,000 and £1,200,000, of which on June 30, 1932,
$13,065,500 and £1,154,700 were outstanding.

For many years Colombia was deprived of the benefits of foreign
credit, and the economic development of the country was retarded by
lack of capital. The currency and banking reforms of 1923 and the
payment of $25,000,000 to Colombia by the United States Govern-
ment during the years 1921-1925 in accordance with the treaty of
April 6, 1914, marked the beginning of the modernization of the coun-
try’s economic structure and opened the way for the flow of foreign
capital into Colombia from 1925 to 1929. The loans obtained by the
Nation, the Departments, and the municipalities during this period
were devoted mainly to the construction of railroads, highways, bridges,
aqueducts, and other public works. As to the investment of the
proceeds of these loans, the Minister of Finance makes the following
statement in his last report to Congress:

No doubt mistakes were made in thespending of some of those loans; there was
undoubtedly lack of system and technical organization in the investment of the
money borrowed. But it can not be denied that through the use of credit, even
though such use were immoderate, it was possible to carry out important public
works which are now contributing greatly to the economy and culture of the
country and those not yet contributing to the desired extent will be of great signifi-
cance once they are completed through the firm, orderly, and painstaking efforts
which the present administration is making in that direction. There were mis-
takes, no doubt, but there was no negligence. It is very gratifying to the
national pride to point out that in the investigations which have been carried out
in the United States concerning loans contracted by many nations, not even a
shadow has arisen to sully the reputation of a single one of the many Colombian
officials who took part in those negotiations. And that is very significant in the
realm of credit, of credit in the true sense of the word, based not only on money
and the possible capacity to pay, but on the moral structure of a nation and the
ethical standards of its leaders.

Despite the constant decrease of the public revenues and the gold
reserves, and despite the wishes of a section of Colombian public
opinion which favored suspension of the debt service, the administra-
tion of President Olaya Herrera, inaugurated in August, 1930, has
made every effort to meet the foreign obligations of the Nation and
to see that the political subdivisions met theirs. To this end the
National Government lent financial aid to several public entitites in
difficulties about the service of their foreign debts, and when on
September 24, 1931, it decreed the control and restriction of foreign
exchange transactions it was with the declared intention not only of
continuing to pay interest and amortization charges on its own exter-
nal debt but of allowing the departments and municipalities to do like-

FINANCIAL MEASURES TAKEN IN COLOMBIA 809

wise. On October 31, 1931, however, faced with the alternatives of
restricting transfers for part of the external debt service or of per-
mitting the gold reserves to be depleted to a point where the stabil-
ity of the currency would be destroyed, the National Government
issued a decree (No. 1951) empowering the Exchange Control Board
to refuse or defer the applications for the transfer of funds abroad
made by Departments, municipalities, and mortgage banks for debt
service. Upon refusal by the board to sell foreign exchange, the
applicant, according to the decree, was to deposit with the Bank of the
Republic in the name of its creditor a sum in Colombian money equiy-
alent, at the rate of exchange of the day, to the foreign currency funds
which it desired to transfer abroad for the payment of interest and
amortization on its external indebtedness.

Some of the political subdivisions and mortgage banks, when their
applications for the transfer of funds abroad were deferred by the
Exchange Control Board, complied with the provisions of this decree
and deposited Colombian currency to the order of their creditors.
In the opinion of the Minister of Finance, however, such a measure
could be only provisional in character, since the funds deposited were
of no use to the creditors, did not reduce the indebtednesss of the
debtors, and further contracted the monetary circulation.

The Colombian Government consequently proposed a plan by
which these shortcomings would be obviated. The Departments and
municipalities were to continue depositing their interest and amortiza-
tion payments in the manner provided in the above-mentioned decree.
The transfer of funds for amortization payments on the Departmental
and municipal debts, as well as on that of the Nation, would be tem-
porarily suspended. As to interest payments on the debt of the polit-
ical subdivisions the National Government proposed to issue its own
interest-bearing certificates (scrip) in leu of cash, against maturing
Departmental and municipal interest coupons. These certificates
would bear interest at the rate of 6 per cent per annum and mature in
18 months, the Goverment reserving the right to extend their matur-
ity for another 18 months upon payment of accrued interest and a
premium of one-half of 1 per cent of their face value. To prevent the
contraction of the monetary circulation through the deposit of peso
funds the Government, according to the Minister of Finance, intended
to make arrangements to lend the Departments and municipalities
all or part of the sums which they had deposited at a rate of interest
which would compensate the Nation for the interest it had to pay
on the certificates.

This plan by which the National Government would substitute its
own credit for that of the political subdivisions—the so-called ‘‘serip
plan’’—was embodied in an agreement signed on December 21, 1931,

141901—32—Bull. 11——5

810 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

between representatives of the central Government and the Depart-
ments and the municipalities. On February 5, 1932, President Olaya
Herrera issued a decree sanctioning the agreement and providing for
a continuation, until further notice, of the suspension of amortization
payments on the national foreign debt (temporarily suspended on
January 1, 1932), as well as prohibiting the transfer of funds for
amortization payments on the Departmental and municipal debts.

When the assemblies of those Departments having foreign debts
met in March, and later when their representatives met at Medellin
in April, it became evident that some of them were unwilling to
continue depositing funds for the service of their external debts. In
view of a similar attitude assumed by some municipal Councils, the
National Government issued a statement on May 23, 1932, deploring
that the attitude assumed by certain Departmental Assemblies and
Municipal Councils made necessary the abandonment of the scrip
plan. ‘‘The Government regrets to be forced to make this decision,”
the statement said, ‘“‘but the matter permits no other solution under
the Colombian constitution, which guarantees a considerable degree
of autonomy to the Departments and municipalities in the manage-
ment of their own affairs.” The Government, therefore, has author-
ized the Bank of the Republic to return to the political subdivisions
the funds which they had deposited to the order of their creditors.

The policy of the present administration of maintaining to the
best of its ability the payment of interest on the Nation’s direct and
guaranteed external debt was reiterated by the following declaration:
“To protect the good name and credit of the Republic, the Govern-
ment considers it to be its duty to continue the policy of maintaiming
the credit of the nation through the prompt payment of the interest
on its public debt and the interest on the debt of the Agricultural
Mortgage Bank, guaranteed by the Republic, in so far as the condi-
tion of the gold reserves of the country and the revenues of the
Treasury permit. . . . The Government trusts that public opinion,
at home and abroad, will appreciate the effort and sacrifices that have
been made to preserve the external credit of Colombia, which is of
vital importance in upholding and improving the commercial relations
between our Republic and the other nations of the world.” *

The payment of the interest on the direct and guaranteed external
debt of the National Government represents an annual disbursement
of $6,472,000.

THE SALT MINES CONCESSION CONTRACT

Among the national properties of the Colombian Government are
the profitable salt mines located in the municipalities of Zipaquira,
Nemocon, Tausa, and Sesquille, which have been worked since

4 Memoria de Hacienda, 1932, p. 39

FINANCIAL MEASURES TAKEN IN COLOMBIA 811

prehistoric times with little appreciable depletion. On December
12, 1931, the Government signed a contract with the Bank of the
Republic ® granting it a concession for the administration and opera-
tion of the mines for a 13-year period beginning January 1, 1932.

The contract provides that of the net profits to be derived from the
operation of the mines 98 per cent are to go to the Government and
2 per cent to the bank, which agrees to advance to the Government
15,500,000 pesos. The bank is to be reimbursed from the monthly
revenues of the mines (estimated at 220,000 pesos) after its share of
the profits and 3 per cent interest on the sums advanced have been
deducted. During the first 40 months of the contract, however, these
amortization payments are to be returned to the Government, so
that, although the amount outstanding in advances will never
exceed 15,500,000 pesos, the Government in reality will have the
use of additional funds estimated at 6,500,000 pesos. In June the
bank had advanced to the Government about 14,500,000 pesos.

The contract provides that the sums received by the Government
will be used for the following purposes:

1. To cancel the Treasury deficit existing on Dec. 12, 1931, esti- Pesos

SECU UNG a esse a ar A 8 ak a ee Ee ge 5, 500, 000
2. To cancel the debt of the nation to departments and municipali-

ties for subsidies on highway construction_________________- 3, 000, 000
3. To settle certain railway construction claims__________________ 500, 000
4. To complete the Government’s contribution to the capital of the

Nericuliunaliereaitmp amc, woe fetes lel ot tes UU eee 1, 000, 000

To repay the Bank of the Republic for an advance of 1,000,000
pesos to the Agricultural Credit Bank and another of a similar

amount to the Colombian Savings Bank___________________- 2, 000, 000
OmmLonmanmemenrcency, binds: 26 at ee ee 1, 500, 000
7. For the construction of public works—1932, 3,557,000 pesos;

1933, 2,640,000 pesos; and 1934, 2,303,000 pesos_____________ 8, 500, 000

22, 000, 000

Expenditures for public works, by both the National Government
and the Departments, are reported to have improved economic con-
ditions by putting money into circulation throughout the Republic
and considerably reducing unemployment among the laboring classes.
Many of the public works now under way had been abandoned for
a number of years, and there was danger that unless soon completed
they would not only be unproductive but bring about a total loss of
the initial investment.

THE AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL CREDIT BANK

The Agricultural and Industrial Credit Bank began to function as
the Caja de Crédito Agrario on November 20, 1931,® with an author-

5 Approved by the President of the Republic through Decree No. 2214 of Dec. 16, 1932.
6 The Caja de Credito Agrario was created by Law No. 57 of 1931, and organized by Decree No. 1998,
issued by President Olaya Herrera on November 10, 1931.

812 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

ized capital of 10,000,000 pesos. Of this sum 2,000,000 pesos were
subscribed and paid by the National Government and 400,000 pesos
by the National Federation of Coffee Growers, who paid 50,000 pesos
when the bank was established, the balance to be paid in install-
ments. The bank had a 50-year charter. Until its operations should
assume sufficient importance to warrant its functioning as a separate
entity it was to use the organization of the Agricultural Mortgage
Bank.

The bank was reorganized by Decree No. 553, issued by President
Olaya Herrera on March 23, 1932. It was separated from the
Agricultural Mortgage Bank; its capital was increased by 500,000
pesos (taken from the emergency fund provided in the Salt Mines
Contract) ; and an industrial credit section was added to its organiza-
tion. The name was therefore changed to Caja de Crédito Agrario e
Industrial and its work divided between two sections, devoted to
agricultural and industrial credit, respectively. Further changes in
the organization of the bank were made by Decree No. 849 of May 11,
1932.

The bank is administered by a board of five directors and a manager.
The manager and four of the directors are appointed by the National
Government; the fifth director is chosen by the Board of Directors
of the Bank of the Republic. Of the four directors appointed by the
Government, one is chosen from three candidates submitted by the
National Federation of Coffee Growers, and two from a list of agricul-
turists and industrialists presented to the Government by the Bank
of the Republic.

The agricultural credit section of the bank is empowered to carry
on the following operations:

1. To make loans to the farmers and cattle raisers of the country
secured by agrarian pledges.

2. To make loans on warehouse receipts.

3. To accept bills of exchange guaranteed by agricultural products
in deposit or in transit when the bank is given control over the
products through a bill of lading or some other document.

4. To issue bonds guaranteed by those securities received by the
bank for its loans which have not been given as security or discounted
in another institution and to sell these bonds in the open market or
use them as security for loans.

5. To rediscount its paper in the Bank of the Republic or other
institutions.

6. To receive deposits for a term of not less than six months.

The loans made by the agricultural credit section are to be for
not longer than two years and the maximum amount to be loaned to
each person or organization is 15,000 pesos. One-third of the loans
must be made with coffee as security. At least 40 per cent of the

FINANCIAL MEASURES TAKEN IN COLOMBIA 813

loans are to be made to small farmers; that is, individuals who borrow
2,000 pesos or less, or to agricultural credit cooperative societies for
distribution among their members in amounts not to exceed 2,000
pesos each.

The industrial credit section is empowered:

1. To grant credits for a term not exceeding five years, only those
for less than a year being discountable by the Bank of the Republic.

2. To float bonds of national enterprises.

3. To act as an intermediary in the discounting of drafts for indus-
trial purposes.

4. To discount drafts originating from industrial transactions.

5. To borrow from national or foreign entities.

6. To receive deposits for a term of not more than 180 days.

7. To rediscount its paper in the Bank of the Republic or other
banking institutions.

One-fifth of the paid-up capital of the bank will be devoted to
industrial credit operations. Twenty per cent of this fifth must be
used for loans to small industrial enterprises with a capital of not
more than 5,000 pesos, in amounts not to exceed 1,000 pesos each.
As security for their loans industrialists may sign a contract of
industrial pledge which gives the lender a lien upon certain property
while the borrower retains possession and use thereof. The follow-
ing property may be pledged: Installations and machinery in indus-
trial enterprises; animals and machines, tools, and implements used
in industrial labor of any kind, separately or installed; raw materials
and manufactured or semimanufactured products; and mining prod-
ucts in the process of elaboration or ready for sale. The pledge
creditor is given a preference as against mortgage creditors upon the
property subject to agrarian or industrial pledge, the residue of such
goods after the pledge credit is satisfied in full being subject to the
mortgage debt. Credit will be facilitated to foreign industrialists as
well as to Colombians, provided that the former have been established
in Colombia for more than five years or have organized a company
under Colombian laws with 60 per cent of its declared capital and
reserves invested in Colombia.

The Agricultural and Industrial Credit Bank is charged with the
formation of regional credit societies throughout the Republic which
are to facilitate the work of the bank by serving as intermediaries
between it and the farmers and industrialists of the country. The
capital of these societies is to be subscribed by the municipalities, the
Department, and the farmers and industrialists of the region in which
they are established. The societies will make loans on agrarian and
industrial pledges which the bank in turn will rediscount up to an
amount equal to seven times the paid-up capital of each society.

814 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

THE COFFEE BONUS

Coffee is Colombia’s leading source of wealth. Upon the coffee
industry depends to a large extent the maintenance of a favorable
trade balance, and consequently the conservation of the gold reserves,
the stability of the currency, and the soundness of the bank of issue.
Low prices have affected the industry, since the fall in price of Colom-
bian coffee has not been accompanied by a corresponding reduction
in the cost of production.

Since the control of exchange was established, September 24, 1931,
coffee exporters have argued that the system imposed further hard-
ships upon them, because the maintenance of exchange rates at an arti-
ficial level forced them to sell their dollar drafts at a lower rate of
exchange than if the control were removed and the drafts could be
sold in the open market. (As stated in the October issue of the
BULLETIN, no merchandise may be exported from Colombia until the
exporter has obtained from the Office of Control of Exports and
Foreign Exchange a license, granted only when the office is assured
that the proceeds in foreign currency derived from the transaction
will be placed at the disposal of the Bank of the Republic. The
dollar is quoted by the Bank of the Republic at 1.05 pesos, the rate
at which exporters are obliged to sell their drafts.) The coffee ex-
porters requested that, if the restrictions upon exchange transactions
could not be removed, the rate of exchange be raised, for by lowering
the value of the peso in terms of dollars the cost of production would
be reduced, at least temporarily, and Colombian producers would be
able to compete more advantageously with producers in countries of
cheaper currencies.

But neither the Government nor the Bank of the Republic believed
that the depreciation of the peso would benefit the country as a whole,
“for although it might temporarily benefit exporters, on the other
hand monetary stability would be destroyed, the gold standard
overthrown, the Bank of the Republic greatly affected, mdustries
depending upon imports harmed, and great injury caused to the
numerous debtors with obligations fixed in foreign currencies or gold.”

A conflict of interests therefore existed, as between the unquestion-
ably well-founded demands of the coffee exporters and the interests
of the country in general, which it was believed were bound to suffer
from fluctuations in exchange and the depreciation of the currency.
In view of the predominant réle of the coffee industry in the national
economy of Colombia this was a serious question. The Government,
with the cooperation of the Bank of the Republic, found what it
believes to be a solution to the problem in the formula provided for
by Decree No. 422, issued on March 7, 1932.

This decree provides that during one year, beginning March 15,
1932, the Government will pay on coffee exports a bounty amounting

FINANCIAL MEASURES TAKEN IN COLOMBIA 815

to 10 per cent of the face value of the drafts originating from such
exportation. Payment is in the form of national bonds bearing 6
per cent interest, payable semiannually. The interest on the bonds
is paid by the Bank of the Republic, which is authorized to take from
the dividends on the bank stock held by the Government the amounts
necessary for this service. The amortization of the bonds will begin
one year from the date of issue, when the Government will receive
them at par in payment of 2 per cent of all national taxes. Beginning
with the 1933 budget, the Government will make an appropriation
for the amortization of these bonds in an amount equivalent to 2 per
cent of the estimated revenue to be derived from national taxes, and
each month, starting January 1, 1933, will deposit with the Bank of the
Republic one-twelfth of this budget appropriation. From these
funds the bank will reimburse the Government for those bonds which
it has received in payment of taxes. The balance will be used for the
amortization, by lot, of the outstanding bonds, drawings to be held
every three months.

The coffee exporters will not necessarily have to wait one year to
cash their bounties, since the Bank of the Republic has contracted to
purchase at par bonds presented at its main offices or agencies up to
15 per cent of its capital and reserves, or about 2,000,000 pesos worth.
Once this quota is covered, the bank will not purchase more bonds
until, through sales in the open market, it shall have reduced its
holdings of these securities. The Government, however, opened
another market for the bonds by requiring all savings banks operating
in the country to invest in coffee bonds no less than 10 per cent of their
capital within six months from March 15, 1932; the banks, insurance
companies, and other entities responsible to the public treasury must
have substituted within that period coffee bonds for 10 per cent of
their real property pledges. Up to June, 1932, 1,050,000 pesos worth
of bonds had been issued to coffee exporters as bounties.

THE COLOMBIAN CREDIT CORPORATION

Another outstanding financial measure enacted in Colombia to
meet the economic crisis was that authorizing the establishment of
the Colombian Credit Corporation,’ to aid national and foreign banks
to liquidate their frozen assets. The creation of this institution was
necessary because of the legal restrictions which prevented or made it
difficult for the banks to undertake many of the transactions necessary
to effect a settlement with their debtors. The charter of the corpora-
tion is for 10 years, and its stockholders are the banks that wish to
avail themselves of its services. The following banks subscribed to
the stock when the corporation was established on February 24, 1932:

7 Decree No, 234 of Feb. 11, 1932.

816 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The Mortgage Bank of Colombia, the Bank of Colombia, the Bank
of Bogota, the French and Italian Bank of South America, the Bank
of London and South America, and the German Bank of Antioquia.

The corporation is empowered to carry on loan and discount
operations, including mortgage loans, and in general to transact all
business which banks and commercial corporations are authorized to
conduct. It may not, however, receive deposits.

The value of the assets transferred to the corporation for liquidation
is fixed by agreement between the interested bank and the corpora-
tion, but may not exceed 80 per cent of the face value of such paper.
The corporation is authorized to issue bonds up to the value of the
assets which it may receive from banks, provided the paid-up capital
of the corporation is never less than 5 per cent of the nominal value of
its bonds in circulation. With these bonds the corporation pays for
the assets which it takes over from the banks. Any profit from the
liquidation of each asset above the valuation placed on it by the
corporation when taking it over is distributed equally between the
corporation and the interested bank; any loss resulting from the
liquidation is collectible from the bank.

The banks may use the corporation’s bonds as collateral for loans
from the Bank of the Republic, which is authorized to receive them
as security up to 85 per cent of their face value. During the first five
years of the 10-year life of the corporation the total loans made by
the Bank of the Republic on such security may attain 25 per cent of
its paid-in capital and reserves; during the second 5-year period they
may not exceed 15 per cent. The corporation not only benefits the
banks but also the debtors whose obligations are transferred to the
corporation, since this new organization is able to offer them facilities
for settlement or liquidation which the banks could not grant them
because of the restrictions under which they operate.

To help debtors settle their obligations with the banks the Govern-
ment has loaned the corporation 400,000 pesos from the emergency
fund established by the Salt Mines Concession Contract which the
corporation has been using principally to facilitate the hquidation of
long-term mortgage obligations through loans to small debtors in
sums which do not exceed 3,000 pesos in each instance... In addition
to this sum the Government has authorized the Bank of the Republic
to loan the corporation sums up to 1,000,000 pesos guaranteed with
the securities obtained by the corporation in the liquidation of assets
taken over from banks,’ and to discount the securities which the
corporation receives as collateral for any loans which it might make
up to 500,000 pesos, provided these securities meet the banks’ require-
ments for discountable paper.’°

8 Art. 6, Decree No. 420, Mar. 7, 1932.
9 Decree No. 735, Apr. 27, 1932.
10 Art. 7, Decree No. 420, Mar. 7, 1932.

FINANCIAL MEASURES TAKEN IN COLOMBIA 817

PAYMENT FACILITIES FOR DEBTORS

The debt situation has assumed a serious character in Colombia,
particularly with respect to obligations secured by mortgages on real
property. During the boom years the increase in real-estate trans-
actions and in the issue of mortgage bonds based on real-estate loans
by commercial and mortgage banks caused an abnormal increase in
the value of real property which has been wiped out by the depression.
Consequently numerous debtors whose mortgages are based on the
higher valuations of former years find themselves unable to meet the
periodical payments of interest and amortization due on their obliga-
tions, placing the banks who loaned them money in a difficult position
since they depend upon these payments to attend to the service of
their mortgage bonds.

The debt question has caused considerable agitation and the Goy-
ernment has been persistently urged to do something about it. The
attitude of the Government in this matter was stated by the Minister
of Finance, Sefior Esteban Jaramillo, in giving the reasons for the
issuance of the first of a number of decrees enacted in Colombia to
facilitate the settlement of debts. He said:

The Government has studied every aspect of the problem, and although it
believes that during a period of complete normality its intervention in a matter
that comes within the purview of private law would not be justified, it also feels
that at times of such grave emergency as the present its failure so to intervene
might seriously injure not only the large number of persons indebted to banking
institutions but also the soundness and solvency of the banks themselves.

Moved by this consideration, President Olaya Herrera issued
Decree No. 280 of February 16, 1932, the fundamental idea of which,
said the Minister of Finance, ‘‘has been to effect, in so far as possible,
an equitable distribution of sacrifices between creditors and debtors
to the end that the latter may be able to attend to the service of their
debts, and the former may not be deprived of resources with which
to meet in turn the obligations which they have assumed.”’

By virtue of this decree the interest rate on mortgages held by the
banks was limited by a tax equal to the sum by which the interest
charged exceeds 9 per cent per annum and the interest on internal mort-
gage bonds by a tax equal to the sum whereby the interest thereon ex-
ceeds 7 per cent, such bonds to be free of income tax. When the in-
terest rates do not exceed those indicated no tax will be collected, but
when creditors demand interest in excess of those rates the excess
thereof (that is, the amount of the tax) will be retained by the debtor.
Therefore, what the decree really does is to reduce from 8 to 7 per
cent the interest which the banks pay the bondholders on their inter-
nal mortgage bonds so that the banks in turn may reduce to 9 per
cent the interest which they charge debtors on loans made on

818 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

mortgage security. (The average rate charged by banks on mort-
gages was 11 per cent.)

The decree also provides that the rate of interest charged on loans
made between private individuals is subject to a tax equivalent to
the amount in which such interest exceeds 10 per cent per annum
on loans guaranteed by collateral and to a tax equivalent to the
amount in which the interest exceeds 12 per cent on loans made
without collateral. This provision was later amplified to include
debts between private individuals arising out of contracts other
than loan contracts. ™

If the interest rate agreed upon for delayed payments exceeds the
regular interest by more than 2 per cent it will be taxed in an amount
equal to the excess.

The term of maturity of the paper which the Bank of the Republic
can rediscount to its member banks is extended to six months, pro-
vided the paper is otherwise discountable, so that the banks in turn
may grant their debtors 6-month extensions in the payment of their
obligations.

During the time the decree is in force (three years from date of
issue, subject to renewal for another period of two years) amorti-
zation of the internal bonds issued by mortgage banks will be sus-
pended and bonds maturing during that period wil! be exchanged
for others to mature in five years from the date of issue. The mort-
gage banks on their part will double the term of the unpaid install-
ments on mortgage loans which they have made on a gradual amor-
tization basis, provided the new term does not exceed 20 years.

The decree also provides that the Government is to lend the
Mortgage Bank of Bogota and the Mortgage Bank of Colombia
300,000 pesos apiece from the emergency fund provided in the Salt
Mines Concession Contract for five years without interest, the
banks to reimburse the Government in annual payments during the
four years following the expiration of this term.

In their turn, the mortgage banks are to accept their own in-
ternal and external bonds from their various debtors in payment of
obligations, as follows: In not less than 50 per cent of the install-
ments due up to February 16, 1932, and those maturing thereafter,
and in full payment of extra, total, or partial payments on the prin-
cipal. Internal mortgage bonds are accepted at par for their nominal
value; external mortgage bonds at 20 per cent discount from their
face value.

The banks were to charge no interest to delinquent debtors who
covered their overdue installments 120 days from the date of issue
of the decree and to allow clients who requested it and could furnish
sufficient guaranty to capitalize their past-due installments.

11 Art. 1, Decree No. 420 of Mar. 7, 1932.

FINANCIAL MEASURES TAKEN IN COLOMBIA 819

Another relief measure provided in Decree No. 280 is that by
which judicial auction sales may be suspended at the request of the
debtor. The decree provides that in all “executory suits’? (Summary
suits to collect debts due) and suits to sell goods mortgaged or
pledged, pending on February 16, 1932, or which might be initiated
up to August 1, 1932, the proceeding may be suspended at the debt-
or’s request at the time the date for the auction sale is set or before
such sale. This suspension is to last until the end of the current
year.

The decree provided that if the debtor made use of this prerogative
the attached goods would be put under the control of a third party
designated by the debtor, if the creditor so requested. In such a
case the net proceeds derived from the administration of the goods
were to be delivered to the creditor. When the property attached
is a factory or an industrial or agricultural establishment, the debtor
may request the court to permit him to continue administering the
property, according to Decree No. 420 of March 7, 1932.

Decree No. 420 also authorizes commercial banks to convert
commercial obligations due them into long-term mortgage obliga-
tions, with or without gradual amortization. For such transactions
commercial banks will enjoy the privileges of mortgage banks.
On those debts which they do not transfer to the Colombian Credit
Corporation they are allowed to grant debtors extensions for a
period longer than six months, provided the debtor makes fixed
periodical payments on the principal. The Bank of the Republic is
authorized to make loans to commercial banks on mortgage securities
maturing within one year up to an amount equal to 50 per cent of
the value of the Bank of the Republic stock held by the respective
commercial bank.

Decrees Nos. 280 and 420 offer facilities mainly to mortgage
debtors; to facilitate the settlement of debts owed to commercial
banks President Olaya Herrera issued Decree No. 711 of April 22,
1932, later amended by Decree No. 945 of May 31, 1932.

By virtue of Decree No. 711 the Superintendent of Banks was
authorized to enter into a contract with the commercial banks operat-
ing in the country, as well as the commercial department of the
Mortgage Bank of Colombia, by which the banks agreed to receive
the internal and external bonds of the Colombian Government in
partial or full payment of debts owed them, provided that in each
payment the banks received an equal amount in cash to that received
in bonds. This provision was at first applied to obligations and re-
newal of obligations contracted prior to April 22, 1932, and later to
obligations contracted prior to January 1, 1932.

The bonds received by the banks may be used as collateral for
loans from the Bank of the Republic, which is authorized to make

820 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

these loans up to an amount equal to the value of the bonds at par
provided the loans do not exceed 75 per cent of the capital and re-
serves of the borrowing bank.

The external bonds will be received by the banks at a 20 per cent
discount from their face value. Payment of debts owed to commer-
cial banks in external bonds will only be authorized while the gold
reserves of the Bank of the Republic remain above 14,000,000 pesos.
The amount of external bonds which banks may receive in payment
of debts owed them during the three years the decree will be in force
has been limited to 9,000,000 pesos.

The bonds received by the banks, both internal and external, will
be converted into new 7 per cent internal bonds, the interest and
principal of which will be paid in gold. These bonds will be exempt
from all taxes except the income tax. Individuals or corporations
who possess internal bonds and do not exchange them for the new
bonds will have the difference between the interest (8 or 10 per
cent) on the bonds which they hold and the interest of the new bonds
(7 per cent) deducted when the interest coupon is paid.

For the purchase of external mortgage bonds for the settlement of
debts to mortgage banks in accordance with Decree No. 280 and for
the purchase of external national bonds for the settlement of debts
to commercial banks in accordance with Decree No. 711 the Office
of Control of Foreign Exchange and Exports is authorized to issue
licenses for the transfer of funds for the purchase of these bonds
abroad up to the amount of 300,000 pesos a month.

THE CENTRAL MORTGAGE BANK

Decree No. 711 also provided for the creation of a Central Mortgage
Bank to make loans on mortgage security for the settlement of debts
owed to commercial and mortgage banks. A committee of three
members, representing the Government, the Bank of the Republic,
and the other banks who wished to become members, was appointed
to organize the bank in accordance with the stipulations of the afore-
mentioned decree, as amended by Decree No. 945, already referred
to. The contract between the committee and the Government pro-
viding for the organization and establishment of the bank was ap-
proved by President Olaya Herrera on June 11, 1932. It began to
function on July 1, its charter being for 40 years.

The bank has an authorized capital of 20,000,000 pesos divided
into 2,000,000 shares valued at 10 pesos each. The shares are divided
into four series, A, B, C, and D, to be subscribed by the Bank of the
Republic, Colombian commercial banks, branches of foreign banks,
and other entities and individuals, respectively. The Bank of the
Republic shares (Series A) will amount to 10,000,000 pesos; series B
and C shares to at least 10 per cent of the paid-up capital and reserves
of the banks who wish to become members. In cases of banks which

FINANCIAL MEASURES TAKEN IN COLOMBIA 821

have a mortgage as well as a commercial department the 10 per
cent applies to the capital and reserves of the commercial section.

On June 6, 1932, when the application for establishment of the
bank was submitted to the Banking Superintendent for approval, the
subscribed capital of the bank amounted to 11,180,110 pesos, as fol-
lows: Bank of the Republic, 10,000,000 pesos; Bank of Bogota, 640,-
000 pesos; Bank of Colombia, 405,900 pesos; Mortgage Bank of
Colombia, 89,210 pesos; and Commercial Bank of Barranquilla,
45,000 pesos. The bank was to begin operations when 20 per cent
of the subscribed capital was paid in, the remaining payments for
stock to be made in regular installments.

The administration of the bank is in charge of a board of directors
of five members, of whom one is appointed by the President of the
Republic and two by the board of directors of the Bank of the Repu-
blic; two are elected by the Colombian commercial banks affiliated
with the institution. Should one or more foreign banks become mem-
bers of the Central Mortgage Bank the board of directors will be
increased by two members, one to be elected by the foreign banks, the
other appointed by the Bank of the Republic. Provision is also
made for the election of another member of the board by the stock-
holders of Series D shares when 300,000 pesos of this stock has been
subscribed.

The Central Mortgage Bank is authorized to do all business which
the banking laws permit mortgage banks to conduct with the
limitations imposed by Decrees Nos. 711 and 945. Loans by the
bank are limited for three years to those which are to be devoted to
the settlement of commercial or mortgage debts owed to commercial
banks members of the institution or to mortgage banks, provided
these debts were contracted prior to January 1, 1932. Mortgage loans
for other purposes than the settlement of debts to banks can only be
made during this period when the borrower is willing to accept the
loan in Central Mortgage Bank bonds at par. The bank is authorized
to issue bonds up to an amount equal to the mortgaze loans it has
made. It will cooperate with the Colombian Credit Corporation by
making mortgage loans on the real estate acquired by the corporation
in 1ts work of liquidating frozen assets.

The depression has curtailed Colombia’s foreign trade, depleted her
gold reserves, contracted the monetary circulation, restricted credit,
and lowered values. The measures outlined above constitute the
country’s reaction to these conditions. A stable government, which
has been characterized by its efforts to maintain the payment of its
international obligations, to balance the budget, preserve the stability
of the currency, and safeguard the banking structure of the country
has no doubt been Colombia’s principal asset in the fight which the
country is waging to solve her economic problems.

COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY NOTES

National Library of Mexico.--The services which the National
Library of Mexico offers to its readers, recently supplemented by the
inauguration of a periodical room, have been further improved by the
addition of a catalogue of portraits. The catalogue contains about
8,000 index cards of portraits to be found in periodicals and books in
the library. On each card may be found a brief biographical sketch
of the subject and description of the pose and background. It
should prove specially useful to historians, students, and journalists.

The National Library of Colombia.—According to the latest annual
report of the Director of the National Library at Bogota the broad-
casting of radio programs by station HJN of that city and the work of
the International Bureau of Exchanges were among the outstanding
activities of the library during the fiscal year 1931-32. The radio
programs, which began March 5, 1932, included concerts and discus-
sions of current events and economic topics, as well as reports on
modern literature. As a result of these programs, readers’ attendance
at the library increased by 23}; per cent. New books were exchanged
with libraries within the Republic and abroad. The report states that
the library now possesses 85,000 volumes, of which 26,958 have been
catalogued. During the year 39,372 readers used the main reading
room and 8,186 the children’s library. The work of reorganizing the
library is progressing under the direction of Dr. Daniel Samper Ortega.

Accessions.—Among the many books received during the past
month the Diccionario de Americanismos by Augusto Malaret deserves
special mention. This volume, a revised second edition, is a valuable
addition to Spanish lexicons. Among other accessions were:

Ensayo literarios e histéricos, por Carlos Martinez Silva. Bucaramanga, Im-
prenta del departamento, 1932. 196 p. 8°. (Biblioteca Santander, vol. 3.)

Sobre economia social americana, por Enrique Jimenez. Santo Domingo, Tip.
dela ba Naciony C2 pore 19825 20) ps) 12°
22

(4)

COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY NOTES 823

Las escuelas del Uruguay, por Victor Cabera Lozada. [La Paz.] Editorial
Lépez, 1931. 98p. 12°.

Encuesta sobre la biblioteca escolar infantil verificada por iniciativa y bajo la
direccién de Antonio Morello. La Plata, Revista de Instruccién Primaria, 1932.
80 p. 8.

O cacao, por Gregorio Bondar. Bahia, Imprensa official do estado, 1925-1929.
2 vols. ilus. 8°. pt. 1, A cultura e o preparo do cacao; pt. 2, Molestias e
inimigos do cacaseiro no estado da Bahia, Brasil. The Library has vol. 1 of the
2d edition, 1929, and vol. 2 of the Ist edition, 1925.

Cédigo civil para el Estado de Veracruz-Llave. Edicion oficial. Jalapa-Enri-
quez, Talleres Linotipograficos del gobierno del estado, 1932. 655 p. 8°.

Babel y el castellano, por Arturo Capdevila. Buenos Aires, Compania Ibero-
Americana de Publicaciones, 8. A., [n. d.]. 244 p. 12°.

Los buscadores de oro. (Cuentos, narraciones, puntos de vista) por Juan Carlas
Davalos. Buenos Aires, Libreria y editorial ‘‘La Facultad” [n.d.]. 277p. 12°.

Los gauchos, por Juan Carlos Davalos. Buenos Aires, Libreria vy editorial ‘‘ La
Wacultads 1928. 229 p. illus: 8°

Romancero de las calles de Lima, por Arturo Montoya. Lima, Imprenta A. J.
Rivas Berrio, 1982. 8°. 2 vols.

Rod5 en la catedra, por Juan Carlos Sabat Pebet. Montevideo, Publicacién de
la Asociacion “José E. Rod6,’”’ 1931. 102 p. 12°.

Exploraciones arqueoldgicas en el Rio Uruguay medio, por Antonio Serrano.
Paranda, Talleres grdficos casa Predassi, 1932. 89 p. ilus. 8°.

Juan Manuel Blanes, su vida y sus cuadros, por José M. Ferndndez Saldafia,
Montevideo, Impresora Uruguaya. S. A., 1931. 257 pp. ilus. col. plates. 8°.

Biografia del General Francisco Morazan. Segunda edicién, por EK. Martinez
Lépez. Tegucipalpa, Tipografia Nacional, 1931. 523 p. ilus. 8.

Por tierras calientes; impresiones, anécdotas e iniciativas referentes al Beni y
Noroeste. La Paz, Imp. ‘‘Atenea”’ [n.d.]. 190 p. 12°.

Manual de trafico; guia de informacién, comercial, industrial, y profesional de
La Paz. Imp. ‘“Atenea,”’ 1930. [143] p., incl. ilus. Fold. maps. 12°.

Documentos del tercer congreso postal Panamericano, Madrid, 1931. Oficina
Internacional de la Unién Postal de las Americas y Espaiia, Montevideo. Monte-
video, Imp. E. Lagomarsino e hijo, [1931] 376 p. 4.

Historia do Brasil, por H. Handelmann. Traduc¢ado brasileira do Instituto
Historico e Geographico Brasileiro. Rio de Janeiro, Imprensa Nacional, 1931.
1006 p. 8.

Diccionario de Americanismos. 2° edicién extensamente corregida, por Augus-
to Malaret. San Juan, Imprenta ‘Venezuela,’ 1931. 520 p. 4e.

The library has received for the first time during the past month the
following periodicals:

Social, Lima, Peri. (Aparece los dias 5 y 20 de cada mes.) Afio 2, nimero
34, 27 de julio de 1932. 60p. ilus. 8 x 11 inches.

Minerva. (Organo de publicidad de la Sociedad de Maestros “‘ Minerva.’’)
Mazatenango, Guatemala. (Revista mensual.) Afo 1, nim. 1, septiembre de
1932. 12p. 8% x 10% inches.

Revista Critica de Jurisprudencia. Buenos Aires, Calle San Martin 235,
Reptiblica Argentina. (Publicacién quincenal.) Ano 1, num. 1, 15 de julio de
1932. 28 p. 8% x 11% inches.

Revista de Economia y Finanzas. La Paz, Bolivia. (Revista mensual.) Ano
2, nim. 11, Junio de 1932. 3836p. 7% x 10% inches.

824 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Boletin del Rotary Club de Tucuman. Tucumdan, Reptiblica Argentina. Calle
Junin 919. Afio 1, nim. 7, 31 de julio de 1932. 8% x 12% inches.

Actualidades. (Revista semanal ilustrada.) Lima, Pert. Calle de la Unién
(Baquijano) No. 740 altos. Ajo 1, nim. 1, 9 de julio de 1932. 32 p. ilus.
7 x 10 inches.

Boletin de la Auditora General de la Repiblica de El Salvador. San Salvador,
Reptblica de El Salvador. Voltiimen 3, nimero 7, junio de 1932. 328 p.
7 x 9% inches.

Revista Diplomdtica Consular. Caracas, Venezuela. Principal a Conde No.
16. (Mensual.) Afio 1, nimero 1, 6 de agosto de 1932. 8% x 11% inches.
ilus.

Crénica Administrativa. (Informaciones generales de la administracién
nacional.) Buenos Aires, Reptiblica Argentina. Calle Salguero 1207. (Revista
mensual.) Ano 1, No. 2, julio de 1932. 34 p. ilus. 10% x 14 inches.

Revista de Educacién. (Ministerio de educacién publica de Guatemala.)
(Publicacién bimestral de artes, ciencias, industrias, variedades y de los intereses
generales del magisterio.) Guatemala, Guatemala. Ano 2, No. 6, 15 de sep-
tiembre de 1932. 49 p. ilus. 6 x 934 inches.

Oriente. (Revista general de derecho.) Santiago de Cuba. (Publicacién
mensual.) Corona, alta 18. Ano 1, No. 3, septiembre de 1932. 404 p. ilus.
6 x 9% inches.

RGIEN SORTA OE DCC LIGOE AD AMON

peed |
oe)

OF THE

PAN AMERICAN
UNION

“ NATIONAL PALACE, SAN SALVADOR

C/U Raa etUiermeerirer act Ai tiisiattibm hire trtosl

;

i DECEMBER 1932
TENCCOMEON Te RMeT COTM. MEAT CVRN ee

CuvevuveuvuuUUEY

PAS CKS yuNy Es TEENY B2S8

Yvuy
CUUUNUUNUUD @vuuUUuULY VuuvUUUY

GOVERNING: B OARD-OF-THE
PAN-AMERICAN
UNION

Mr. Henry L. Stimson, Chairman
Argentina______.__- Sefior Don Freuirge A. Esprit,
1806 Corcoran Street, Washington, D. C.

Bolivia sc 80 S53 Senor Dr. Enrique Finor,
2830 Forty-fourth Street, Washington, D. C.

Bragthnsie ee res, Snhr. Dr. R. pz Lima & Sitva,
2437 Fifteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

Lt FRR Lp iene FD Sefior Don BensamiIn CoHEN,
2154 Florida Avenue, Washington, D. C.

Colombiasce 52. 3.— Sefior Dr. Fasro Lozano,
Hill Building, Washington, D. C.

Costa Rica_._...__. Sefor Don Manvet GonzAueEz,
3451 Newark Street, Washington, D. C.

Cubase ees Sefior Don Oscar B. Cinras,
2630 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

Dominican Republic. Sefor Don Roprrto DEsPRADEL,
Woodward Building, Washington, D. C.

Weve oe ee Sefior Dr. GonzaALo ZALDUMBIDE,
2633 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
El Salvador__..-_-_ Sefior Don Roserto D. MELENDEZz,
National Press Building, Washington, D. C.
Guatemala_________ Sefior Dr. Apg14nN ReEcrINos,
1614 Highteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
Fl aitis oo ee M. Dantis BELLEGARDE,
1703 Q Street, Washington, D. C.
Honduras___.._-_-- Sefior Dr. C&tEo DAviua,
1100 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
Mexire. oso o eo Sefior Dr. Pasto Campos-Orriz,
2829 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
Nicaricug oe 2s Sefior Dr. Luis M. Dresarte,
1711 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C.
Panama 2 Se 4 Sefior Dr. Ricarpo J. ALFaRo,
1535 New Hampshire Avenue, Washington, D. C.
Paraguay 222252828 Sefior Don Pasito Max. YNSFRAN,
1726 Irving Street, Washington, D. C.
D5) af) spl papa np Sefior Don M. pr Freyrre y SANTANDER,
1300 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C.
United States. ___.. Mr. Henry L. Stimson,
Department of State, Washington, D. C.
Urupuay soy es Sefior Dr. Jacopo VaRE.a,
1317 F Street, Washington, D. C, :
Venezuela_____._.-- Sefior Dr. PEpRo MaNuEL ARCAYA,

1628 Twenty-first Street, Washington, D. C.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

General Abelardo L. Rodriguez, President of Mexico
ttle pWexIc OVNOLCh sear a 8 Pass Se eee ee Ue ee
By Thea Goldschmidt.

Silver in the West and the East

By Herbert M. Bratter, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, United States
Department of Commerce.

The Silver Centuries
By Adam Carter, Pan American Union Staff.

An Investment which Pays Dividends

By Heloise Brainerd, Chief, Division of Intellectual Cooperation, Pan American Union.

A Great Lady and a Great Philanthropist: Juana Alarco de Dammert

Medical Research in Latin America (Part [J)_________________________-_
By A. A. Moll, Ph. D., Scientific Editor, Pan American Sanitary Bureau.

Pan American Union Notes

Pan American Progress:

Further Mexican Currency and Banking Reforms

The Sixth Refrigeration Congress and the Argentine Meat Industry_-___

Note on some of the Jewels Contained in Tomb 7 at Monte Alban

Necrology

Page
825
827

$32

847

852

858
863

$83

888
891
$96
899

( The contents of previous Issues of the BULLETIN OF THE PAN AMERICAN UNION can be found in the READERS’

GUIDE in your library)
Tit

HIS EXCELLENCY GENERAL ABELARDO L. RODRIGUEZ, PRESIDENT OF
MEXICO

Elected by the Mexican Congress September 4, 1932, to fill the unexpired term of President
Ortiz Rubio ending November 30, 1934.

Pa! Ban

- See LJ
SSG aren 5 OF MD DSCC Z Lila

Vou. LXVI DECEMBER, 1932 No. 12

GENERAL ABELARDO L. RODRIGUEZ,
PRESIDENT OF MEXICO

ENERAL Abelardo L. Rodriguez, President of Mexico, is one of
Ci. youngest men to have held that important office. He was
born on May 12, 1889, in San Jose de Guaymas, Sonora, his parents
being Nicolas Rodriguez and Petra Lujan de Rodriguez. Since his
father was one of the founders of the city of Nogales, in the same state,
it was there that the young Rodriguez attended school and engaged
in business until he entered the Revolutionary Army in 1913. His
rise to his present rank of General of Division-—the highest in the
army—was the due recognition, step by step, of his military ability
and valor in the field. He fought in the bravest regiments of Sonora
and was wounded at the battle of La Trinidad. As commanding
officer of an expedition to Lower California he won further military
repute. Asa result, he was holding the portfolio of Secretary of War
and Marine when he was elected President by Congress on September
4, 1932, to fill out the unexpired term, ending November 30, 1934, of
President Pascual Ortiz Rubio, resigned.

From 1924 to 1929 General Rodriguez was Governor of Northern
Lower California. His administration of this office brought him well-
deserved praise from Mexicans and foreigners alike, because of his
successful efforts to promote industry and agriculture, construct high-
ways, sanitate and improve towns, build and maintain schools, and
rehabilitate public finances—all measures which converted that Terri-
tory into one of the most flourishing sections of the country.

825

826 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

General Rodriguez entered the executive branch of the Federal
Government in 1931 as Assistant Secretary of War and Marine, but
not long after became Secretary of Industry, Commerce, and Labor.
In this capacity he worked energetically for industrial development
in harmony with the rights of both labor and capital. From this
cabinet post he passed to that of War and Marine, and thence, as has
been said, to the Presidency.

He has outlined the main objectives of his program as the creation
and maintenance of a stable government and the union of all Mexicans
in productive labor for the economic reconstruction of their country.

By Tura GOLDSCHMIDT

ETWEEN the houses of José Garcia and Pedro Mendoza in
San Antonio, Tex., lies a strip of ground, 12 feet long and 24 feet
wide, which belongs to José. It is a barren bit of ground, beaten
hard by many generations of footsteps and many footsteps to the
generation. To-night it is a festive little spot. On either side is a
row of benches, supplemented here and there by kitchen chairs.
Already the rows are filled with placid Mexican women, holding their
babies on their ample laps and gazing about them with an incurious
expression. The men stand about in clusters of twos and threes,
their teeth flashing in the light of the smoky kerosene lamps in keen
appreciation of some witticism. Children line the fences and roost
upon the chicken coops and woodpiles, and from the darkened win-
dows of José’s house his numerous progeny peer into the lighted yard.
José and his wife, however, are busily arranging last-minute details
and exchanging greetings with their friends and neighbors. Los
Pastores, that hybrid Spanish-Indian, medieval, and contemporary
mixture of a passion play, is about to commence.

No definite time, however, can be set for its beginning, for who can
say but that Juan, who is to play the part of the Archangel Gabriel,
had a bit too much tequila to-night (it being Christmas, after all), or
that Antonio, the director, prompter, and hermit, is detained at his
fruit stand? Neither can one predict how long this show will last.
Perhaps the actors are tired and decide to stop at 10.30, or they may
feel fresh and continue until 3. The play itself is rather elastic in
this respect; the songs may be repeated again and again, or some of
the verses may be cut to shorten them. Ritual can be sacrificed to
suit the temperaments of the players.

Los Pastores is drama in its crudest form. There are no curtains
and no ‘“‘props,” and the setting is almost Elizabethan in its simplicity.
Perhaps its first setting, when it was introduced to the Mexicans by
the Spanish monks, was in the church, but now it has migrated to the
privacy of just such a yard as that which belongs to José. Through-
out the Christmas season, from Christmas until Candlemas (February
2), the little band of players goes about to various homes, presenting
Los Pastores. There is a curious uniformity in the back yards in
“Mexican town.” Ordinarily they are merely dull rectangles, useful
for hanging out clothes, but at Christmas time they serve adequately
for a runway, up and down which the actors may tramp, singing out

827

828 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

their lines in fluent Spanish, with the rare lapses in memory quickly
checked by their alert prompter.

The strip of ground is bright to-night. At one end is an altar, a
rude wooden structure of graduated steps, covered with black sateen.
It has a high back wall and a canopy, both of which are draped in
black. This is the background for the nacimiento, or manger scene.
Upon the various steps José and his wife have placed those objects
they hold most dear and consider most beautiful: Christmas cards,
tinsel, a pincushion in a golden slipper, a small statue of Buddha, and
statues of the patron saints of every member of the family. The Star
of Bethlehem twinkles at the top, and from the canopy hang streamers
of green crépe paper and dangling paper roses—an anomaly perhaps,
but what of it? In the very center of the lowest step, below an image
of the Virgin Mary, lies the Child Jesus (a life-sized baby doll) on a
platter of gaudy Christmas candies. This modern version of the
scene of the nativity is supplemented by small plaster figures of
cows, sheep, and donkeys, of sizes entirely disproportionate to the
human figures. Itis considered a handsome nacimiento, and murmurs

f “Qué bonito!”? come to José’s ears. Opposite the nacimiento, at
the other end of the rectangle, is a tent with lurid scenes painted upon
it, scenes showing volcanoes spurting fire and brimstone and devils
waving 3-pronged pitchforks. Later the emergence of devils from the
canvas flap will substantiate the belief that this is a veritable and
orthodox hell. Before it, partly for warmth and partly to carry fur-
ther the realism, is a small and struggling bonfire, which is replenished
from time to time by one of the spectators, all of whom seem to enter
into the spirit of the play with a great deal of informality.

We, as visitors, are treated with friendliness and are allowed to pre-
empt two spaces on the already crowded bench. After that we are
forgotten. It is a clear, cold night. The ground is chilled, and the
wind whips around the corner of the house and into the napes of our
necks. The proximity of a plump, brown sefiora is a comfort in such
weather, although her baby occasionally sprawls into my lap and is
charmingly retrieved by her mother with smiles and apologies. I
look across at the row of diverse faces—old and wrinkled women with
toothless grins, smooth-skinned young girls, mantilla-covered heads,
and the flashing eyes and painted cheeks of an Americanized flapper.
And there are fat old men, slim dashing young ones, men with grizzled
beards, and others with neat mustaches. Complexions shade from
cream to bronze. Everywhere, without exception, there is color—a
gay dress, a bandana handkerchief wound about a young man’s throat,
a scarf, jagged with brilliance.

Suddenly, without any preliminaries, for there is no curate to be
raised and there are no lights to be lowered, a little girl in a stiff white

LIYTLE MEXICO NOTE 829

dress, white slippers, and white cotton stockings begins to walk up
and down the runway between the nacimiento and the tent which is
Hell. The crépe paper wings on her shoulders flap dismally as she
recites the long verse in her soft monotone and punctuates it with
awkward gestures. When she is through she steps aside, and, just
as casually, there appears a group of shepherds, resplendent in pink
coats with tinsel or silver braid trimmings, a beaded satchel slung
across the shoulder by a broad red ribbon; each one is carrying a
richly ornamented staff, which jangles with numerous tiny bells.
Most of these are young men; they shuffle to their places with painful
self-consciousness and grin feebly when their friends wink or smile at
them. As they arrange themselves, they drone out an endless song,
which they will repeat again and again throughout the evening. The
words may change, but the tune is always the same. Behind them
prances the hermit, the comic relief, who wears a long gray robe
festooned with moss, carries a rosary made of spools, and has the
mask of an old man. This is really Antonio, and, as everyone has
penetrated his disguise, he is greeted with cheers and jokes, for he is
very popular. He acknowledges these by growling and shaking his
staff.

Last of all come the devils, seven of them, each more imposing than
the last. All but Lucifer are dressed in black, with sequins, beads,
and mirrors sewed upon their mantles. These catch the light and
send back a thousand lights in return. Lucifer wears a suit and cloak
of briliant red, a convincing forked tail appearing from the latter.
These devils clank and flash their swords and speak in hollow muffled
tones from behind their masks, which represent the grotesque heads
of wolves and bears, as well as of imaginary monsters. Each devil
dashes out with a Christmas sparkler flaming from his cap, a modern
accessory to an ancient custom. Their entry is so precipitate that the
women gasp and shrink back, and somewhere along the line a baby
begins to cry.

Los Pastores is an interminable performance. The endurance of
the audience must be as great as that of the actor. At last there is a
lapse, the spectator heaves a sigh of relief, thinks the performance is
ended, and then realizes that this is just a pause for breath. There
are half a dozen battles between Good and Evil, each struggling for
the soul of the Christ Child who was born that day. These are
accompanied by the clanking of tin swords and a breathless harangue
in Spanish verse. The shepherds sing endless songs, jingling at the
same time the bells that hang from their overdecorated crooks. One
of them, Bartolo, refuses to go farther on the pilgrimage to worship
the Child. He says that he is tired, that he wants to go to sleep, and
finally he spreads his blanket on the ground and les down lke a

830 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

willful child. His friends cajole, threaten, bribe. One of them, Tulio,
pleads with him: ‘‘Bartolo, come look on Him with eyes of love,”
and Bartolo answers testily, “‘If thou’rt so anxious, bring Him here.”’
At last he is won around, however, and resumes the journey, singing:
To Bethlehem I take the road
With joy my Lord to know;
I offer to the Infant God
This lambkin white as snow.
At length the shepherds reach the nacimiento, and after another
burst of song each goes separately to worship at the shrine and to
kiss the foot of the baby doll that represents the Christ Child. The
devils are seen no more; they have been vanquished.

But an Indian bursts from the tent in the full regalia of warfare.
The fringes of his buckskin jacket catch the rhythm of his dance and
sway with him to a tune sawed from an old violin. Twice he makes a
dash for the altar and is driven back by the shepherds. The third
time he reaches it, kneels, and pays homage at the shrine. The
devils, the stubborn Bartolo, and the savage Indian have all been
tamed by the chubby Prince of Peace.

The crowd breaks up, not, however, to go home. Slowly each
spectator, the peon direct from Mexico and his almost American
cousin, goes to the altar to pay his respects to the Child. The night
is growing colder, but there is no hurry. Every face shows that this
is a sacred pilgrimage, although it takes but 24 paces. We linger to
see José and his wife, their faces wreathed in smiles, distribute candy
to the troupe. Then, in groups of twos and threes, the crowd filters
away and we with it.

There is no exchange of money here, no bartering, no collection.
Every Christmas, during the entire season, this band of Mexican
performers goes about to present Los Pastores. Juan makes a
nacimiento, an altar depicting the manger scene, and invites the
players to come. It is an honor for them to be invited and he is
honored that they have accepted. Each man provides his own
costume, and the shepherds even seem to vie with one another to
see who can produce the finest staff. One has a betinseled water-
melon of papier-mAché topping his staff, and when he strikes it on
the ground, the bells jingle and the watermelon falls partly open,
disclosing the red heart. Another, of a more mechanical turn of
mind, has fastened a dove on his crook. He can manipulate a string
and the dove flaps its wings and seems to be on the point of flying
away. The shepherds work on these crooks for months, in order to
make them as magnificent as possible.

Year after year Los Pastores is presented in out of the way corners
of San Antonio. Only the initiated can find it, but the process, once

LITTLE MEXICO NOTE 831

learned, is simple. You go to the fruit stand of Antonio, who directs
the players. He will be able to tell you where it will be given, or he
can send you to a third party who is sure to know. And, after wind-
ing through the maze of streets in Little Mexico, you stumble upon
the lighted yard and the crowd, and there is Los Pastores. Antonio
has played the part of the hermit for 11 years, and he hopes that
when he is too old to continue his son will be able to take the part.
Antonio possesses to my knowledge the only copy of Los Pastores in
San Antonio. It is written down in a dirty, worn ledger which he
keeps on a shelf in his fruit stand. He teaches the other players
their lines, and this is the way that it has been handed down for
generations. It promises to continue, for the Mexicans never tire of
seeing it again and again. There is some danger from kindly old
ladies in conservation societies, who threaten to conserve something
that has already been solidly entrenched in the hearts of the people.
So far it has not been commercialized. It is a labor of love, one of
the few left in the world.

———

Z Ae =
Ane a all as =
TWN te. SS ~
F=Zz-FFij\NOSS SSNS
i ZZ BSS WSs
Bae bby SSS

SIEVER IN THE WEST AND TRE EASsis

By Hersert M. Bratrer
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, United States Department of Commerce

HE utilization of silver by mankind antedates civilization. The
white metal has played a unique role in the lives of almost every
people from the most primitive to the most cultured. Like the veins
which characterize the metal as it is found in ore, the history of silver
is inextricably intertwined with the history of great nations, assuming
now greater and now lesser importance, but never ceasing to be present.
It is no exaggeration to state that silver had a part of utmost
significance in the exploration and settlement of Latin America, as,
also, in the prosperity of the Spanish Empire. The deeds of brutality
and amazing fortitude which that metal inspired are graven deep in
the record of conquest. Merely the mention of such names as Cortés
and Pizarro, the Inca Atahualpa, Potosi, de la Borda, or Pachuca calls
up visions of wealth such as the world has rarely witnessed. Never
had the world seen so much silver as was brought by the treasure
fleets from Vera Cruz, Cartagena, Amatique, Nombre de Dios, and
Porto Bello. The arrival of the white metal in Spain put new life
into the economy of Europe, made possible the notable voyages of
Magellan, Vespucci, Sebastian Cabot, and, indeed, financed in large
part the colonization of Latin America.

One hears fabulous stories about silver in the Spanish colonies.
There is nothing mythical about the richness of the mines of Potosi
in Bolivia. However, the story of the Indian who discovered those
mines by the accidental displacement of a shrub is probably just a
““story.’’ These mines were worked by Pizarro and his brother. An
interesting tale about silver in Costa Rica is told by Del Mar. So
productive were the mines there that, on the occasion when the
owner’s first child was christened, the father laid a triple row of silver
bricks from the palace to the church. Similar stories are to be heard
in Mexico.

Among the several estimates available of the silver production of
Latin America are those of Soetbeer, Lexis, and Haring. To anyone
examining the ancient records of the Spanish trade in treasure, it
quickly becomes apparent that the various values as given in the
records can be reconciled with only the greatest difficulty and some

1 Anyone interested ina more extensive and technical discussion of silver is referred to ‘‘The Silver Mar-
ket,’’ Trade Promotion Series No. 139, by Herbert M. Bratter, issued by the United States Bureau of
Foreign and Domestic Commerce and sold by the Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

832

SILVER IN THE WEST AND THE EAST 833

uncertainty. Some very interesting researches in that field were
published in 1929 by Dr. Earl J. Hamilton, in the Quarterly Journal
of Economics (Cambridge).

To-day silver no longer means so much to Europeans as it once did.
But, although four full centuries have passed, the Americas still play
the leading part in the production of silver. Mexico is still the world’s
chief silver-producing country, followed by the United States, Canada,
and Peru. From 1493 to date, about 36 per cent of all the silver
mined has come from Mexico, 21 per cent from the United States, 4
per cent from Canada, and 9 per cent from Peru. To put the matter
in another way, from the time of Columbus to the present, about 84
per cent of the silver mined has come from the two Americas; South
America has yielded about 23 per cent and North America over 61
per cent.

Naturally there have been changes in the relative position of pro-
ducing countries. The last-century discoveries of important silver
mines in the western part of the United States pushed the United
States to a leading position, which it held until 1897. Since then,
with few exceptions, Mexico has maintained the first place. Hence,
we find that of the 248,000,000 fine ounces of silver mined in 1930
42 per cent came from Mexico, 21 per cent from the United States,
7 per cent from Peru, 75 per cent from all North America and 85 per
cent from both Americas.

What becomes of this silver? Some is used in the arts and indus-
tries, although relatively little is so consumed in Latin America.
Some is used as subsidiary currency in occidental countries. In this
connection it is interesting to observe that, despite their importance
as silver producers, no American country, not even Mexico, maintains
silver as the standard of value. Indeed, silver is to be found as a full
standard of value only in China and Hong Kong, to which we may add
perhaps one or two small areas elsewhere, of insignificant standing
commercially. The bulk of the world’s silver is taken by the people
of China and India, in which countries the metal is prized as a store
of savings. The hoarders of Asia seem to have an insatiable appetite
for silver and, but for them, in all likelihood it would have ceased
years ago to be classed as a precious metal.

There is presented herewith a map on which has been indicated
how silver moved to market during 1930. The squares show the chief
mine production of silver; the circles indicate the leading buyers of
silver; and the flow lines indicate the movements from mine to “‘con-
sumer’; and also here and there a return flow, such as that from
India to England, or the much smaller flow from England to the
United States.

‘UMOYS JOU. 3.23 OLOYMOSTO SJUSOUIBAOUL PURLIOAO puv UeodoInNy-v.1YUI ULe}109— ALON
0s6. NI UMATIS FO NOILAWOASNOO CNV ‘NOLLAGIWMLSIG ‘NOLLONGOUd FAL

SdIOMIMIOD OISeMIOG, PU UDIe10,q Jo nveang s9}04g peytug jo Asojan0g

(e) a q >
os NOILGWNSNOD
oo Q GN3937 GNV1V3Z M3)

ge arene NOILONGOYd ANIN fi

M014 40 J1VIS

Youd HANDS 40 MOIR” re EN
Ve 7
N27

Voonos Deen,
vy (INVI9139 |
KY {

/ Se,
gang, V'SO1HLI~

i
iN Sea Ze

« VC BING ~S II

& 0 %, 3 f b~ Yj : z a Wiel 4
oe ah li VME 1 i)

SILVER IN THE WEST AND THE EAST 835

The principal steps in the marketing of silver are: The production
from American mines; the refining of silver in the New World,
especially in the United States; the long-established bullion market
of London, now closely rivaled by that of New York; the consumption
of silver by the industries and arts and by the mints; and—a matter
of major importance—the absorption of the metal by Chinese and
British Indians. All of these steps have a part in determining the
price of silver, for silver is a world commodity, and its price is a
world-wide price.

In recent years the world price of silver has experienced severe
depreciation. ‘Thus, whereas the price per fine ounce rose from an
annual average of 56.3 cents in 1914 to one of 112.1 cents in 1919,
and—despite a severe decline the next year—maintained a level of
around 63 cents for nine years, subsequently the average dropped

rom 55.3 cents in 1929 +> 38.5 cents in 1930 and 28.7 cents in 1931.
It would be difficult to ae:eribe in a short space all the causes which
brought about this de’’’ ». We must keep in mind that the price of
silver is no longer stabiliz-1 anywhere by law and that, like the price
of any other commodity, it is simply the result of the interaction of
demand and supply. The price of any commodity reflects both the
commodity value of gold—in other words, the general commodity
price level—and, secondly, those conditions peculiar to the particular
commodity itself. That the world price level for all commodities has
declined severely is in itself enough to explain a very large part of
silver’s price decline. The index number of wholesale commodity
prices in the United States was 100 in 1926, 96.5 in 1929, and only
71.1 in 1931. In September, 1932, it was but 65.3. Gold having
thus appreciated greatly, naturally the price of silver in terms of gold
has depreciated.

Then, too, there have been special circumstances to depress the
price of silver. Some are more obvious, although not necessarily more
important, than others. For example, in 1926 the Indian Govern-
ment decided to sell its surplus stock of silver. Sales commenced in
1927 and, by March 31, 1932, 127,581,564 fine ounces of such silver
had been sold. Clearly, this injured the price of silver. If we make a
rough estimate of the total supply of silver sold on the market by all
sellers annually betw _920 and 1928 (including the British Indian
silver, the demonetized metal sold in Europe, and the product of the
world’s mines), we find there was a decided upward trend. On the
other hand, no new outlet made its appearance, India and China
continuing to be the largest absorbers of the white metal. The de-
mand of these countries is in turn determined by their prosperity and
affected favorably or unfavorably by such factors as good crops,
destructive civil warfare or unrest, changes in their balance of pay-

836 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

ments with western countries, and speculation. When a severe busi-
ness depression in 1930 affected the occidental demand for far eastern
goods, naturally the natives of China and India were unable to ac-
quire the exchange with which to maintain their large purchases of
silver —except at a concession in the price of the metal.

How about the supply of this commodity sold each year? Is it
limited to the annual product of the mines? The answer is, ‘‘No.”’
In one sense, practically all the silver ever mined by man constitutes the
supply, at least potentially, because silver is virtually an indestructible
metal. Comparatively little is lost in abrasion of coins or is believed
to be otherwise used up or irretrievably misplaced. A large part of
the mined silver rests in Asiatic hoards in the form of jewelry, bullion,
or coin, and another large quantity of the metal is scattered through-
out the Occident in the form of table services, decorative articles,
and the like. Such silver does not constitute part of the active market
supply. But it may some time be melted and offered for sale. In
this manner silver does, in fact, come back to the market at intervals,
again and again; the silver quarter in one’s pocket may contain some
of the very metal taken from the Inca Atahualpa by Pizarro. Silver
is, therefore, a commodity which differs from most other commodi-
ties foodstuffs or textiles, for example—because there is practically
no limit to the number of times it may be ‘‘consumed.”’

With the world stock of silver being added to each year by the out-
put of mines, this stock, “visible” and ‘‘invisible,” is clearly many
times greater than the new supply currently on the market. The
latter, of course, is not any fixed quantity, but varies from time to
time, as will be explained. In 1931, for example, the new silver
estimated to have been sold on the world market was about 196,-
000,000 troy ounces. Old silver, obtained almost exclusively from
melted coin, and physically transported from a seller to a buyer at
least once during that year, added an estimated 60,000,000 ounces.
The total of the two figures just mentioned indicates that actual
metallic silver to the amount of at least 256,000,000 ounces changed
hands one or more times during 1931. There is no available method
of calculating the total sales involved in handling this silver—that is,
the turnover. A single lot may have changed in ownership many
times.

If it is impossible to calculate total sales involved in the marketing
of the new production and demonetized metal, it is equally impossible
to keep track of what for convenience may be termed the ‘‘invisible”’
silver constantly being bought and sold—that is, of the foreign-ex-
change transactions of silver-standard countries. This “invisible”
silver is an important factor in the silver market. For example,
when a Chinese importer of motor cars pays his bill by selling Shanghai
taels in order to buy gold dollars, he is adding to the supply of silver

SILVER IN. THE WEST AND THE EAST 837

on the world market every bit as much as is the Mexican mine owner
when he ships his bullion to the United States. China, the only re-
maining silver-standard country of importance, annually imports
several hundred million dollars’ worth of merchandise. That means
the invisible supply of silver on the market is increased by that
amount; and, just as in the case of the physical metal annually marketed
(where the actual metal may be sold again and again), so in the case of
this “‘invisible”’ supply foreign exchange —there are sales and resales.
In other words, a small group of active Chinese exchange speculators

Photograph by W. V. Alford

OLD PATIO PROCESS WORKINGS, PERU
The process of treating ore by amalgamation was introduced in 1572, when high-grade surface ore became
nearly exhausted. After a thorough grinding, the ore was mixed with salt and quicksilver and puddled

by the treading of mules. ‘The process has been in use up to the present time by Indians in certain
sections of the country.

may greatly augment the volume of transactions in the silver market
by buying and selling, rebuying and reselling, silver bullion or exchange
between silver-standard and gold-standard countries. Total pur-
chases and sales of all kinds in the silver market are thus obviously
impossible of determination.

On the demand side of the silver market, the Chinese and Indian
takings of silver are by far the most important, and are generally
considered to be in a class by themselves.

The Indian Government has since 1927 been one of the most
important sellers of silver, derived from the coins returned from circu-

146163—32—Bull. 12——-2

838 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

lation. That government, consequently, has no occasion to import
silver on its own account. The Indian imports are private trans-
actions and destined for use by the Indian people in the form of
bullion or jewelry, as a store of value—an investment, if you will.
In the form of jewelry, silver in India also serves as a token of social
standing.

The Chinese consumption is somewhat different from the Indian.
The Chinese authorities do not ordinarily have occasion to sell silver
on the bullion market, but buy it regularly for coinage. Another
difference between the two nations is that China, unlike British
India, is on the silver standard. Silver is China’s main measure of
value and, both in the form of coin and of bullion, it serves the purpose
of money. In India the currency is linked to the pound sterling, and
the rupee currency circulates at a higher value than, and without,
regard to, its bullion value, very much as does the peso in Mexico.

Occasionally it becomes necessary or desirable for China or India
to export silver; but, in the main, those two peoples are heavy im-
porters of the metal and form the chief support of the silver market.
For example, in 1931 the net consumption of silver in India and China
together was 45.4 per cent of the total sold in the world that year
(that total including the sales by the Indian Government and by
Indian silver-mining companies). Of the non-Asiatic supply, the
consumption of China and India naturally formed a much larger
percentage.

The second large factor in the demand for silver is the consumption
by the arts and industries in other countries, chiefly in the United
States, Canada, Great Britain, and Germany. Without going into
too much detail, it may be said that about 44 per cent of the silver
thus used is devoted to sterling silverware, about 14 per cent to plated
silverware, and 42 per cent to other industrial consumption (for
photographic film, chemicals, and the like), these figures being based
on 1930 estimates for the United States and Canada. Until 1929
the consumption of silver in the arts and industries revealed an irreg-
ular upward trend, but the business depression following that year
affected it.

Finally, the consumption of silver in the comage of subsidiary
“money in western countries is a considerable factor in the price of
silver. Such consumption of silver, however, is more irregular and
much smaller than either the purchases of the far eastern countries or
the industrial demand of the Occident.

The accompanying table shows the estimated supply of and demand
for silver in 1930 and 1931, taking, for this purpose, the. estimates
published by Handy and Harman, a well-known New York firm of
dealers and brokers. The estimates for 1931 are subject to revision.

SILVER IN THE WEST AND THE EAST 839

The silver market in 1930 and 1931

[According to Handy and Harman, “‘ Review of the Silver Market for 1931”’]

1930 1931
|
Item md Aaa
Millions edcent Millions meneent
of fine | of total | Of fine | oF total
ounces ounces
SUPPLY
ING WAOROGUICH OTe ties Ut Bee UUs ees oo os See 246.8 ile 196. 1 76. 2
Salles Toyy Ionchienn Cron@aaban iol y 29.5 9.3 35. 0 14.1
Other governmental sales of demonetized silver --_-------------- 42.0 13. 2 24.5 9.6
TN 2) eee PN se ees SE ie a oy Re ee 318.3 100. 0 255. 6 2 100. 0
DEMAND

INGE TaaGhiein COMMS URN OOM. 8 es oe eee es aes a= 94.5 29.7 57.0 22. 3
IN@is Clariaes® Gog ubonoynom Hoo 123. 0 38.9 59.0 23. 1
Total Indian and Chinese consumption ____-__--------__- Qi 68. 6 116.0 45.4
GiOPTRA COMODMA ONO <a a ee eee ee eee eee eeoe 8.0 8 28. 2 11.0
Arts and industries, United States and Canada_______________- 29.5 9.3 30. 5 11.9
(QRCAUBE Tl (eviT eee tps ane See ti Der ee ee ewe Ole a ee es 6.0 1.9 10. 0 3.9
WIGC0 saa ee ee a eee eae 1.0 3 1.0 ot
TOE GANS Gia HOVOMNS ACS oe ee 36.5 11.5 41.5 | 16. 2

Coinage: }
(WimitedeStatesromlya. gece es oe ees ee Nee ee ee 6.1 1.9 2.4 1.0
TOM eeKO Nees ne toe. en aT Gee ea ee De eee 14.0 AGAR |S Bee tN (Sete see
Ophenwasenumaccoume cet ore ae een nen EEE 36. 2 11. 4 67.5 26.4
FRO {cll nee ane er eee ao. aU nee as Ba tae lea! 318.3 | 2100.0 255. 6 100. 0

1 Includes Hong Kong. k
2 Abbreviation of the items accounts for the slight discrepancy in the summation of these columns.

SILVER’S PLACE IN OCCIDENT AND ORIENT

In certain important respects the function of silver in the economic
life of various nations is quite different in the Occident and the
Orient. In the latter area it is primarily a store of wealth and, as
already stated, in some places a standard of value as well. In the
former area it 1s primarily a commodity produced by miners for what
it will bring in the market. Its use as subsidiary currency is a matter
of convenience and habit in the West, only remotely connected with
the bullion value of coin.

In Mexico the metal takes an important place in that country’s list
of exports. Since the decline in price during the last few years,
however, and the consequent decline in mine production, the impor-
tance of silver to Mexico has diminished. In 1929 silver formed about
16 per cent of the value of Mexico’s commodity exports; in 1930, 12
per cent. Although Mexico is sometimes spoken of as a silver-
standard country, it is not on the silver standard, despite the demone-
tization of gold in 1931. The quotations of Mexican currency show
no relationship with the price of silver, the peso being worth con-
siderably more than its silver content and being kept above the value
thereof by limitation of the circulating media.

840 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The United States takes second place as a producer of silver.
American mining capital, moreover, is invested in silver-producing
mines in various foreign countries, notably Mexico, and to a minor
degree in Peru, Canada, Honduras, and Chile. In Mexico, American-
owned mines yielded over 54 per cent of the 1927 production. As a
part of the United States export trade, the value of silver, including
reexports, was equivalent to slightly more than 1 per cent of that of
the country’s commodity exports in 1931; the figures were $26,500,000
for silver and $2,424,000,000 for commodities. The value of mineral
products of the United States in 1929 was as follows:

Item Per cent

SVU (aN cess ects OAT ote elem an ere MN Pare ee we NEETU Tl 0. 6
CQ yilaven pea aa W ey ae iishiey seat Sree ege mh tee Ge aeleed cee pulcone ONL ey tee ess ee ta 24.8
Nomimenallne imimeraie.- — . 2. 52 see bs ee en ee ee 74. 6
SIE ys Sah] Pats ee pea nn a ee Sa 100. 0

SILVER IN AMERICAN CURRENCY SYSTEMS

The part that silver plays in the United States currency system is
sometimes overlooked. From 1793 to 1931, inclusive, the face value
of silver money coined in the United States was approximately one-
third of that of United States gold coin minted. Of the amount
estimated to be in circulation and in the Treasury, on June 30, 1932,
the face value of the silver was nearly one-half that of the gold coins.
It should be noted that most of the United States monetary stock of
gold consists not of coin, but of bullion; hence the part played by
gold in our currency system is greater than would otherwise appear.
Since, by the act of 1900, the Government is obliged to maintain all
forms of American money at parity with gold, silver certificates
(which represent standard silver dollars on deposit with the Treas-
ury) are freely accepted by the public at face value, regardless of the
fluctuating bullion value of the standard silver dollars they represent.
In demanding silver certificates rather than standard silver dollars,
the public displays a decided preference for the more convenient
paper money. Of the 380,000,000 standard silver dollars in circu-
lation at the end of August, 1932, 350,000,000 were represented by
silver certificates.

Compared with all money in circulation ($5,459,000,000), silver
certificates and coin (totaling $645,000,000 face value) comprised
about 12 per cent. Of this, standard silver dollars and silver cer-
tificates in circulation formed about 7 per cent of the total in March,
1932, but standard silver-dollar coins were less than six-tenths of 1
per cent of the total. These percentages represent monéy in the
hands of the public and in banks. It is estimated that 33.4 per cent
of the silver certificates and 43.7 per cent of the silver dollars outside
the Treasury (in 1928) were in the hands of banks.

SILVER IN THE WEST AND THE EAST 841

It is interesting to observe that, in the currency systems of Latin
America, silver has a place not entirely limited to that of subsidiary
money. Mexico, as is well known, depends on silver to a large extent
for its monetary medium, even though silver is not the standard of
value there. In September, 1932, about 250,000,000 silver pesos
were in circulation in Mexico.

Four Latin American central banks make some provision for silver
in their reserves. In Bolivia up to one-tenth of the notes and deposits

MODERN MILLS NEAR PACHUCA, MEXICO

Since the discovery of silver mines by the Spanish conquerors in 1522, Mexico has maintained, with the
exception of a comparatively few years, first place as a producer of that metal.

may be secured by silver. In Colombia, where a 40 per cent gold or
gold-exchange reserve is required against the notes of the Banco de
la Republica, an additional reserve of 25 per cent must be held in
the form of legal currency; of the latter reserve, half may be silver.
Guatemala permits silver in its reserves to the extent of one-thirtieth
thereof. Peru permits silver to form one-fifth of the reserve. That
country, it may be of interest, has legally lhmited the minting of
silver to 23,000,000 soles, the amount coined to date being at least
17,500,000.

Colombia has recently taken certain steps to circulate silver in a
manner not unlike the silver-certificate system in the United States.
In October, 1931, Colombia decreed the coinage of 2,000,000 pesos
in silver, to be circulated in the form of silver certificates. The
banks, moreover, may now keep silver as legal reserve in place of gold.

842 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Argentina and Brazil use no silver currency. Bolivia has only a
few old silver coins in circulation. Ecuador uses very little silver
currency; Paraguay none. Costa Rica has about 1,500,000 colones
of silver coins in use, Nicaragua about $2,230,000, Panama about
500,000 balboas, and Uruguay possibly 12,000,000 pesos.

While statistics are always boresome, it may be of interest to refer
to a recent compilation from United States Mint reports, showing
coinage of silver by all countries from 1900 to 1929, inclusive, as
consuming 2,111,600,000 fine ounces. The leading countries in the
list are: British India, 863,400,000; the United States, 236,000,000
Russia, 151,700,000; and Mexico, 150,400,000 fine ounces.

The basic circulating medium of Honduras is silver. Whereas that
country was on a fiduciary silver standard for many years, with the
peso as the unit, there is now in process a reformation of the currency
with a view to basing the currency on gold. The new monetary unit
is called ‘“‘lempira”’ instead of “‘peso.”’ Silver lempiras are the major
domestic circulating media, backed by a 50 per cent reserve in United
States dollars. The shift is being effected from a silver currency,
valued according to scarcity, to one valued in relation to the gold
dollar, when and if free conversion of lempiras to dollars comes
about. The circulation of silver lempiras is now about 1,300,000;
soon, it is planned, another 700,000 will be issued.

It is estimated that there are 13 countries and colonies in which
silver forms the jeading monetary medium, even though not the
standard of value. These 13 countries are Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,
British India, China, Eritrea, French Indo-China, Honduras, Hong
Kong, Iraq, Mexico, Netherland East Indies, Nyasaland, Persia, and
Siam. Hong Kong is included, although its trade is largely covered
by the Chinese figures. Of the world’s merchandise imports, these
countries accounted for 7.6 per cent in 1930 and 7.7 per cent in 1931;
of the world’s exports, 9.5 per cent in 1930 and 9.4 per cent in 1931.
They are more important as sellers of merchandise than as buyers.

THE NEW YORK SILVER MARKET

The principal features of the New York silver market are (1) spot
silver, the informal telephone market made up of banks, bullion
brokers, bullion dealers, smelting and refining companies, and the
like; (2) the official price; and, since June 15, 1931, (3) futures, the
recently inaugurated trading in silver futures on the National Metal
Exchange of New York.

According to long-standing practice, business in silver has for
many years been done over the telephone, either by direct negotiation
between seller and buyer or through the intervention of a broker.
In New York the principal buyers of silver are banks with branches
or correspondents in the Far East or in London. These banks repre-

SILVER IN THE WEST AND THE EAST 843

sent the Chinese and Indian demand. The principal sellers are the
large smelting and refining companies, which either mine silver
themselves or buy it, in the form of ore and unrefined bullion, from
mining companies. Sometimes they do both. The large metal
companies do not sell silver in lots of less than 50,000 fine ounces.
As there are few manufacturing companies requiring silver in such
large quantities, purchases by the trade are usually made from bullion
dealers, of whom there are two in or near New York. By ‘“‘the trade”
is meant the American and Canadian manufacturers of sterling and
plated silverware, principally, and the industrial (chemical) demand.
The photographic industry is a large consumer, and the largest
manufacturers of film and photographic paper are in a position to
buy directly from the leading metal companies.

Since the New York market in spot silver is carried on very in-
formally, there is naturally no record of the total business done, nor
the prices obtained by traders during any given period. Hence, an
informal method of recording the trend of the market came to be
evolved—the “‘official”’ price of silver.

The ‘‘official”’ price is published in the daily newspapers in New
York and the leading metal-market dailies and magazines. The
margin by which the official price is usually lower than the prevailing
market price represents the carrying and marketing charges.

Mining companies deliver simply crude ore or bullion, which con-
tains a percentage of silver. Probably the ore will be predominantly
lead, copper, or zinc. If the quantity delivered is not large, it may
be set aside at the smelter until a large enough quantity has accu-
mulated to warrant treatment. Thus, it may be weeks, or even
months, before the silver content of such ore becomes available for
sale by the smelter. The smelters and refiners prefer not to
‘“‘take a position” in silver; therefore, they hedge on all silver pur-
chased in the form of ore or crude bullion. Because of the delay
that generally occurs in the reduction of the latter, the existence of
a futures market is of considerable importance to the metal companies.

- Prior to June, 1931, it was possible to make future contracts for
delivery of silver in New York by utilizing the foreign-exchange
market. By means of such contracts, hedging on exchange contracts
involving silver currencies could be arranged on approximately a 90-
day basis. Such arrangements were made directly, or with a broker’s
intervention. But there were no published quotations or other data
on the volume of business done.

Since June 15, 1931, the National Metal Exchange (Inc.), of New
York, has maintained facilities for trading in silver for future deliv-
ery, contracts being made for delivery during the current month or
any of the 11 subsequent months. As a result of the initiation of
trading in silver futures, it became possible to hedge on transactions
in New York involving silver or silver currencies up to one year in

844 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Courtesy of Elena Calderon

ANTIQUE SILVERWARE FROM BOLIVIA

This group of hand-made objects includes two elaborately chased shaw] pins, a platter, a silver mounted
gourd maté cup, a pair of spurs, a combination pin and spoon, and a small bowl.

advance, instead of three months. This has proved to be a useful
facility. The daily publication of details of business done attracted
some speculation. The latter feature of the use to which the public
has put the new trading facilities has been criticized as disturbing to
the market, as it no doubt was during the first third of November,
1931, when speculation drove the price of silver up by 20 per cent
and then caused it to drop. However, it may be pointed out that
speculation in the Far East will in any case continue to affect silver
and Chinese exchange.

THE LONDON BULLION MARKET

The London bullion market was for years the most important
market of its kind in the world, and some claim that it stillis. There
is no doubt, however, that the New York market rivals it very
closely in importance and at least on certain occasions becomes
more important than the London market. When one thinks of the
price of silver being a world price and of all the silver which is being
marketed in the world flowing, as it were, into a common pool from
which demand is met, it becomes evident that no single market is
“the”? market. The market is made by the meeting of demand and

SILVER IN THE WEST AND THE EAST 845

supply. ‘The place where the greatest volume of demand and supply
is canceled is, for that particular day, the leading silver market.
Of course, there is no selling unless there is buying and no buying
unless there is selling, in such a market as New York or London.
To a large degree, it is believed, silver sold in New York figures again
in the London market, where, purchased from America, the metal
is resold to British Indians or Chinese. The metal may actually
never be sent to London. It may, indeed, be shipped from New
York through the Panama Canal or overland to the Pacific Ocean
and thence to China. Such a course would not prevent it from
being bought and sold in London, due to the wonderful facilities
which exist to-day in the way of cable and radio communications.
As a matter of fact, it is a very common thing to find silver shipped
to one destination on a bill of lading providing for optional delivery
at some other place en route or even beyond the first destination.
Thus, silver may be shipped from London to Bombay, ‘‘option
Shanghai,” or to Shanghai ‘‘option Yokohama or Hong Kong.”’

The London market being participated in by persons the world
over, it might be supposed that such a wide market would be complex
in its operation; yet the actual workings are relatively simple. Nor-
mally most of London’s silver-bullion business is transacted in a
15 or 30 minute meeting, once each business day, of representatives
of four long established firms of bullion brokers.

At 1.45 p.m. on week days and 11.30 a. m. on Saturdays the repre-
sentatives of these bullion brokers meet at the office of one of them.
Each of these brokerage firms receives orders from banks and others
in England and from buyers and sellers in all parts of the world, the
four firms together receiving all the silver-bulion orders coming
to London. Such orders may refer to silver for immediate delivery,
or for delivery at some future date. For any given delivery—say,
spot silver—the brokers at their meeting compare their buying and
selling orders (which may mention a specified price or simply ‘at
market’’) and fix the price at such a level as will effect the greatest
number of transactions. It is presumably to the brokers’ interest to
do this, because their profit depends upon the volume of business they
transact. Precise information on the actual conduct of business at
the brokers’ meetings is not made generally available. What sup-
posedly takes place is that all orders for sale or purchase of silver
bullion for spot delivery at the market are compared, then the orders
for spot silver with the price specified by the broker’s cent. The
price which will enable the greatest volume of business to be done is
usually the price fixed. On a given day it may be possible for the
four firms to execute most of the day’s business each on its own books.

2 During and following the war, for 4 years and 9 months ended May 9, 1919, trading in future silver
was suspended.

846 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Again, a single broker may have a considerable excess of buying over
selling orders, and find it necessary to match such orders with the
other brokerage firms’ selling or buying orders.

The price of silver for future delivery would, of course, depend upon
the spot price, the prevailing rate of interest, and other considerations.

NOT ALL SILVER MARKETS ARE COMPETITORS

The various silver markets are not always competitors. New York,
which on balance may be termed essentially a ‘“‘selling”’ market, in
the long run does not compete with Shanghai or Bombay, essentially
“buying”? markets. New York and Shanghai or Bombay may be
regarded rather as supplementing each other. London’s position in
the silver bullion market is entirely that of a middleman. In the
silver which it buys it is a “‘buying”’ market, supplementing New
York, and, to some extent (demonetized silver), other markets, and
as between London and Bombay, the former essentially is a seller of
bullion, the latter a buyer. London is Bombay’s chief immediate
source of silver bullion.

Speculative transactions involving silver or the Shanghai tael tend
to make the world silver market a unit. The existence of almost
immediate means of communication makes it possible for a speculator
in one part of the world to be a factor in the silver market on the
opposite side of the world, to be in and out of that market daily and
even more frequently, and to participate in several silver or silver-
exchange markets simultaneously.

Of the several advantages London possesses as a silver market,
that of being a trade-financing center probably has been of major
importance. The silver bullion market first grew to importance in
London when silver was much more widely used than now as a stand-
ard of value and settler of international trade balances. British
capital, moreover, being early invested in mines producing silver, there
was an added, although lesser, reason why London’s silver market
developed. In the case of New York, the international trade-
financing factor, although present, has not been the most important,
but it has gained considerable weight in recent years. More import-
ant has been New York’s trade in silver bullion. As silver became
essentially a North American product, and the United States for
years the largest producer, New York quite naturally came to
play an important part in the marketing of silver. While the United
States is no longer the leading silver producer, New York’s silver
market is more important than ever.

ea SEVER CEN TORIES

By Apam CarTER

Pan American Union Staff

HE optimist who said that every cloud has a silver lining would

nowadays need all of his optimism to think that such a lining could
be profitably employed. Silver has come upon evil days, and its
future is surrounded by uncertainty. But what a glorious past it has!
It played a most important part in making possible those voyages
which led to the discovery of new lands and seas, and it was one of the
main supports upon which a mighty empire was reared. At its call
new cities rose, new nations were born, new life was given to the Old
World. Ships were built to carry and to protect the treasured metal,
fortresses appeared to guard the harbors whence it came, and fortress-
like buildings were erected to store it.

The quest for silver and gold sent the Spaniards far into the
unknown regions of the new-found world. That they did not always
find the coveted riches, or were disappointed in what they obtained,
should not be surprising. But their staunch belief that these metals
would be found and the fortitude with which they carried out their
explorations are truly amazing.

In 1526 Sebastian Cabot, then in the service of the King of Spain,
reached the River Plate, and seeing some Indians wearing silver orna-
ments forthwith gave the stream the name of ‘‘Rio de la Plata,”
literally River of Silver. Then he spent three years in those regions,
in a fruitless search for the white metal. The ornaments he had seen
came from barter with inland tribes.

Cortés was more fortunate in his conquest of Mexico, but the gold
and silver he found in the Aztec metropolis whose ruins may still be
seen in what is now Mexico City did not come from any near-by
mines. The treasure found was so far below expectations that,
strange as it may seem, some of the men who had accompanied
Cortés afterwards died in poverty. So dissatisfied were the soldiers
with their share of the booty that they subjected Cuauhtémoc, the
last Aztec Emperor, and one of his lords to torment by fire, in order
to draw from them a confession about a treasure the Indians were
supposed to have buried. Nothing was learned because Cuauhtémoc
could not be made to talk. When his companion cried out to him:
“Confess, I can not bear this any longer!” the Emperor replied:
“Dost thou think I am on a bed of roses?”’

847

848 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, certainly could not have complained
about a scarcity of the coveted metals. He had imprisoned Ata-
hualpa, the last Inca, or King, of Peru, and the ransom, according
to some historians, consisted in filling two rooms full of silver and
one room full of gold.

A glance at the map of Latin America shows clearly the faith the
Spaniards had in silver. Argentina, the country of Cabot’s Rio de
la Plata, derives its name, of course, from the Latin argentum. The
name La Plata was given to cities, provinces, harbors, islands, moun-
tains, and lakes in Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Cuba, the Dominican
Republic, Ecuador, and Panama.

Photograph by I. F. Scheeler

POTOSI, BOLIVIA

The city which was at one time the richest in the New World owed its founding in 1546 to the silver
deposits in the mountain which towers over it.

The first silver mines to be discovered by the conquerors in Mexico,
then called New Spain, were at Taxco, a little town in the Guerrero
Mountains which was then occupied by Indians. This discovery
took place in 1522 and marked the beginning of the transformation
of Taxco, which to-day is an enchanting relic of colonial times.

The existence of silver in the lofty Mount Potosi in Bolivia was
known to the Indians in pre-Conquest days, but it was not until 1546
that the city of Potosi was founded by the Spaniards and exploitation
begun. In a little over a year 14,000 people had congregated in what
proved to be the richest place in all the new domains. The Potosi
mines are credited with having produced a large part of the silver

THE SILVER CENTURIES 849

FORT OF SAN JUAN DE ULUA, VERA CRUZ

For nearly four centuries this fortress has stood guard in the harbor through which have passed incredible
amounts of silver since the first exploitation of the Mexican mines by the Spaniards.

exported from South America. To-day Potosi is decorously conserv-
ative; tin means more to it than silver, but the days are not so distant
when the city was extravagantly rich, when money overflowed and
prices reached fantastic levels. The expression ‘“‘Hso vale un Potosi”
(It is worth a Potosi) is still used in the Spanish language to convey
the idea of enormous wealth.

The discovery of the amalgamation process in 1557 revolutionized
the silver industry and gave it new impetus in Hispanic America.
This process consists in applying mercury to silver ores, in order to
eliminate extraneous substances and reduce the metal to a pure state.
It is generally agreed that credit for its discovery and employment as
a practical method belongs to Bartolomé de Medina, a mineralogist
born in Seville early in the XVIth century, who came to Mexico in
1555.

At first silver was carried to the mother country in single vessels,
but as exports increased the need for better protection led to the
formation of the treasure fleets. These armadas, ‘“‘teeming with
men and bristling with arms,’ as one author has it, sailed at regular
intervals over established routes, almost, if not completely, without
regard to the operations of enemies. As additional protection, the
waters around Andalusia and certain parts of the Indies were policed
by war vessels. It was ordered by royal command that the New
Spain fleet should leave in April and the Tierra Firme fleet, which
served the mainland of South America, in August.

Vera Cruz in Mexico (its full name is ‘‘ Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz” —
Rich Town of the True Cross), Amatique in Guatemala, Trujillo in

850 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Honduras, Porto Bello and Nombre de Dios in Panama, and Cartagena
in Colombia became the silver ports of the New World.

The treasure from Mexico was taken from the highlands to Vera
Cruz over trails that began eight or ten thousand feet above the sea.
The output of the Peruvian mines was placed at Callao on the Pacific,
or South Sea, fleet, taken to Panama City and thence to Nombre de
Dios or Porto Bello, where it was transferred to the Tierra Firme, or
mainland, galleons. These also went to Cartagena, the port of call
for silver sent down the Magdalena River, from Colombia, Ecuador,
and parts of Peru.

Fortifications were erected in all these ports to protect them from

all possible enemies, especially against pirates, who never lost a
chance to ‘‘twist the Spaniard’s beard’’; Drake played havoe with
Nombre de Dios in 1596; Panama City was destroyed by Morgan in
1671, and had to be rebuilt on a better site. But the protection given
all these harbors certainly was not to be held in scorn. Cartagena
was surrounded by walls so strong that to this day they stand almost
intact. The castle of San Juan de Ulta, in Vera Cruz, ranked as a
first-class fortress even in the XIXth century. Besides, history
shows that piracy, in this case, did not pay. It emphatically did not,
according to reliable sources, cover what may be termed its ‘“‘cost of
production,” the amounts of treasure taken from the Spaniards by
foreign powers being but a small percentage of what was safely carried
over.
The ultimate goal of all American silver was the Casa de la Con-
tratacién, or House of Trade, in Seville. Here it was weighed by an
official and placed in chests in the treasure chamber, whose substantial
walls, strong doors, and double iron bars afforded ample protection.
Besides, the treasure chamber and chests had triple locks, and one
of the three keys required to open them was carried by each of the
three officials of the House. To increase the protection, in times of
unrest special guards were kept on duty at night.

To give an idea of production in the Indies, it may be said that from
1521 to 1660 more than 37,000,000 pounds of pure silver were shipped
to Spain. The fortunes made from silver were, for those days, incred-
ible. The Veta (vein) de la Soledad, near Pachuca, Mexico, yielded
6,000,000 pesos in one year, 1774. The owner of the mine, Don Pedro
de Terreros, celebrated by presenting to King Charles the Third of
Spain a 120-gun frigate—the equivalent of a modern ship of the hne—
and a loan of 1,000,000 pesos without interest.

The output of the Valenciana mine in Guanajuato, Mexico, has
been estimated at more than 800,000,000 pesos. During the lifetime
of its first owner, the Conde de Rul, it produced 226,000,000 pesos.
The Count built several magnificent churches, each of which cost
from 500,000 to 1,000,000 pesos. On an eminence near the mine he

THE SILVER CENTURIES 851

erected the Church of San Cayetano, which is one of the most beau-
tiful in Mexico. It has three splendid Churrigueresque altars, and
once supported a magnificent service, maintained by contributions
from the miners, amounting to 50,000 pesos annually.

José de la Borda, another mining magnate, in gratitude for the
benefits derived from his enterprises, in 1757 built a church at Taxco
which is considered to be perhaps the most complete monument of
ecclesiastical art that exists in the Western Hemisphere. Many of
the devout people of Taxco still come early every morning to begin
THE CATHEDRAL AT

TAXCO, MEXICO
The wealth of silver from

Imines in the vicinity of
Taxco made possible in
the eighteenth century the
construction of this splen-
did cathedral by the min-

ing engineer, José de la
Borda.

their day by kneeling and praying in front of this church. La Borda
also endowed the Cathedral at Mexico City and other churches with
princely gifts, and to create a retreat for himself spent more than a
million pesos on a magnificent garden, in the Italian style, located at
Cuernavaca. The residence built in connection with this garden was
later on occupied during the summer months by Maximilian, Mexico’s
ill-fated Emperor.

Mexico, which has produced more than a third of the world’s silver
supply, managed to hold its own even during the XIXth century,

852 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

when events began to mark the decline of silver. A considerable
amount of the metal produced in Mexico found its way to the Far
East, and the old Mexican silver peso is said to hold the honor of
having been the most widely circulated coin in the world. In China,
prices used to be quoted in dollars ‘‘Mex.”

The future of silver is to-day undecided, and the empire it once
supported is a thing of the past. The treasure chests are empty.
The harbors whose waters bore the galleons laden with gold and
silver bullion have turned to more prosaic pursuits. Some of the old
forts are in ruins; grass grows in the moats and weeds have conquered
the crumbling stones.

But the walls of Cartagena are as massive as ever; the castle of San
Juan de Ulta still keeps watch over the Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz;
and the sun still shines on the brilliant tiles of Taxco’s church.

AN INVESTMENT WHICH PAYS DIVIDENDS

By Hetoist BRAINERD

Chief, Division of Intellectual Cooperation, Pan American Union

URING the last few years an increasing stream of students from

the twenty republics to the South of the Rio Grande has been
flowing into the educational institutions of the United States. In
1931-32 over 1,200 were enrolled in universities and colleges, besides
many in preparatory, commercial, and technical schools. Realizing
the importance of this movement, which is helping the people of the
United States to understand the Latin American countries through
their acquaintance with these students, and preparing the latter to
be interpreters of the United States upon their return home, the
educational forces of this country are investing considerable sums in
aiding these visitors to secure the training they seek—an investment
which yields a steady income of better understanding and coopera-
tion. At the present time about 35 institutions of higher education
erant scholarships or fellowships to Latin Americans, and some 40
more offer them free tuition. In addition, generous fellowships are
granted by certain foundations and associations. Although the de-
pression has made it necessary to curtail these offers somewhat in the
present academic year, a considerable number of students have re-
ceived such aid, mainly for advanced study and research.

The John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation has brought
15 scholars and scientists from Argentina, Chile, Cuba, Mexico, and
Puerto Rico—the only territorial divisions in which the necessary
committees of selection have as yet been organized—for the study

AN INVESTMENT WHICH PAYS DIVIDENDS 853

of such varied subjects as plant pathology and city planning. These
scholars, with the field in which each is specializing, are as follows,
by countries:

ARGENTINA: Sefior Nicanor Alurralde, civil engineer, Argentine
State Railways, Buenos Aires, Problems of railway engineering and
management; Sefior Julio Fingerit, author, and Inspector of Secondary,
Normal, and Special Schools of the Ministry of Education, Buenos
Aires, Contemporary literature; Prof. Angel Guido, civil engineer,
architect, and Professor of the History of Architecture, University of
the Littoral, Rosario, Architecture and city planning; Dr. Tomas
Leandro Marini, Chief of the Division of Fisheries and Pisciculture of
the Argentine Department of Agriculture, Buenos Aires, Marine
biology, oceanography, and pisciculture.

Cuite: Prof. Fernando Devilat Rocca, of the Department of
Architecture of the Catholic University of Chile, and Architect to the
Board of Public Charities of Chile, Hospital architecture and the
organization of hospital services; Dr. Manuel Elgueta Guérin, First
Assistant in the Genetics Division, Experimental Station of the Na-
tional Society of Agriculture of Chile, Theoretical genetics and the ap-
plication of genetics to the improvement of plants (continuation of stud-
ies); Sefiorita Aida Laso Correa, Professor of Civil Government in
the Academy of Fine Arts, University of Chile, and in one of the public
high schools, Santiago, Organization of educational guidance and
students’ welfare.

Cupa: Dr. Carlos Guillermo Aguayo y Castro, Assistant Professor
of Biology and Zoology, University of Habana, Taxonomic studies in
malacology and entomology (continuation); Dr. Herminio Portell
Vila, Instructor in Cuban History, University of Habana, Historical
relationship between Cuba and the United States (continuation of
studies).

Mexico: Dr. Donato G. Alarcén, physician, president of the Anti-
Tuberculosis Committee of Tampico, Clinical practice and treatment of
tuberculosis and methods of procedure in antituberculosis public health
campaigns; Sefior Enrique Beltran, a biologist of Mexico City, who has
for some years been engaged in research in marine biology in the
waters adjacent to Mexico, Marine biology, with especial reference to
the Gulf of Mexico; Dr. Juan Farill y Solares, physician, vice president
of the Mexican Society of Eugenics; The clinical theory and practice of
orthopedics, with especial reference to the nonsurgical treatment of deform-
ities in children; Sefior Francisco G. Moctezuma, civil engineer,
Federal Department of Communication and Public Works, The
theory and practice of water supply engineering with especial reference
to the disposition of sewage; Prof. Moisés Sienz, of Mexico City, one of
the best known leaders of the ‘“‘educational renaissance” in Mexico,

1461683—32—Bull. 12

9
oO

854 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

formerly Assistant Secretary of Education, Indigenous groups in the
southwestern part of the United States with especial reference to educa-
tional problems and procedures, as part of the larger problem of the cul-
tural incorporation of the Indian in the Americas. Professor Séenz
recently completed a tour of Central and South America on a special
commission from the Mexican Department of Education for the pur-
pose of studying this question.

Pusrrto Rico: Dr. José A. B. Nolla, former Assistant Plant Pathol-
ogist, Puerto Rico Insular Experiment Station, The inheritance of
disease resistance in tobacco.

As this is written, information as to where all the above-mentioned
fellows will pursue their studies is not available. Doctor Marini,
however, will be at the University of Michigan; Sefiorita Laso Correa,
at Columbia University, and Doctor Nolla, at the Universities of
Cornell, Wisconsin, and California. Sefior Beltran is working at
Woods Hole and Columbia University, and Dr. Portell Vila is
carrying on research principally in the Library of Congress and the
archives of the Department of State.

It will be remembered that the Guggenheim Foundation also grants
Latin American Exchange Fellowships to scholars from the United
States for study in Latin America, 10 such having been appointed for
this year.

At present the Rockefeller Foundation has in the United States six
fellows representing five countries. They were appointed as follows:

ARGENTINA: Dr. Rafael Grinfeld, graduate of the University of La
Plata, assistant at the Physical Institute and teacher of physics at
that University: To study physics at the University of California;
Dr. Oscar Orias, graduate of the University of Buenos Aires, Assistant
in the Institute of Physiology, University of Buenos Aires Medical
School: To terminate in December studies in physiology carried on
since 1930 at the Medical Schools of Western Reserve and Harvard
Universities.

Brazit: Dr. Benjamin Alves Ribeiro, graduate of Sao Paulo
Medical School, Assistant at the Institute of Hygiene, Sao Paulo:
To continue studies in physiological hygiene and hygiene carried on
during the past year, chiefly at the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene.

Honpuras: Dr. Guillermo Bustillo Oliva, graduate of the National
Institute, San Salvador, with degrees also from the University of
Liverpool, Chief of the Department of Infant Hygiene, National
Health Department, Tegucigalpa: To study public health adminis-
tration.

Panama: Dr. Amadeo Vicente-Mastellari, graduate of George
Washington University Medical School: To continue study of tuber-
culosis in Jamaica and the United States in preparation for appoint-

AN INVESTMENT WHICH PAYS DIVIDENDS 895

ment as Assistant Director of Anti-tuberculosis Work in the Republic
of Panama.

Peru: Dr. Alberto Hurtado, graduate of the University of San
Marcos, Lima, and of Harvard Medical School, former member of the
Research Department of the University of San Marcos: To continue
the study of clinical medicine, physiology and pathology in altitude
problems in the United States, chiefly in the Department of Medicine
of the University of Rochester.

Two women’s organizations offer fellowships which were awarded
this year to three women from Colombia, Panama, and Chile, respec-
tively. The Latin American Fellowship of the American Association
of University Women went to Sefiorita Paulina Gomez-Vega, of
Bogota, Colombia, a member of the staff of the Colombian National
Institute of Hygiene. Sefiorita Gémez-Vega, who had previously
studied in the United States, at the State College of Washington and
the School of Hygiene and Public Health of the Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity, has returned to the latter to continue her work in the public health
field, especially in bacteriology.

The General Federation of Women’s Clubs bestowed its fellowship
on Sefiorita Georgina Jiménez, of Panama, a graduate of the Normal
School of that Republic and of New York University, with some
teaching experience. She is specializing in education and sociology
at Columbia University. Sefiorita Ema Gonzdlez, of Chile, who is
studying education at the Ohio State University, is holding for the
third year the fellowship of the Ohio State branch of the General
Federation.

The Institute of International Education has been instrumental in
securing fellowships or tuition scholarships for some 20 Latin American
students. In this connection it should be added that an arrangement
has been made between the Pan American Union and the Institute,
which administers many international fellowships, whereby the Insti-
tute takes charge of those offered to Latin American students by
universities and colleges in this country.

From funds granted by the Committee on Inter-American Relations
of the National Foreign Trade Council the Institute has awarded
fellowships to four Argentine students, selected with the assistance of
the Argentine-American Cultural Institute in Buenos Aires. Of this
eroup Sefior Rodolfo Martinez de Vedia, a graduate of the Engineer-
ing School of the University of La Plata, is specializing in industrial
organization at the Pennsylvania State College; Sefior Isaac Ben-
chetrit, who was trained in the Agricultural College of the University
of Buenos Aires, has taken up dairying at Jowa State College; and
Dr. David Efrén and Seforita Teodora Efrén, both graduates of the
College of Philosophy and Letters of Buenos Aires University, are

856 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

studying psychology at Columbia University and Vassar College,
respectively.

Furthermore, 15 other students have been given scholarships or
fellowships through the Institute of International Education. They
come from:

CuILe: Senorita Olga Avendafio Portius, a graduate of the Uni-
versity of Chile, is studying English at Wellesley; Sefiorita Rosa
Huber, who has finished three years of work at the University of
Chile, continues her study of English at the Western College for
Women; Sefior Argimiro Martinez, a graduate of the University of
Chile, has a renewal of his scholarship in English and American
education at Bowdoin College; Sefior Rodolfo Zafiartu Arratia, a
graduate of the University of Concepcion, is studying at Columbia
University general methods of teaching English.

Cotomsta: Sefior Herndn Lépez continues his study of chemistry
at Antioch College.

Costa Rica: Sefior Amado Jiménez Rosabal again holds a scholar-
ship in the premedical course at the Johns Hopkins University;
Senor Rodrigo Jiménez Rosabal is taking the predental course at
Wittenberg College, and Sefior Humberto Julio Umafia the premedical
course at the University of Florida.

Cusa: Sefiorita Maria Teresa Sansén Brunet, who attended the
University of Habana for two years, is taking the liberal arts course
at Seton Hill College; Senior Eduardo Lens, who received his LL. B.
from Tulane University last June, has returned there to work for a
higher degree.

Ecvuapor: Sefior Walter Américo Vela, a graduate of a German
preparatory school, continues his studies in economics and inter-
national law at Swarthmore College.

Panama: Senorita Iva Maria Sdenz, graduate of the Normal School
of Panama, who spent last year at the New Mexico State Teachers
College at Silver City, is studying education at the Oklahoma College
for Women.

Paracuay: Sefior Roberto Tomas Allen, of the Colegio Nacional,
Asuncion, is specializing in economics at Drake University.

Peru: Sefiorita Isabel Vifiias, who was prepared in private schools
in Lima, is studying English at the College of St. Catherine.

Purrto Rico: Sefior Enrique Martinez, who received his pre-
medical training at the University of Puerto Rico, has entered the
medical school of the University of Wisconsin.

Moreover, Teachers College of Columbia University has granted
scholarships to M. Oscar Charlemagne Boisgris of Haiti, a graduate of
the Central School of Agriculture, Port au Prince, to study rural
education and educational statistics; and to Senorita Petra Orlando, a

AN INVESTMENT WHICH PAYS DIVIDENDS 807

Puerto Rican nurse, who received her training in the Presbyterian
Hospital at San Juan and plans to teach nursing.

Miss Betulia Toro of Columbia, a student at the University of
California, holds a foreign student scholarship (covering room rent)
at International House.

Senior Mario Rodriguez, of Chile, who received his law degree from
the University of Chile, was the recipient of a scholarship from the
School of Foreign Service of Georgetown University. Sefior Rodri-
guez is a member of the Chilean diplomatic service, being at the
present time Second Secretary of the Embassy in Washington.

The facilities offered to Latin America teachers of the blind by the
Perkins Institution and Massachusetts School for the Blind are being
utilized this year by Sefiorita Maria Luisa Soler, a teacher at the
Varona Sudrez National Institute for the Blind, Habana.

The Master Institute of Roerich Museum has continued the schol-
arship in music previously awarded to Sefiorita Elsa Cabrera, a
Chilean pianist. Both Miss Cabrera and her compatriot, Sefior
Carlos Beltran, who is attending the R. C. A. Institutes, Inc., have
been aided by the Chile-American Association, which takes a deep
interest in the welfare of Chilean students in this country.

On considering the fields of work in which these students and
scholars are engaged, we find that medicine and public health claim
the largest number—13, and education the next largest—12. Science
as applied to agriculture or industry comes next in order, with biology
enrolling five, and physics, chemistry, and agriculture one each.
Three students are specializing in English, presumably in preparation
for teaching that language, and one is taking a liberal arts course.
Two more are carrying on research in engineering problems and as
many in architecture. The fields of literature, history, music, inter-
national law, economics, foreign service and industrial organization
are engaging the attention of the other holders of fellowships.

It is also of interest to note that of the total of 48 students—a
number which should doubtless be increased by others who have not
come to the notice of the Pan American Union—35 are men and 13
women.

More and more it is being recognized that the wisest policy in
encouraging student interchange is so to use scholarships and fellow-
ships as to attract the best prepared and finest type of foreign scholars.
That this policy is being followed as regards Latin America is evident
from a survey of this fine group of students, who inspire one with
optimism as to the excellent results that will flow from their stay in
the United States.

A GREAT LADY
AND A GREAT PHILANTHROPIST:
JUANA ALARCO DE DAMMERT'

GREAT lady and a great philanthropist has passed away in
Lima, leaving behind her the monument of a very great work.
Born 90 years ago almost at the dawn of the Victorian era; the
descendant of an old colonial family; brought up in the traditions of
the past, Juana Alarco de Dammert might have fulfilled her destiny
by being no more than a grande dame of the old school. Instead,
she became the most advanced woman of her age. Possessed of an
indomitable will, and endowed with a charm of manner which she
knew how to exercise for whatever end she had in view, she carried
into execution, in the backward Lima of 40 years ago, a series of
charitable works for the welfare of children which were almost in
advance of the times. Her task was rendered the more difficult in
that she set herself to its accomplishment when the capital was only
just recovering from a prolonged period of political unrest and civil
warfare. ‘‘Fearless, resolute, outspoken,’’ it has been said of her,
“‘she should have been aman.”’ More truly might it be said that she
carried out a man’s work with the sympathy and tenderness that only
a woman could give.

The crowning recognition of Juana Alarco de Dammert’s work
came in 1922, when a bust was erected to her honor in the Parque
Neptuno. The anniversary of the unveiling has been faithfully ob-
served every year since. On December 8 the pupils of the Lima
schools and delegations from all the educational institutions of the
Republic assemble around the bronze memorial to pay their tribute
of homage to the great lady who had done so much to advance the
cause of poor children.

In latter years Juana Alarco de Dammert had become almost a
tradition in Peru. But it was still an active tradition. To the end
of her days she maintained the deepest interest not only in the institu-
tions which she had founded but in everything that concerned the
welfare of her fellow men. Preserving her faculties to the last, she
gradually faded away and died on August 2, 1932. The funeral took
place on August 4, and was attended by a large following, representa-
tive of all elements of society. The mass of floral offerings placed at
the foot of the bust in the Parque Neptuno was further tribute to the

$58

A GREAT LADY AND A GREAT PHILANTHROPIST 859

Juana Alarco de Dammert first came into public notice in 1895.
In the terrible street fighting of March 17 and 18 following upon the
entry of Nicoldis de Piérola and his troops into Lima, some 2,000
lives were lost, while the number of wounded was beyond calcula-
tion. The hospitals lacked accommodations to attend to one-
quarter of the cases. It was at that hour that Sefiora de Dammert
set to work to raise a body of volunteer nurses under the title of the
Relief Committee (Comité de Awrilios) who, herself at their head,
attended to the wounded in the building formerly occupied by the
French Fire Brigade in the Portal del Teatro. From this great work
JUANA ALARCO DE

DAMMERT
The Children’s Aid Society
of Lima stands as a monu-
ment to this Peruvian
woman who throughout
the greater part of her long
lifetime was an indomita-

ble worker in the interest
of poor children.

sprang into being the Peruvian Red Cross Society. This was fol-
lowed two years later by an even greater work. The Civil War left
as its aftermath the most abject poverty among the working classes
of Lima. The prevailing distress was further aggravated by the
terribly insanitary conditions under which the laborers of the capital
were housed. Infant mortality stood at an accusingly high figure;
and all the great heart of Sefiora de Dammert was stirred to the
depths by the distressing spectacle which every street offered of
rickety, undernourished, diseased children with only the streets as a
home when the parents were at work.

860 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The outcome was the formation in 1897 of the Children’s Aid Society
(Junta de Defensa de la Infancia) with the créche, or day nursery,
in the Calle Los Naranjos as one of its most important activities.
For nearly 30 years Sefiora de Dammert remained at the head of
this great organization which then, as now, could be kept alive only
by philanthropy. With advancing years, she yielded place to her
daughter, Sefiorita Luisa Dammert, who is following in the footsteps
of her mother with the same tenacity of purpose and the same real
interest in the welfare of poor children.

HER GREATEST MONUMENT

The day nursery was opened in 1897 in an old colonial building,
which it has occupied ever since. From that day to this more than
2,000 children have been entered on its books. But mere figures
tell no tale of what the créche has accomplished. Only a visit to
the institution can make really intelligible what the work is and
how it is carried out. Perhaps to that should be added a visit to
the homes of the children themselves to appreciate the conditions
under which they would have had to be brought up, were not this
créche, this real home for the homeless, here to save them. One
would also have to see the state in which these children arrive at
the créche in the morning; the same children when they have been
bathed and (in the case of babies) reclothed in the garments of the
institution; and once again when they leave at night, after a whole-
some, happy day, clean, contented, and well fed.

No child is turned away. From the age of three months up to five
years they are received without any requirement save the assurance
that the mother is not leading a notoriously immoral life. <A daily
fee is charged: in the case of babies, 5 centavos a day; in the case of
older children, 10 centavos. In return for that they are clothed
when they come shoeless or in utter rags; their bodies and their linen
are washed; their sores and slight sicknesses are tended; and they
receive two solid meals a day, in addition to the bottle of milk which
is given every baby when the mother calls for it on her return from
work.

HEALTH AND CLEANLINESS

Facing the entrance in the main courtyard is the consulting room,
where every child is examined on admittance and where two physicians
are in daily attendance to give such treatment as may be necessary.
In too many cases some treatment or other is needed, since the
children, almost without exception, come from the poorest homes
in Lima. (Though to see the same children, clean, decently clad,
well fed, in the precincts of the institution between the hours of 8

A GREAT LADY AND A GREAT PHILANTHROPIST 861

and 5, one would scarcely suspect it!) No serious cases of sickness
are treated in the créche itself; for such there is the Juana Alarco
de Dammert Ward in the Children’s Hospital. But there is always
the fiend of chronic malaria to contend with, the chronic malaria
which rages everywhere in the slum districts of Lima. There
is tuberculosis, which still keeps infant mortality at an unduly
high rate. There are skin diseases, some due to the sins of parents,
others to undernourishment and neglect. And finally there are the
verminiferous.

Even in the case of contagious diseases of the skin, children are
not refused admission. They have a department of their own on
an upper floor of the building where, kept isolated from the rest,
they receive the treatment which their poor, tender, suffering bodies
require. For one and all there is the appropriate treatment, with
nurses and doctors to apply salves and injections and a wholesome
food régime to aid the cure... .

THE KINDERGARTEN

The kindergarten section of the créche opens upon an inner patio,
bright with shrubs and flowers. But the most beautiful flowers of all
are the children themselves. There is no happier, more care-free spot
to be found in all Lima than this. Here, children between the ages of
4 and 6 years receive their first lessons in what, from a scholastic point
of view, is usually termed ‘‘education’’—the letters of the alphabet
and the numerals. The system followed is that of Froebel combined
with that of Montessori. Itis all a game, a very delightful game, from
the point of view both of pupils and teachers, this education under
the guise of play; but the results speak for themselves. They speak,
first of all, in the excellent manners of the children, in their natural
discipline, in their merriness which never degenerates into rowdiness
(as it would in the streets), and secondly in the exhibits of their work
which are proudly shown in glass-fronted cases wherein every pupil
has the ambition to see some specimen of his or her handiwork
displayed for the admiration of visitors. These exhibits range from
sketches of fairy tales in colored chalks, models of trees and houses and
animals in multi-colored papers, crowns for the Carnival Queen of the
school and (not less highly honored) the crown of the Model Child,
down to handkerchiefs and table covers, sewn and embroidered by
the pupils themselves. Every now and again the children of the
kindergarten take some present home to their parents. It usually
consists of a handkerchief or a cloth of their very own handiwork.
The crowning exhibit of all is a large doll’s house, a complete establish-
ment in which every article of furniture, from beds and wardrobes and
stoves and chairs and tables down to a Lilliputian desk in which the

862 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

drawers actually pull out as smoothly as if they had come from a
factory, was made of cardboard by the children themselves.

THE STAFF

The management of the créche is in the hands of Sister Elisa Wieck,
who has held the post for the last eight years. Sister Wieck gained
her experience in a more strenuous school than that of kindergartens.
A native of Baden, after studying at Hamburg, Munich, and
Mannheim, where she graduated with a professor’s degree, she served
during the war with the German Red Cross, at first in Tsing-Tao and
later on the French, Russian, and Rumanian fronts. She came to
Lima at the conclusion of the war, and to-day is carrying out the
greatest work of her life. Sister Wieck has under her a staff of about
30 employees, including nurses and teachers. One and all of the
personnel, from the head down to the kitchen staff and the laundry
maids (who have as hard a day’s work for six full days in the week as
any man or woman in Lima), are imbued with the spirit of the insti-
tution. They are proud of it and of the work which they are carrying
out in the cause of infant welfare—the cause which the foundress,
Juana Alarco de Dammert, had so.much at heart.

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN LATIN AMERICA
By AWAY Morr, Phe)?

Scientific Editor, Pan American Sanitary Bureau
Il. Moprrn Trmzs *

S professional conditions became more or less stabilized in Latin
America in the first part of the XI Xth century,” a period of
discipline and trial followed, during which, after going to school in
France, a number of outstanding men introduced into their own
countries modern medical advances and especially surgical methods.**
Far-sighted statesmen like Rivadavia offered for this purpose fellow-
ships abroad, and almost from the beginning a wish was stressed to
develop native talent.*? From such a stage of training and groping
Latin America was soon to emerge with a most valuable contribution
of its own. Arbitrarily, but not illogically, we may begin this new
era with Finlay’s pioneer work, as it followed quite closely and
supplemented Pasteur’s discoveries.*®
Yellow fever.—It was at the second of the international health or
medical conferences held in the Western Continent, in Washington,
in 1881, that the Cuban scientist—incidentally, educated in France
and the United States *7—first enunciated his theory of the réle of the

* Part I of this article, which appeared in the November issue of the BULLETIN, dealt with the beginnings
of medical research in Latin America. In Part I, p. 779, sixth line from the bottom, the words “‘castor
oil’’ should be “cascara sagrada.”’

32 The trips of Humboldt, the ““ Columbus of Science,’’ undoubtedly gave much impetus to all research.
including medical subjects.

33 The whole medical world did likewise in the fruitful years beginning with Laénnec and reaching their
climax with Pasteur. Even in the XVIIIth century many of the teachers of anatomy were French or
followed French procedure. Bullfinch, the first man from the United States to study medicine in Europe,
eompleted his medical education in Paris in 1721. The four men, Shippen, Morgan, Rush, and Kuhn,
who founded the first medical school in the present United States, had all studied in Paris, as did Warren,
Holmes, Cushing, and Gerhardt at a later date.

34 The first stethoscope, brought to Rio by Fernandes Tavares, in 1823, one of the first in the Western
Continent, is still on exhibition at the Rio Academy. Surgical operations were everywhere introduced at
first with some timidity. Surgical antisepsis became popular in the 80’s. In Mexico the first cephalotripsy
was performed in 1840 by Vértiz, Jiménez, and Clement; the first Czesarean section on a live woman,
accidentally, by Jiménez, in 1850; the first symphysiotomy, also accidentally, by Tellechea and Ortega,
in 1869; the first Porro’s operation by Rodriguez, in 1884. In Colombia the first Cesarean dates from 1860;
in Guatemala, from 1864; the first successful one (by Baca), from 1871; the first ovariotomy (by Ponte) in
Venezuela, from 1881; the first tracheotomies and tenectomies in Brazil, from 1843; the first hysterectomy,
from 1887; in Argentina the first pubiotomy (by Canton), from 1904; in Brazil (by Rodriguez Lima), from
1905. In 1603, Davila in Lima had removed from a little girl a stone weighing 1!5 ounces.

35 The Buenos Aires Medical Academy, as early as 1826, placed itself 02 record against the importation of
a few transient notabilities without roots in the soil.

36 Beauperthuy had anticipated the new times when he wrote: “Our epoch leans visibly toward preventive
medicine and public and private hygiene. The Golden Age of Medicine has not arrived as yet.”

37 One of his teachers at Philadelphia was Dr. J. K. Mitchell, who, as early as 1849, had defended a priori
the germ theory of disease. A Frenchman, Devéeze, at Philadelphia (1793) had been the first to uphold the
noneontagiousness of yellow fever.

863

864 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

mosquito in the transmission of yellow fever.*® Half a century has
elapsed, but the three postulates set on record then still remain the
basis of our knowledge of the disease and the best proof of the caliber
of the man, as modest as capable, who defined them. The history of
medicine registers no greater achievement than Finlay’s work, so
admirably supplemented by that of Reed,*? Carroll, Lazear, and Agra-
monte * in 1900, and by Guiteras’ experiments. For the first time
it had been proved that a human disease was transmitted by an insect,
and man had been provided with means to eradicate it, thus redeeming
some of the wealthiest portions of earth, so far the prey of this scourge.

Let us not forget here that in 1885, only a few years after Finlay’s
statement, Utinguasst, in the Academy of Medicine of Rio de Janeiro,
asserted independently that the mosquito must be the carrier of yellow
fever. This is also the proper place to refer to the performance of
Ribas (1862-1925) and Cruzin Brazil. Not three months had elapsed
since Reed’s announcement at the Indianapolis meeting of the Ameri-
can Public Health Association (1901) that at last the cause of yellow
fever had been definitely demonstrated when Ribas, then director of
the public health service of the State of Sao Paulo (1898-1917), pub-
lished at Sao Paulo a paper quoting previous epidemiological experi-
ences of his own since 1896 which enabled him to indorse unqualifiedly
the new doctrine.*! As a result of Ribas’ excellent work, yellow fever
became extinct in Sao Paulo in 1903, even before it was wiped out in
Cuba orin Rio. To Ribas we also owe the famous Butantan Institute,
where Vital Brasil was to perform his meritorious task; the first argu-
ments supporting the independence of alastrim as a disease; the first
child-welfare section in a health department in Brazil and probably
in all Latin America; the tuberculosis sanatorium at Campos de

38 In his momentous and matter-of-fact statement at Washington, Finlay did not actually mention the
mosquito, but he did so a few months afterwards, at Habana, in August, 1881. When the American Yellow
Fever Commission visited Habana in 1879, Finlay was still feeling his way about, and could only suggest
atmospheric alkalinity as a possible cause of yellow fever. The report of the Commission, and especially its
destructive data on many theories, must have proved useful. Finlay himself credited his final views to
reading in a botanical work of the réle filled in the rust of wheat by the spores of Puccinia graminis which
must be carried to another plant to complete their life cycle and acquire their disease-causing power. It
is interesting to recall that the Commission included two men who had much to do with Finlay afterwards:
Sternberg, who appointed the 1899 Yellow Fever Commission, and Guiteras, Finlay’s loyal coworker and
successor.

39 The United States Army Commission, headed by Reed, gave to Finlay’s theory, even using his own
mosquitoes, the solid experimental basis it had so far lacked. Gorgas was to make it a practical reality by
putting it immediately to work in freeing first Habana and then Panama from yellow fever and also malaria.
It is interesting to note that Unanue, in the latter part of the X VIIIth century, blamed the prevalence of
intermittent fevers on the foul smells from stagnant waters, and recalled that, to safeguard themselves, the
Indians used to build their homes on hills.

40 Agramonte was to close his useful life at New Orleans as professor of tropical medicine at Tulane Uni-
versity, in contrast to his countryman and coworker, Guiteras, who, before going to Cuba, spent some
profitable years in a similar capacity at Philadelphia.

41 It is not so well known that Ribas, with Adolpho Lutz and Oscar Moreira, as well as another group of
Brazilian volunteers, allowed themselves, in 1903, to be bitten by mosquitoes which had fed on yellow fever
patients, thus confirming anew the Habana achievement. Recent contributions to yellow-fever control
must include those of the Brazilian Torres, Aragao, Costa Cruz, and Lemos Monteiro, and the Cuban
Hoffmann.

er ee

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN LATIN AMERICA 865

Jordao; and the model Santo Angelo leprosery. What Ribas did at
Sao Paulo, Oswaldo Cruz was to accomplish at Rio (ridding the city
of yellow fever, creating laboratories, promoting research and develop-
ing health organization) on a larger scale, and in a briefer pericd, as if
he knew that his days on earth were numbered.

It may be well to take up now, separately, some special subjects.

Hookworm disease.—In Mexico, Lobat first called attention, in 1854,
to the presence of hookworm disease, and shortly afterwards Jiménez
discussed possible causes and Manuell for the first time found the
parasite in a patient.” In Brazil Wucherer in 1866 pointed to the

FINLAY’S BUST IN
HABANA

This bust in the patio of the
Department of Public
Health and Charity is but
one of various tributes
rendered by his grateful
country to the modest sci-
entist whose epoch-mak-
ing discovery of the trans-
mission of yellow fever
by the mosquito proved a
boon to the entire world.

worm as the cause of the opilagéo known in the country since 1748.
Duran, equally noted as a statesman and a physician, is supposed to
have been the first in Central America (1896) to diagnose the disease, as
he also was to do later with beriberi. In Colombia Posada Arango, who
also distinguished himself as an astronomer and a naturalist, identified
the local tuntéin as uncinariasis, and in 1887 introduced higuerén juice
as a remedy whose value was fully proved by his countrymen Robles
and Montoya.* In 1903 Rangel, then chief of the laboratory of the
Vargas Hospital, rose before the Caracas Academy of Medicine, with
the modesty of a country boy but with the scientist’s assurance, to
report that he had found hookworms in autopsies made in cases of

42 This is almost at the same time that Bilharz and Griesinger brought out the importance of the infesta-
tion in Egypt and long before Leidy (1886) mentioned hookworm as a possible cause of anemia.

43 Calle and Lazaro Uribe used the drug afterwards against whipworms. A Brazilian farmer called
Gracio seems to have been the first to use it medically, about 1882.

866 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

tropical anemia. In Puerto Rico Ashford was in 1900 to connect
dramatically this worm with the anemia which had long exhausted
tropical laborers; with him cooperated Gutiérrez Igaravidez and
Gonzalez Martinez in devising methods of control which afterwards
found world-wide use.** This enterprise, extended by the Rocke-
feller Foundation to the whole world, represents another landmark
in modern public health work, as it offered the means of restoring to
a gainful life millions of people up to then helpless and suffering.*
Typhus fever—Mexico’s contributions to our knowledge of typhus
fever are both numerous and distinguished. Leén, the historian,
showed the antiquity of matlazahuatl on the land. From 1869 to
1919 at least 175 papers were published on the subject, and the
physicians who have fallen victims to the disease may be counted
by scores. Miguel Otero spent many years and all his fortune on
studies which included human inoculation, and finally lost his life, in
1915, when fighting an epidemic and treating patients. Marin, of
Puebla, suggested that bedbugs and fleas might transmit typhus, and
Toussaint, in 1906, unsuccessfully tried on himself transmission
through fleas, bedbugs, and mosquitoes. Ricketts repeated this work,
but went further, demonstrating the réle of lice, and was engaged in
the study of typhus fever when he died from it in 1910, in the old Insti-
tute of Hygiene, in Mexico City. In this same city Mooser has
recently established in a more definite way the relation between
rickettsias and typhus fever, thus extending the work of the Brazilian
Rocha Lima in the Butantan Institute and also confirming Neill’s
report on a new sign of typhus in the guinea pig. Other Mexicans,
including Ochoterena, Ruiz Castafieda, and Varela, have done valu-
able work, and Ruiz Castafieda, with Zinsser, brought forth a pre-
ventive vaccine. It seems, therefore, very proper that the basic
investigations of Ricketts, as well as those of Anderson and Gold-
berger, should have been performed in Mexico. ‘The research done
in Brazil by Prowazek and Rocha Lima has also added a great deal
to our knowledge of the disease and its causative agent. Important
work on typhus has recently been done by Lemos Monteiro, Toledo
Pizd, and Fialho, in Brazil, in Peru by Weiss and in Chile by Kraus.
Verruga peruana.**—No more altruistic piece of work is recorded in
the history of research than that performed by the medical student,
Tomas A. Carrién, when, in an attempt to verify the infectiousness

44 For Argentina and Brazil, Parodi, in 1920, reported a form of the worm which he called Necator argenti-
nus, but which seems a mere variant of the americanus.

45 General Wood once stated that the conquest of yeilow fever justified the Spanish-American War
Just as much may be said of the developments in hookworm disease control.

46 This seems to be an improvement over that of Weig].

47 Verruga peruana is a disease consisting of acute fever, pernicious anemia, and local tenderness. This
disease, limited to certain valleys of the Andes, has also been called locally Oroya fever. The first lay
writers to mention verruga peruana were Gomara (1553) and Zarate (1545); the first physicians Gago de
Vadillo (1630), Bueno (1764), Unanue (1806).

ii tee el

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN LATIN AMERICA 867

of verruga peruana and disprove the erroneous views of some investi-
gators, he inoculated himself at Lima, on August 27, 1885, with ma-
terial from a case of the disease which was to be connected with his
name. Carrién died, as a result of his experiment, on October 5, 1885,
when barely 26 years old, a true scientist to the end, describing step
by step the course of his illness. A number of his countrymen were
to take up the task and cast new light on the disease. Barton, in
1901, found the causative germ, later to be isolated and grown by
Hercelles (1925) and Noguchi. Other Peruvians who worked in this
field are Arce, Vélez Lopez, Rebagliati and Gastiaburtii, Mackehenie,
Odriozola, Weiss, and Battistini. This work still continues and has
received the collaboration of Americans from other republics, includ-
ing Rocha Lima, Strong and Shannon.

Onchocerciasis.—Robles, of Guatemala, in 1915, was the first man
to call attention to the presence in the coffee sections of his country
of a new disease (afterwards also found in certain Mexican districts)
caused by a special worm called Onchocerca caecutiens from its ten-
dency to cause blindness. Other researchers who have gathered data
on the disease are, in Guatemala, Calderén and Mufioz Ochoa; and
in Mexico, Ochoterena, Hoffmann, and Dampf. The Harvard Com-
mission, headed by Strong, in Guatemala, has shown that certain sand
fleas act as carriers, thus furnishing knowledge useful in controlling a
disease whose spread is causing some alarm.

American leishmaniasis.—The names of uta, espundia, and bubas
have been applied locally to a skin disease already appearing in the
old Inca huacos and embracing at least regions of practically every
South American country. As early as 1759 Sauvage and Charlouis
described cases. More definite information was furnished in Peru by
Tamayo in 1890; Avendafio and Flores (who even referred to a bacillus
as the cause) in 1892; Barros in 1895; Ugaz and Saménez in 1901;
and afterwards Tamayo and Palma, who showed the identity of the
disease with that shown in pre-Columbian images; and Escomel,
Vélez Lopez, and Monge; in Brazil, Cerqueira in 1892, Adeodato in
1895, Moreno in 1896, Breda in 1899, and finally Lindenberg, Carini,
and Paranhos, who in 1909 found for the first time in the sores the
Leishmania organisms and showed the kinship of the condition with
oriental sore, and Splendore, who in 1913 presented the mucous types,
more serious than the cases limited to the skin. Cases in other
countries were reported by Zagdrnaga in Bolivia, Sommer, Da Matta,
and Mazza in Argentina, Picado in Central America, Connor and
Bates in Panama, Flu in Dutch Guiana, Seidelin and Inchaéustegui in
Mexico, Migone in Paraguay, Iturbe and Tejera in Venezuela. All
these men have done very important work, separating the condition
from other diseases and determining its geographical extension. In
Brazil, where the most and the best work has been done, Vianna in

S68 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

1911 introduced tartar emetic into the treatment. This has proved
specific and is also used successfully in the Asiatic and European forms.

Chagas’ disease—Chagas discovered among Brazilian children in
1909 a new form of trypanosomiasis characterized by enlargement of
the thyroid and the spleen, and transmitted by a local bug, a T7ia-
toma. This condition was afterwards found in other South American
countries. The causative parasite was named after Cruz; the dis-
ease, at the suggestion of the illustrious Couto, after Chagas. It
was afterwards reported from other countries, Argentina, Venezuela,
Peru, and El Salvador, and lately by the Gorgas Memorial Institute
from Panama.*®

American blastomycosis—For some time several South American
skin diseases were grouped together. One of them, already described
in Argentina by Del Valle in 1901 and Sommer in 1914, was a con-
dition which in 1914 Escomel reported in Bolivian and Peruvian
patients was not caused by leishmanias but by blastomycetes.
Hence the name of American blastomycosis was suggested. The
disease was then described in Bolivia by Morales; in Venezuela by
Iturbe and Gonzalez; in Colombia and Central America® by Pefia
Chavarria.

Mycoses.°—With regard to carate, ccara, and pinto (already known
by the Aztecs), practically all our basic knowledge was gathered by
American authors, and especially Brazilian (de Fonseca, Area Leao),
Colombian (Montoya y Flores, Urueta), Mexican (Gonzalez, Pallares,
Ruiz Sandoval, Iturbide, Saucedo, Andrade), Peruvian (Kscomel),
Ecuadorean (Sudrez, Lasso Meneses), and Venezuelan (Medina
Jiménez, Gonzalez). The first to describe pinto were Palanco in
Mexico (1760) and Velazco in Colombia (1780), while the first
thorough study was that of the Frenchman Alibert in 1829. Gas-
tambide seems to have found a fungus in 1881. Cerqueira, in Brazil,
was the first to report a black rmgworm of the hand. Jn Argentina,
Wernicke first described in 1890 granuloma coccidioides—one of the
first diseases known to be exclusively American—and his pupil,
Posadas, amplified our data. Piedra has been studied in Brazil by
Horta, who differentiated the Brazilian from the Colombian variety
and had the causative organism named after him; Rabello, Parreiras
Horta, Fonseca, and Area Led&o; in Argentina by Oriol Arias and
Parodi, and in Paraguay by Delamare and Gatti.

Snake poisoning.—Lacerda, a pioneer in biology, began in Brazil
the study of poisonous snakes with that of other animal and plant
poisons. In 1902 Vital Brazil, deeply impressed on his return from
France to his country by the thousands of deaths caused each year by

48 The germ has also been found in Honduras by Robertson and in Chile by Sassa Mazzi.

48 Weiss seems to consider at least some of these cases as secondary infections to leishmaniasis.
50 In medical parlance, mycoses are diseases caused by fungi or yeasts.

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN LATIN AMERICA 869

THE FAMOUS SER-
PENTARIUM AT SAO
PAULO

Such men as Brazil and
Kraus now have a worthy
successor in Amaral at the
Butantan Institute where
antivenom serum is pre-
pared.

snake bites, organized the Butantan Institute at Sao Paulo, where,
among other sera, antivenom serum is manufactured.*! His succes-
sors and pupils, Gomes and especially Amaral, while continuing the
serum production, have systematized the classification of snakes, and
Amaral was invited for a similar purpose in recent years to the United
States. The subject has also been studied in Colombia by Carral
and Garcia; in Mexico by Cuesta Terrén; in Costa Rica by Alfaro
and especially Picado, through whose efforts deaths from snake poison-
ing have decreased enormously in that country. The physicians of
the United Fruit Co. have lately been contributing to the subject.
Useful analyses of the poison have been made by Veillard and As-
sumpc¢ao in Brazil; Houssay and Sordelli in Argentina. Scorpion
bites and their prevention have been investigated by Magalhaes and
Carvalho in Brazil, and Cérdova y Gurria, Hoffman, and Cuesta y
Terrén in Mexico, and spider bites by Puga Borne and Tirado in

51 Vital Brazil has lately continued his good work in his present post at Nicteroy.

146163—32—Bull. 12——-4

870 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Chile, and Escomel in Peru. Hoffman and Embil have investigated
barracuda (a fish) poisoning in Cuba.

Basal metabolism.—Ozorio de Almeida pointed out in Brazil that
among tropical dwellers basal metabolism rates were lower than
among people in the temperate zones. In Cuba Montoro corrobo-
rated the assertion, later disputed by Coro.

History. —Among those cultivating with brilliance the field of
medical historiography and entitled to a great deal of praise for the
light they have thrown on their countries, special mention must be
made of Cantén, in Argentina, and Flores, in Mexico, and their vo-
luminous treatises; of the unfortunately incomplete works of Lautaro
Ferrer, in Chile, and Schiaffino, in Uruguay; and of the more partial
studies of such men as Timburus, in Argentina; Abecia, in Bolivia;
Barboza, Da Fonseca, Nascimento, and Freitas, in Brazil; Finlay
and LeRoy, in Cuba; Moore, in Chile; Heinert, Lasso Meneses, Arcos,
Chavez Franco, in Ecuador; Asturias and Ortega, in Guatemala;
Valdizin, Paz Soldén, and Delgado, in Peru; the learned Leén, in
Mexico; Parsons, in Haiti; and Marcano, Razetti, Rodriguez Rivero,
and Sanabria Bruzual, in Venezuela. Their scholarly works consti-
tute the source to which all interested in this subject must always
eratefully turn for guidance in a troublesome, if most attractive,
field.

Congresses. —Congresses, through the exchange of views and teach-
ing by leaders, have always furnished a needed stimulus to research.
Strangely enough, in Latin America international meetings appear to
have preceded national medical assemblies, sanitary conferences being
among the very first of the former. Uruguay deserves credit for
having called an International Sanitary Congress, held at Montevideo
in 1873." This, the first of all American sanitary conferences, was
followed by those at Washington in 1881, Rio in 1887, Lima in 1888,
and, eventually, by the Pan American Sanitary Conferences Inaugu-
rated in 1902. The 1881 Washington Conference, while international
and not purely American, stands out from the standpoint of research
because of Finlay’s appearance there.”

Academies.—The earliest of Latin American medical academies
were undoubtedly those existing in Mexico, under various names,
in 1732-1734; 1775-1817; 1824-1827; 1830-1833, and 1836-1842,
even before the Academy of Medicine of Paris was created in 1820
(to replace the extinct Society of Medicine and Academy of Surgery).
In Buenes Aires, Gorman planned to organize an Academy in 1783,

52 Argentina and Brazil, as well as Uruguay, sent represeatatives who approved the draft of an inter-
national sanitary convention, the first of its kind in America. "

53 The Washington Conference also recommended, for the first time, the creation of two bureaus, one at
Habana, for the international reporting of sanitary conditions. Space does not permit the insertion here
of a complete list of the many Pan American and Latin American congresses of medical nature held
since then.

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN LATIN AMERICA 871

but nothing came of it until 1822, and then it lasted only until 1824.
In Rio, a Scientific Academy, including medicine in its scope, lasted
from 1771 to 1779. The Montevideo Medical Society was organized
in 1850; in the United States, the first medical society was organized
in 1735; the New York Academy of Medicine in 1847.

The present academies were founded as follows: Rio de Janeiro,
1829; Habana, 1861; Mexico, 1864; Buenos Aires, 1874, after previous
attempts in 1852 and 1856; Lima, 1876; Bogota, 1890 (succeeding
the Sociedad de Medicina y Ciencias Naturales, organized in 1873);
Caracas, 1904.

Medical journals —The publication of medical journals in America
began with the Mercurio Volante (1772-73), edited by Bartolache, in
Mexico. Articles on medicine had long before appeared in such lay
journals as the Gaceta de Mérico (1722-1742), and, later, El Mercurio
(1740-1742), Gaceta de México (1784-1789), and Diario de Mérico
(1805-1812). Another journal, Higia, was published in Mexico City,
in 1833, by Leger and Villette. A periodical was published by the
National Academy of Medicine (1836-1843). Of present medical
journals the oldest is the Gaceta Médica de México, also founded by the
Academy, in 1864. In other countries medical journals represented
a much later development. In Brazil the Patriota carried medical
papers as early as 1813-1817, Folha Medicinal appeared at Maranhao
in 1822, while the public-spirited Sigaud published the Propagador
das Sciencias Medicas from 1827 to 1831, and, at his suggestion, the
Medical Academy of Rio issued a Semanario de Saude Publica from
1830 to 1833, reissued under the name Revista Medica Fluminense
from 1835 to 1861; Revista Medica Brasileira, 1841-1843; Annaes de
Medicina Brasiliense, 1845-1849; Annaes Brasilienses de Medicina,
1849-1885; Annaes da Academia Imperial (Nacional, later) de Medi-
cina do Rio de Janeiro, from 1885 onward. The present Gaceta
Medica da Bahia dates from 1866. In Cuba the Repertorio Médico
Habanero appeared in 1840 and the present Cronica Médico-Quirtirgica
in 1875; in Chile the Criticén Médico in 1840 and the present Revista
Meédica de Chile in 1872; in Colombia, La Gaceta in 1852, La Gaceta
Médica de Colombia in 1865-1868, Revista Médica de Bogotd in 1873,
and the present Repertorio de Medicina y Cirugia from 1909; in Argen-
tina, the Anales de la Academia Nacional de Medicina in 1823,°* the
Revista de Farmacia in 1855, the Revista Médico-Quirurgica in 1888,
Anales del Departamento Nacional de Higiene from 1892, and the
present Revista Farmacéutica in 1860, Anales del Circulo Médico
Argentino in 1877, and Semana Médica in 1894; in Venezuela, Vargasia
in 1868 and the present Gaceta Médica de Caracas from 1893; in Puerto
Rico, Eco Médico Farmacéutico in 1881 and the present Boletin de la

54 Two of the papers in the first issue deal with the two recently isolated alkaloids of cinchona and on
the use of iodine in bronchocele and scrofula.

872 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Asociacién Médica de Puerto Rico from 1912; in Guatemala, the
Gaceta de los Hospitales in 1884 and Gaceta Médica Quezalteca in 1891;°°
in Peru, Gaceta Médica de Lima in 1857; and the present Cronica
Médica since 1884 (Unanue had written in the Mercurio Peruano
since 1791, but mostly on nonmedical subjects); in Uruguay, the Re-
vista Médica del Uruguay in 1898 and the present Anales de la Fa-
cultad de Medicina de Montevideo since 1916; (in the United States,
the first medical journal dates from 1790, although medical papers
had been published in lay journals before); in Costa Rica, Gaceta Mé-
dica de Costa Rica in 1896;in Santo Domingo, Revista Médica in 1905
(ceased publication in 1907); in Nicaragua, Gaceta Médica de Nica-
ragua in 1918; in El Salvador, La Unién Médica in 1903 (ceased); in
Honduras, Revista Médico Quirtrgica from 1919 to 1921; in Haiti, La
Lanterne Médicale in 1899 and the present Journal Médical Haitien
in 1920.

Pasteur Institutes.—Priority for the first Pasteur Institute in Latin
America seems in doubt between those founded in Buenos Aires by
Doctor Dawel and in Montevideo by Suvilla Guaz, both in 1886.7
Santos Fernandez soon (1887) followed their example in Habana,
and shortly afterwards institutes were started in Mexico and Rio
(1888), Caracas and Chile (1896), Recife (1899), and Montevideo
(1908).

Bacteriological Institutes —The first hygienic laboratory in Latin
America was, in all probability, the one organized at Rio in 1883.%°
Buenos Aires and Montevideo again tie for honors, as both have had
bacteriological institutes since 1886 (founded by Ramos Mejia and
the great botanist, Arechavaleta, respectively), and Habana comes
immediately afterwards, in 1887.°° Chile followed in 1892, Mexico
and Montevideo in 1895, Sucre in 1896, and Brazil with Maguinhos
(actually opened in 1900) and Butantan in 1899. In other places
laboratories were created as follows: Asuncion and San Juan, in
1900; Habana, 1902; San José and Lima, 1903; Haiti (Audain’s),
1905; Santo Domingo, 1908; Guayaquil and Caracas,” 1910; La

55 La Gazeta had published articles by Esparragosa in the X VIIIth century.

56 Medical journals in Latin America now number close to 200.

57 The New York Pasteur Institute was only opened in 1890.

588 In the United States the first municipal laboratory was organized in 1888, in Providence; the first real
public health laboratory in New York, by Biggs in 1892. Private laboratories had, of course, existed before
these dates, both in the United States and Latin America. In Brazil, Lacerda (who worked at first with
Couty, a French professor of biology) and Marques de Araujo Goes introduced bacteriology.

89 This was a laboratory organized by Santos Fernandez under Tamayo’s direction.

60 1n Puerto Rico a chemical laboratory had been organized in 1841. The first microscope was brought
to the island in 1890. Ashford established, in 1899, at Ponce a small laboratory where he conducted his
momentous investigations of hookworm disease. The first official public health laboratory on the island
dates from 1909. :

61 The municipal laboratory had been created at an earlier date. Florez had started bacteriological
courses at the medical school previously to 1890.

62 In Caracas a chair of bacteriology was created in 1891, probably the first on the Western Continent, the
same year the Vargas Hospital was opened under J. G. Hernandez. The Vargas Hospital laboratory, where
Rangel worked, was, of course, older.

Sen ellie Bast

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN LATIN AMERICA 873

Paz, 1914; Nicaragua, 1915; El Salvador, 1916; Honduras (with
Rockefeller’s aid) and Bogota,® 1923; Guatemala, 1928. At Mon-
tevideo there has been an Institute of Experimental Hygiene since
1896, first directed by Sanarelli, and combined with the Municipal
Bacteriological Laboratory from 1897 to 1905. Physiological labora-
tories had been in existencein Buenos Aires since 1884 and in Montevideo
since 1891. In Mexico a National Medical Institute for the study of
medical conditions and medicinal plants and animal substances was
founded in 1888 and definitely organized in 1890. Lavista, the noted

THE BACTERIOLOGICAL INSTITUTE AT BUENOS AIRES

Organized in 1886, this institute now ranks second to none in the world.

surgeon, created in 1896 in Mexico a Museum of Pathology, which de-
veloped into a Pathological Institute in 1901, and, under the supervision
first of Carmona y Valle and then of Toussaint, studied the pathology
and bacteriology of typhus fever. A bacteriological laboratory was
provided by the sanitary code of 1891. From these humble beginnings
to the present up-to-date institutes the road proved shorter than 1t may
seem at first sight.

The present national bacteriological institute of Buenos Aires, with
its many divisions and well-trained personnel, has a notable history,

63 Under Reyes’ administration (1905-1998) there had already been organized a laboratory for the diagnosis
ofleprosy. The true founder of bacteriology in Colombia was the veterinarian, Lleras Acosta, who, ia 1907,
began the manufacture of anthrax vaccine.

64 A national vaccine institute had existed at E] Salvador and also at Guatemala since 1907.

874 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

owing its inception and development to such sanitarians as Malbran
and Penna. It is at present headed by an excellent bacteriologist,
Dr. A. F. Sordelli, after whom a germ has been named. His predeces-
sor, Prof. R. Kraus, has the unusual distinction of having served
effectively in a similar capacity three Latin American Republics:
Argentina, Brazil, and Chile. Another Buenos Aires institution doing
high-class work is the Cancer Institute, directed since its beginning
(1922) by the internationally known cancerologist, Prof. Angel Roffo,
whose name is borne by one of the most used tests for tumors.

The Instituto Médico Sucre in Bolivia was created in 1896 by a
group of high-minded physicians to commemorate the centennial of
the Bayard of South American independence. The National Insti-
tute of Bacteriology at La Paz was created in 1911. This laboratory
has performed valuable work both in diagnosis and in manufacture of
biological products. Its first director, Morales Villazén, has prepared
important contributions on local diseases and contributed to the
refutation of the theory that llamas suffered from syphilis. The
present director is Dr. F. Veintemilla.

The Oswaldo Cruz Institute originated in 1899 and was turned over
to the Federal Government in 1900, at first with the idea of manufac-
turing antiplague serum. Its continued development, first under
Oswaldo Cruz (1872-1917) and then under Cruz’s faithful and bril-
liant collaborator, Chagas, has made it not only an establishment for
the preparation of all common vaccines and serums, but also a re-
search and teaching center for the study of diseases of men and animals.
In addition to developing native investigators, it has attracted out-
standing foreigners, such as von Prowazek and Lutz. The Institute
is located near Rio in an old plantation called Manguinhos, and thence
its old name, changed into its present one (1909) after the famous
campaign which, under Cruz’s direction, banished yellow fever from
Rio. The buildings include various pavilions: Laboratory, stables,
bleeding room, aquariums, breeding rooms for animals. A cancer
institute, donated by the Gaffrée-Guinle Institute, will soon be
added. Branches of the Institute have been organized in important
Brazilian cities. The Butantan Institute at Sao Paulo, founded by
Ribas to manufacture antiplague serum in 1899, under Vital Brazil
soon developed into a model laboratory, one of the earliest and largest,
for the production of anti-snake-venom serum, with a world-wide
reputation. This important work has been continued and extended
under the present director, Doctor Amaral, and capable assistants,
including Veillard, Assis, Assumpe4o, and Gomes. At the Instituto
de Hygiene de Sao Paulo, housed in new buildings provided by the
Rockefeller Foundation and headed by a proved investigator, Paula
Souza, good work has been done, among others by Borges Vieira,
Fleury de Silveira, and Pessoa on communicable diseases.

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN LATIN AMERICA 875

Cadiz was the true founder of microbiology in Chile, and under
him the newly created laboratory was the first (1898) in South
America to manufacture biological products. The present bacteri-
ological research institute in Chile developed comparatively late.
Its growth in inauspicious times, under the wise direction of its late
chief, Doctor Kraus, is a pleasant omen, and valuable original papers
have already been published in its journal.

The National Institute of Hygiene at Bogota, founded by Samper
Martinez, enjoys a well-deserved name, and was to develop further
under the direction of Pefia Chavarria, who has made important

THE MEXICAN INSTITUTE OF HYGIENE

This group of buildings in the outskirts of Mexico City was erected about five years ago to provide
adequate quarters for the institute’s varied activities.

studies on diphtheria, typhoid, yellow fever, and tropical diseases as
a whole.

The present Mexican Institute of Hygiene had its origin in 1921,
when Gavifio Iglesias divorced the bacteriological section (created in
1895) from the Pathological Institute. Its new buildings, started in
1925, were finished in 1927 with the contributions of the employees of
the National Department of Health. The Institute has divisions of
biological products, chemistry, pathology, physiology, parasitology,
veterinary science, a serpentarium, museum of bacteriology, ete. In
addition, scientific work of a very technical nature is performed. Its
present director is a noted laboratory man, Dr. Eliseo Ramirez, and
among its personnel are prominent scientists. The Biological Insti-

876 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

tute, headed by Ochoterena, has achieved important studies on
onchocerciasis, vitamins, scorpions, intestinal worms.

A Frenchman, at least by adoption, Elmassian, was engaged in
1900 to found and organize the National Institute of Parasitology
in Asuncion. He is the father of the modern bacteriological school
of Paraguay. His successor was Doctor Migone. The present
director is Doctor Urizar, who has done meritorious work on mal
de caderas.

It may be well to insert here a bird’s eye view of some signal
achievements:

In Argentina, early in the nineteenth century, Mufiiz, who delved
into so many things, studied anthrax.®* His name, equally with those
of other pioneers, including Argerich, Rawson, Penna, Pifiero, Durand,
and Pardo, is justly perpetuated in present hospitals, as are in Monte-
video those of Vilardebé,® Pereira Rosell, ete. Ayerza gave his name
to a heart disease on which his followers, Arrillaga and Escudero,
shed further light. The very wealth of Argentine medicine prevents
its receiving here the meed of attention it so richly deserves.

In Brazil the scientific study of tropical medicine was initiated at
Bahia by the triumvirate of Wucherer, Paterson, and Silva Lima
(first to describe ainhum in 1867).- Couto’s ® strong personality has
radiated its influence to many fields. During his connection with
the Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Neiva studied blood-sucking insects,
demonstrated the independence of Vianna’s Leishmania brasiliensis,
identified Chagas’ disease with the uta of the pre-Columbian Peruvian
huacos, and pointed out its possible transmission by sand flies. Neiva
also made a name for himself as a public health pioneer while State
director of health at Sao Paulo, where he began the hookworm
campaign, started the construction of a modern leprosarium, pre-
pared a sanitary code, and later organized the remarkable Biological
Institute devoted to the study of diseases of animals and plants, the
Oswaldo Cruz Garden at Butantan for growing medicinal plants,
including chenopodium, and the Official Drug Laboratory. The
accomplishments of the Brazilian school must include Aragao’s and
Vianna’s growing of Donovan’s bodies in venereal granuloma and
naming them, as well as finding a successful treatment for the con-
dition; the introduction by Vianna of antimony tartrate injections in
kala-azar; and the founding of the model institute of tropical medicine
at Sao Paulo. Another Brazilian, Botelho, introduced one of the

65, In Argentina there are references to anthrax as far back as 1590 and 1609. A commission to study the
disease was appointed in 1884. Wernicke was the first to isolate and grow the bacillus in South America.
Preventive vaccination was introduced in 1887.

66 Vilardebo, a Freachman, in addition to medicine, also delved in anthropology and died ‘combating a
yellow-fever epidemic. His countryman, Moussy, the founder of the meteorological observatory, left
monographs on geography and history.

67 Couto has been reelected year afte year to the presidency of the National Academy of Medicine,
and only recently was exempted from superannuation as a professor in the medical school.

.
:

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN LATIN AMERICA 877

most used tests for cancer in the Pasteur Institute at Paris. Fontes’
far-reaching work on the filtrability of the tubercle bacillus as far
back as 1909 has caused him to be lately urged for a Nobel prize.
Along similar lines Monckeberg has demonstrated in Chile the
transmittal of tuberculosis from the mother to the fetus.

Even in colonial times Guatemala had exceptional figures. Flores,
in the eighteenth century, taking all science as his province, wrote
the first medical book published in Central America, designed a
passenger balloon, built wax models to teach internal medicine and
physiology, urged inocula-
tion against smallpox, de-
vised a new type of glasses,
pioneered in animal elec-
tricity, traveled to and lec-
tured in Europe, where his
remedy for leprosy and can-
cer of the skin was tried, and
corresponded with scientists
abroad. Esparragosa, his
best pupil, invented a for-
ceps, first operated for cat-
aracts (1797) in his country,
introduced smallpox virus
in 1804, and wrote no fewer
than 60 books, all lost.
Luna, about the middle of
the century, introduced
ether and lithotripsy.

In Cuba Santos Fernan-
dez devoted his long and
useful life to journalism and
ophthalmological and public OSWALDO GONCALVES CRUZ

heal th progress. Finlay Cruz was a hero of peace who eradicated yellow fever in
left behind a school which Hip de tauelto and gave new impulse in Brazil to public

brought new laurels to his
country, as perhaps best exemplified by Guiteras® and Lebredo. The
noble hearted Tamayo introduced bacteriology and presided over the
clinical study society which fathered the medical congresses. Alba-
rran and his pupil Lluria in Paris proved international pioneers in
urology. The recently created Finlay and cancer institutes have
strengthened research facilities.

After an auspicious beginning in colonial times, dark days followed
in Haiti, and research, as well as medicine, got a new start in that

68 Guiteras published for six years (beginning in 1900) the first journal of tropical medicine in the New
World, and the second in the world.

878 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

Republic with Dehoux and Audain only in the second half of the
XIXth century. Audain, who died in 1930, proved indefatigable in
his efforts to stimulate medical progress in his native island. It was
he who founded the first of modern Haitian medical journals, La
Lanterne Médicale (1899-1911), organized the first bacteriological and
parasitological laboratory in 1905, collected and identified mosquitoes,
and recognized in 1906 the presence of beriberi. Next to the contri-
butions of such Americans as Butler, Wilson and Mathis (yaws), Mann
and Wickersham (edema), we must place those of Choisser on causes
of death. The laboratories created under American auspices in 1919,
and the reorganization of the Port au Prince medical school with the
aid of the Rockefeller Foundation in 1926, augur well for the progress
of research in the West Indies.

In Mexico, Carpio, an artist as well as an encyclopedist and a
philanthropist, used his pen effectively to ridicule medical follies;*
Olvera about 1846 anticipated some of Crile’s work on the electron
theory of life; Liceaga devoted himself unselfishly to reorganizing
and almost starting the medical school; the great clinician Jiménez
(1813-1876) popularized and even improved percussion and ausculta-
tion, in 1845 differentiated typhoid fever and tabardillo, and in 1856
introduced thoracic puncture for liver abscesses. Gama, of San Luis
Potosi, was a pioneer in performing surgical drainage before the French
Chassaignac; Vértiz improved the method and introduced Lister’s
antisepsis, while Lobato in 1867 stumbled accidently on asepsis and
used it during the last days of the war against Maximilian. Montes
de Oca devised a number of novel operative procedures, and his
method for amputation of the leg is still followed. Lucio in 1852
divided leprosy into three forms, one of which he described before
European writers.” Lavyista boldly introduced new operations such
as ovariotomy, and Toussaint was a pioneer in gall-bladder surgery
and clinical advance. Carmona y Valle in 1880 defined the symptoms
of stenosis of the tricuspid valve, and, a pioneer bacteriologist, was
among the first to describe a germ (Peronosporea litea) in yellow fever,
and practically initiated ophthalmology.” In 1884 the Department
of Fomento made a national survey of climatic conditions and geo-

89 Carpio, whose name appears in all Mexican anthologies, only began to write poetry when over 40 years
old.

70 Cortés is supposed to have built a hospital for lepers as early as 1540. The first authentic leprosy
institute in Mexico dates, however, from 1582.

71 The first ophthalmoscope had been brought to the country by Iglesias in 1856. Carron du Villards, a
French surgeon from Piedmont, was the true introducer of ophthalmology in Mexico as well as in most of
Latin America. Carron du Villards, one of the most dashing characters in medical history, always pro-
fessed the greatest devotion to Bolivar, who had once engaged him to head the medical corps in his army
and serve afterwards as professor of operative surgery at Bogota. While at Caracas, Carron du Villards,
who styled himself General, not only operated successfully for cataract and squint, but removed a patient’s
tongue for cancer, performed lithotomies, lithotripsy, herniotomies. He also introduced chloroform
narcosis in Venezuela, but suffered the misfortune of having one of his patients die suddenly as a result of
the anesthesia.

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN LATIN AMERICA 879

graphic distribution of plants, and the data were placed in 1888 for
analysis in the hands of Orvafiano, who published the result in 1889.
Iglesias tried in vain in 1868 to introduce animal smallpox vaccine,
but his nephew, Gavifio Iglesias,” succeeded in this enterprise in
1918. Terrés gave much impulse to medical research with the organi-
zation of the Society of Internal Medicine (1895-1911) and its organ,
the Revista de Medicina Interna, to discuss original observations.
Herrera’s ” and Vergara Lépez’ ambitious work (in French) on life
in high plateaus was awarded in 1895 the Hodgkins prize by the
Smithsonian Institution.

Revered names in the medical annals of Peru are those of Bambarén,
who studied the physiology of the cardiac valves; Alpaca, who invented
a forceps preceding that of Tarnier; and Valdivia, who insisted on
the humanitarian care of the insane. During the early part of the
nineteenth century, Bravo was the first to describe scientifically ver-
ruga peruana. When the pathogenicity of some Ciliata parasites
was still under discussion in Europe, Escomel in 1904 had already
determined the point at Arequipa. Escomel was in all justice made
the subject of an international homage in 1927.

In colonial times the most prominent scientist in Puerto Rico was
Stahl, who wrote on Indian medicine, West Indian plants, fecundity,
performed the first ovariectomy in the island (1890), and organized
a museum of natural history. Puerto Rico’s geographical and politi-
eal position has permitted it to fill a special réle in fusing Saxon and
Latin methods and applying them to the solution of tropical problems.
The epoch-making studies of hookworm disease were carried out
under such auspices. The former Institute and the present School
of Tropical Medicine of San Juan have perpetuated this system with
fruitful results.

Soca, the glory of the Uruguayan school, an authority on ataxia,
heart disease, and pediatrics, also won fame in public life, oratory,
and medical teaching, being the first South American to be made an
associate member of the Paris Academy of Medicine.” Ricaldoni, in
neurology, and Morquio, in pediatrics, represent other summits of
Uruguayan medicine.

In Venezuela, Beauperthuy must really be considered among the
first physicians, if not the very first, to refer to parasites in connection
with the cause of specific diseases. The great naturalist Ernst

72 Gavifio Iglesias was the man who, by separating the bacteriological division from the Pathological
Institute, created the present flourishing Institute of Hygiene in Mexico.

73 Herrera, who later became the head of the biological institute, introduced the new nomenclature for
plants and animals, and has also gained distinction by his pharmacopceial work and researches into
plasmogeny.

74 Soca used to say that when his patients should miss his visits it would be because he would be lying
in his grave. He lived up to this motto, attending to his practice and classes until the day before his death.
Conscious to the end, from his sick bed he kept on calling out each symptom as it developed and directing
his treatment.

880 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

(1832-1899) published (1877-1884) a series of valuable papers on
Venezuelan fauna and flora. In 1883 Toribio Gonzdélez reported
amebic dysentery for the first time in the New World. Modern
scientific medicine saw its beginnings under the brilliant Razetti,
whose Gaceta Médica de Caracas gave new impulse to the revival.
Risquez in 1893 described a rapid method for the diagnosis of malaria,
searching the black pigment in the blood. Mosquera, first to report
undulant fever in Venezuela, with Risquez, in 1895, pointed out the
presence in Caracas of fevers which did not quite conform to the
classic typhoid picture, thus assuming priority in the discovery of

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF HYGIENE, SANTIAGO, CHILE

To this laboratory is due the honor of initiating the preparation of biological products in South America

paratyphoid infections. Dominicci became the true father of
bacteriology in the nineties, when he organized one of the first
Pasteur Institutes in all America.

No longer does the witticism of a French physician hold true to
the effect that Latin Americans excel in consumption but lag in
production. Pages could be used to enumerate that formidable
legion of surgeons,” clinicians, specialists, and bacteriologists who
have placed so high the name of their respective countries.

7 No less an authority than Dr. W. J. Mayo has emphatically stated that Argentine surgeons compare
favorably with those of any other country in the world. ‘‘Do you mean to say that all the surgeons of
South America are of this high grade?’”’ “I can only answer that all the work I saw was high grade, but I
saw only the best men, and not, by any means, all the best men.”

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN LATIN AMERICA 881

Pan American cooperation—A remarkable feature of medical
research in America has been, especially of late, its decidedly Pan
American character in many instances. Proof is thus brought once
more of the only too well recognized fact that science takes no account
of frontiers. Vargas practiced in Puerto Rico; Esparragosa, of
Guatemala, and Herrera Vegas, of Argentina, were born in Venezuela;
Fermin Ferreira, of Uruguay, and Bambarén of Ecuador, in Peru;
Guiteras and Gonzdlez Echeverria” spent a large part of their
lives in the United States; Pefia Chavarria has headed laboratories
both in Costa Rica and Colombia. In the yellow fever epoch-making
achievement, Cuba, as well as the United States, Brazil, and other
countries, participated. Hookworm disease is a similar case to the
point, and just as much may be said regarding mycoses, American
leishmaniasis, verruga peruana, snake-poisoning control, etc. The
altruistic activities of the Rockefeller Foundation have made avail-
able to the other countries the lessons learned elsewhere and given
new impetus to scientific medicine and the establishment of labora-
tories. The medical work of the United Fruit Co., embracing several
tropical countries, has also served a like purpose, and the conference
on tropical problems held under its auspices in 1924 constituted a real
scientific and Pan American achievement. The remarkable studies
of diphtheria at Rio in 1927 by Doull, Ferreira, and Parreiras, and
Ruiz Castafieda’s and Zinsser’s on typhus fever offer recent instances
of this medical Pan Americanism.” Neiva, of the Oswaldo Cruz
Institute, is another shining example, as he organized the medical
zoology and parasitology section of the Buenos Aires Bacteriological
Institute, and while in Argentina discovered the presence of Chagas’
disease and typhus fever. The Spanish edition of the Journal of the
American Medical Association and the Boletin de la Oficina Sanitaria
Panamericana have also contributed effectively to the same cause.
The Pan American Sanitary Bureau has helped in addition through
the conferences organized under its auspices and recently through the
studies of plague on the Pacific coast of South America.

A good example of this Pan American spirit is the Gorgas Memorial
Institute, formally opened at Panama in 1929 to investigate tropical
diseases. The present buildings of the Institute were donated by
the Republic of Panama, and the United States contributes annually
to the support of this enterprise. The other American Republics
have also been invited to join in honoring the memory of the great
sanitarian who, after freeing both Habana and Panama from yellow

76 Gonzalez Echeverria was director of a State insane asylum in New York and professor of mental diseases
in New York University.

77 This internationalization has been generously extended to European investigators, as shown by the
invitations to Kraus; in Brazil, to Wucherer, Prowazek, Lutz; in Argentina, to Nocard, Lignieres, del Rio
Hortega; in Uruguay, to Sanarelli; in Guatemala, to Raynal; in Cuba, to Hoffmann; in Mexico, to Hoffmann
and Dampf.

S882 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

fever, set the total eradication of the disease as a goal for the civilized
world. Under its present director, Dr. H. C. Clark, the Institute has
done already, pending definite organization, fine work on malaria,
and has to its credit the discovery in 1930 of the first cases of Chagas’
disease above Venezuela and Colombia. The International American
Institute for the Protection of Childhood of Montevideo constitutes
another instance to the point.

It is a most regrettable but unavoidable penalty befalling any
brief sketch, such as the present, that important names must be
omitted and deserving deeds passed over.’® Let all those thus per-
force but most reluctantly neglected recall Goethe’s pregnant phrase
that only mankind combined is the true man and that the individual
can only be joyous and happy when he has the courage to feel himself
the whole. In focusing the beams from so many scattered constella-
tions, even most luminous stars may find their radiance crowded out.
The homage here given the few is really intended for all. Let then
these lines be considered a tribute not to certain persons or specified
accomplishments but to that great body of noble men who in the
remotest corners of Latin America, from Columbus’ day to ours,
under all kinds of difficulties and trials, regardless of the cost to them-
selves, with no hope of glory or idea of profit,”® have devoted their
every day and best effort to helping their fellow creatures, to relieving
suffering, to making life happier and healthier, facing sickness and
death in their holy calling. To them the highest honor, to them all
fealty and reverence!

78 Flores’ two volumes on Mexican and Canton’s six on Argentine medicine bear witness to the magni-
tude of the field.

73 De-Simoni, the first secretary of the Rio Academy of Medicine, in reviewing the founders of the Acad-
emy, referred to their leaving their families penniless. Similar statements close even now the biographies
of prominent Latin American physicians.

PAN AMERICAN UNION NOTES

THE GOVERNING BOARD

New members —The Governing Board held its first meeting of the
year 1932-33 on November 2 last, His Excellency the Minister of
Uruguay, Dr. Jacobo Varela, vice chairman, opening the session in
the absence of the chairman, Hon. Henry lL. Stimson, Secretary of
State. The vice chairman welcomed two new members of the Board:
His Excellency the Minister of Bolivia, Dr. Enrique Finot, and the
Chargé d’Affaires of Costa Rica, Sefior Manuel Gonzalez Zeledén.

Election of officers—The Hon. Henry L. Stimson was reelected
chairman of the Board, and His Excellency the Minister of Guate-
mala, Dr. Adridn Recinos, was chosen vice chairman. A vote of
thanks was given the retiring vice chairman for his efficient service.

Member of Pan American Railway Committee —Senor Jorge Triana,
a distinguished Colombian engineer, was elected a member of the Pan
American Railway Committee. The other members of this com-
mittee are: Senores Juan Briano, of Argentina, Chairman; Santiago
Marin Vicufia, of Chile; Estanisl4o Bousquet, of Brazil; Manuel
D. Almenara of Peru; and Verne L. Havens, of the United States.

Tribute to José Matias Delgado— The vice chairman of the Board,
Doctor Recinos, offered a resolution in honor of the Salvadorean
patriot Delgado in the following words:

It has been a laudable custom on the part of the Governing Board of the Pan
American Union to pay homage to the great names of the New World on those
occasions marked in history as of special importance. The 12th of the present
month of November will be the centenary of the death of Dr. José Matias Delgado,
the most illustrious precursor of the independence of the Provinces of Central
America. Born in San Salvador, and educated at the Colegio Tridentino in
Guatemala, Father Delgado, by reason of his abilities and his patriotic fervor,

was called upon to play a decisive role in the first movements which manifested
the desire of the people of Central America to obtain their independence, as

v2)

Wy
y

44009 JOJOOd puB ‘soulDeYy
10400q “Zepudg[eyy 10}00q ‘Jo, oy} ULOJJ
surIpeel ‘ivedde dnois oy} Ul ‘Oped
[eq JO 4snq oy) 38 peovid 910M Soynqray
[e1oy ‘pavog SuUIUIeAOK) oY} UO JOpBA
18S [Wf Jo vAryeyueseidea [vioeds ‘zepuel
-OIN “CW Ooqoy Aq Aq puR ‘peuor)
-UVUI HOTYBINOSse 9Yy} JO JUApIseId 44009
uMOIg Selmer “Iq Aq ‘UOIUY) UBOTLeULy
uUvq 94} JO pdleog BuUIUIBAOY 9} JO
UBUIMIGYD BIA SI OUM ‘SOUTDEY UBLIpy
‘Iq ‘epeureyenty) jo seysturpy ey Aq
POIOAT[OP SESSeIpPpB Jog BUIMOT[OY “BOT
-l9ULyY JO SUOTIVNY 9} JO sLOpBIOGVT ey
SULIOUO FY IOJ UOTBIOOSSW peuIdoy AT} Ud
-01 04} puv UOIUY, URoleuly Ue 9}
Aq pedleyjo sem oseuLOY UsyM ‘eouUepued
-OpuUy UvdTIOULY [BIJUOD JO Jepve, pur 4 yy yy yy: e ; }
jorLmyed UBdIOPCA[LY 9} ‘OpPBslaC SBIYL IAL ee : yy i a Loy
9sor JO Y}vep 9y} JO AdesIOATUUB YpeIp : o j i ; ‘

-uny 9} ‘ZE6L ‘ZI LequisAON AUOUTOII0
SUIJSaIOJUT UB JO 9UBDS OY SPM UOIULA)
UvOIIOULY UP 94) JO seOdloH{ JO [PEL OL

yy
vy

OGVOTHAd AO HLVAd AO
AYUVNULNAO fO WONVALH

NNER GRRE

{LO

PAN AMERICAN UNION NOTES 885

well as in the subsequent activity which culminated in the emancipation of the
Provinces, proclaimed on September 15, 1821. After the declaration of inde-
pendence, Delgado labored to consolidate the results thereof and to prepare the
country for republican life. He presided over the first congress of the new-born
federation, and to the day of his death dedicated his talents and unceasing
efforts to the development and progress of the Central American nation.

History has consecrated the name of Delgado and has graved it in the Hall of
the Liberators of America. His native country, El Salvador, with justice looks
upon him as the most eminent of her sons, the man who best exemplifies the civic
virtues of his country, and for this reason has placed his bust in the Hall of
Heroes of the Pan American Union. Within a few days, on the centenary of
his death, the Salvadorean people will again pay homage to this Central American
leader.

I therefore have the honor of proposing to the Governing Board of this insti-
tution that it pass a resolution to join in the homage which will be rendered to
the memory of Doctor Delgado. For this purpose I submit the following to the
consideration of the members of the Board:

Whereas, November 12, 1932, will mark the centenary of the death of the
illustrious patriot and statesman Dr. José Matias Delgado, native of San Sal-
vador, who led the movement for the independence of Central America; and

Whereas, Doctor Delgado devoted his life and his extraordinary talents to
the cause of liberty and of republican ideals, and because of his eminent services
and civic virtues merits the admiration, the gratitude, and the veneration of
posterity,

The Governing Board of the Pan American Union

Resolves: To hold in remembrance the illustrious Central American leader,
Dr. José Matias Delgado, and to join in the tribute which the Republic of El
Salvador will pay to his memory on the centenary of his death.

The Special Representative of El Salvador on the Governing Board,
Sefior Roberto D. Meléndez, responded gracefully to this tribute,
unanimously passed by the Board.

COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY

Constitutions of Haiti and Paraguay.—The library has recently re-
ceived copies of the constitutions now in force in Haiti and Paraguay,
which will be distributed free of charge, upon application, as long as
the supply lasts.

National Library of Ecwador.—The annual statement of the Director
of the National Library at Quito, Ecuador, published in the Informe
del Ministro de Educacién Piblica has been received in the library.
The work of the library was somewhat restricted during the past
year, but progress was reported in its general condition. For books
for the libraries of the Central University, the Universities of Guaya-
quil and Cuenca, and the high schools of the country the sum of 12,501
sucres was appropriated.

Accessions.—Among the 181 publications added to the library
during the past month the following are especially noted:

Recopilacion de decretos-leyes dictados por el gobierno socialista de la Republica
de Chile (por orden numérico). tomo 1. Santiago, Talleres de San Vicente,

1461683—32— Bull. 12——_5

S86 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

1932. Recopilados y concordados por Hernan Carrasco Silva, abogado; Osvaldo
Ceppi Ceppi, Carlos Pulgar Fabres y Fernando Enrique Pérez, estudiantes de
derecho.

Historia social de Chile, [por] Domingo Amunategui Solar. Santiago, Editorial
Nascimento, 1932. 345 p.

Floralia montium, [por] Alvaro A. da Silveira. Bello Horizonte, Imprensa
official de Minas Geraes, 1931. v. 2. Notas botanicas, geologicas e geo-
graphicas.

Un orientalista cubano: Francisco Mateo de Acosta y Zenea, discurso escrito por
el académico de nimero Dr. Juan M. Dihigo y Mestre para la sesién solemne que
debio celebrarse el 10 de octubre de 1932 [en la Academia de la historia de Cuba].
La Habana, Imprenta “El Siglo XX,” 1932. 113 p. front. (port.) ports.,
facsims.

La vida de la Academia de la historia (1931-32), memoria leida por el secre-
tario Sr. René Lufriu y Alonso. Informes ... y concurso a premio del afio de
1932. La Habana, Imprenta ‘El Siglo XX,’ 1982. 1 p.1., 61 p.

Geografia general de Costa Rica, por M. Obregén L.... tomo I, Geografia
fisica. San José, Imp. Lines, A. Reyes, 1932. 339 p. illus., fold. maps, diagr.
(Lecturas geograficas, 33: serie.)

A través de Chile; guia del viajero, publicacién oficial de los Ferrocarriles del
Estado. Domingo Oyarzun Moreno, editor autorizado. [Santiago, Imp.
Universitaria] 1931. 293 [2] p., incl. illus., maps, tables. fold. tables.

Escritores de Chile. II. Siglo XIX. Seleccién y notas de E. Solar Correa.
Santiago de Chile, Lmprenta Universitaria [1932], 244 p. 19% em.

“ Jai-von”’ (novela chilena) por David Rojas Gonzalez. Valparaiso, Ediciones
““Sud-América,’’? 1932. 186 p.

A tentative bibliography of Peruvian literature, by Sturgis E. Leavitt. Cam-
bridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University press, 1932. 5p. 1., 37 p.

The Harkness collection in the Library of Congress; calendar of Spanish manu-
scripts concerning Peru, 1531-1651. Washington, U. 8. Govt. print. off., 1932.
x, 336 p.

Periodicals received for the first time by the library were as follows:

Boletin de la Biblioteca Nacional. San Salvador, Imprenta Nacional, 1932.
2d series, no. 4, September, 1932. 38 p. illus. 10 x 7% inches. Director:
Julio César Escobar; editor: José Gédmez Campos.

Revista del Instituto Nacional ‘‘General Francisco Menéndez’’; ciencia, arte,
literatura, variedades. San Salvador, Imprenta Nacional, 1932. Vol. II, no.
12, June 1, 1932. 67 p. illus. 94 x 7 inches. Monthly. Editor: Prof. Dr.
Alberto Rivas Bonilla.

Boletin Oficial de la Policia; 6rgano mensual de la Direccién general del cuerpo.
San Salvador, 1932. Vol. 1, no. 1, July, 1932. 34 p. illus. 9% x 6% inches.
Monthly.

Boletin del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores. Montevideo, Imprenta Militar,
1932. 2d series, vol. 1, Ist year, vol. 1, July, 1982. 124 p. 9% x 6% inches.
Monthly. Editor: Virgilio Sampognaro. Office: Montevideo, Uruguay, Calle
Soriano, 1223. Reappearance, in compliance with Presidential decree of January
29, 1932, of the ‘‘ Boletin,’’ which had ceased publication in March 23, 1923.

Universidad del Cauca; 6rgano del movimiento ideolégico occidental universi-
tario. Popaydn, Cauca, Colombia, Imprenta del Departamento, 1932. Vol. 1,
no. 2, September, 1932. 47 p. illus. 9% x 9% inches. Monthly. Editor:
Antonio Garcia.

PAN AMERICAN UNION NOTES 887

Oro; 6rgano del Ministerio de Fomento para la difusién de la minerfa aurifera.
Santiago de Chile, 1932. No 1, August, 1932. 8p. illus. 15% x 11 inches.
Semimonthly. Distributed free. Address: Ministerio de Fomento, Santiago de
Chile.

Revista Escolar Panamericana (Pan-American school review); revista mensual
para fomentar y aumentar el mutuo interés entre los profesores, alumnos, y
amigos de las universidades, colegios y escuelas secundarias de las Américas.
Atlanta, Georgia, 1932. Vol. 1, no. 1, October, 1932. 8 p. illus. 11% x 9
inches. Monthly, October to May, inclusive. Editor: O. S. Bandy. Address:
Box 111, Station E, Atlanta, Georgia.

Rotary Club de Pacasmayo; sintesis de las labores del Rotary Club de Pacas-
mayo, 1932. No.1, July, 1982. 8 p.11%x9inches. Monthly.

Brasil; agricultura, comercio, comunicaciones, finanzas, industria, turismo.
Barcelona, Cimara de comercio, industria y navegacién hispano-brasilefa en
Espana. 1932. Vol. I, no. 1, July-September, 1932. 24 p. illus. 9% x 9%
inches. Quarterly. Address: Barcelona, Espafia, Via Layetana, 28.

América Central Ilustrada. Barcelona, 1932. Vol. 1, no. 3, July, 1982.
[27] p. illus. 114%x8% inches. Monthly. Address: Barcelona, Espafia, Rambla
de las Flores, 20, pral.

Revista Diplomadtica Consular. Caracas, Venezuela, 1932. Vol. 1, no. 3,
October, 1932. 16 p. illus. 11 x 8 inches. Editor: B. Rosillo. Address:
Sociedad a Traposos, no. 4, Caracas, Venezuela.

PAN AMERICAN PROGRESS

FURTHER MEXICAN CURRENCY AND BANKING REFORMS

The series of reforms in the monetary and banking systems of
Mexico inaugurated with the passage of the Monetary Law of July,
1931 (amended on March 9, 1932), and continued with the adoption
of the Law Reorganizing the Bank of Mexico, on April 12, 1932
(amended on May 19, 1932), was brought to completion by the pas-
sage on June 28, 1932, of the General Law of Credit Institutions, and
the adoption, on August 26, 1932, of the Law on Negotiable Instru-
ments and Credit Operations.

This series of laws has completely altered the financial structure of
the nation. Without discussing in detail the provisions of the Mone-
tary Law and its amendment or the Law Reorganizing the Bank of
Mexico (see BULLETIN for June, 1932), it may be pointed out that the
monetary system of Mexico has been changed from that of a nominal
gold standard to a ‘‘managed”’ system of currency, which while re-
taining some of the features of both the gold and silver standards,
cannot be said to be on either one of these two systems. The Bank of
Mexico, by the law of April 12, 1932, has been reorganized to function
primarily as a central bank of issue and rediscount, and its operations
as a commercial bank for the public have been abandoned. By this
law the bank has powers to regulate the monetary circulation, the
interest rate and the foreign exchange rate, carry on rediscount opera-
tions arising out of legitimate commercial transactions, centralize the
banking reserves of the nation, act as a clearing house for its member
banks, and be the fiscal agent and sole depositary of the funds of the
Federal Government.

The next step in the reform program was the passage of the General
Law of Credit Institutions, on June 28, 1932. The principal features
of this law are (1) the completion of the process of integrating the entire
banking system of the country along the lines set forth in the law
reorganizing the Bank of Mexico and the making possible of the opera-
tions of credit institutions under the conditions of stability and elas-
ticity demanded by the special necessities of the Republic; and (2)
the correction of certain faults and deficiencies in the existing legisla-
tion governing credit institutions.

This law sets forth in great detail the regulations governing the
organization and functions of all types of credit institutions, including

888

PAN AMERICAN PROGRESS 889

commercial banks, branches of foreign banks, trust banks, bonded
warehouses, stock exchanges, general financial societies, and credit
unions. In addition, the law lays down the regulations for the opera-
tion of clearing houses and the duties and powers of the National
Banking Commission, which is to have the general supervision of the
banking situation of the country.

In general, it may be said that the principal purposes of the law were
so to reorganize the banking structure of the country as to open the
way for banks to invest their funds in a number of different types of
credit operations; but in distinction to the old law, each type was to be
recognized for what 1t was, and dealt with accordingly. Thus, rather
than attempting to organize the banking system on the basis of sepa-
rate specialized banking institutious, the law aims to permit specialized
functions, and a bank can carry on any or all functions, provided the
proper departments are established to segregate them. In addition,
the law extends the field of banking operations by defining and regular-
izing the legal dispositions referring to mortgage bonds and certifi-
cates of deposit; by regulating the credit operations of bonded ware-
houses, stock exchanges, credit unions, etc.; and by affirming the power
given to the Bank of Mexico to grant new and diverse types of credit
to its associated banks.

One of the most important provisions of the Law of Credit Institu-
tions is that covering trust banks and credit unions. The regulations
of the new law aim to provide sources of credit for a large and hitherto
unserved portion of the population, forms of credit which, although
specified in previous legislation, never reached a stage of practical
usefulness. Small tradesmen and merchants, it is believed, will be
especially helped by this section of the law.

Supplementing the regulations governing branches of foreign banks
contained in the amendments to the Law Reorganizing the Bank of
Mexico adopted on May 19, 1932, the General Law of Credit Institu-
tions provides that operations by branches of such banks must be
guaranteed by the reserves of the parent bank as well as those of the
local institution, and such branches must submit themselves to
Mexican laws and to Mexican courts in all business carried on within
the Republic.

The provisions amplifying the powers of the National Banking
Commission contained in the General Law of Credit Institutions are
expected to have a most important effect on the future banking
situation in Mexico. The Commission is now charged, among other
functions, with the duty of determining the state of solvency of banks
and of taking adequate measures to prevent or lessen the consequences
of liquidation. Subject to the approval of the Secretary of the
Treasury, the Commission will also have the right to decide the amount

890 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

of reserves which banks at any time will be required to hold against
deposits.

On August 26, 1932, there was passed by the Mexican Congress
the Law of Negotiable Instruments and Credit Operations, which was
the final step in the general financial reorganization plan mentioned
above. This law was primarily designed to provide certain necessary
juridical measures which would bring various dispositions of the
Commercial Code of Mexico in line with the measures adopted for
the reorganization of the credit structure of the nation, and to provide
certain necessary legislation which heretofore had not existed in the
Commercial Code, in order that the credit instruments set up might
be utilized to the greatest advantage.

There are three principal sections to this law. Section I classifies
negotiable instruments and credit operations as commercial acts to
be governed first by the provisions of this law, and then by general
mercantile legislation, by banking or commercial custom, or by the
general law of the country, in the order named, one applying if the
preceding contains no rule governing the matter under consideration.
Section II regulates the issuance, indorsement, acceptance, payment,
etc., of negotiable instruments such as bills of exchange, promissory
notes, and checks. Section III regulates credit operations such as
dealings in futures, bank deposits, bank deposits of securities, deposits
of merchandise in general warehouses, credit discounts, current
accounts, letters of credit, extensions of credit, credits for raw materials
and farm improvements, pledges, trusts, bonds, and certificates of
deposit.

With the completion of the basic legislative program for the reorgan-
ization of the national financial structure, the Federal Government
shortly thereafter began to adopt measures whereby the laws enacted
might begin to have practical effect. The first of these measures was
a decree prohibiting the importation into Mexico of all foreign money
not gold. Theimport of Mexican money not gold was also prohibited,
with the exception of notes of the Bank of Mexico. Other provisions
of the decree provided that foreign money, for exchange purposes
only, might be imported up to a value of 3,000 Mexican pesos, and
repatriated Mexicans might bring into the country up to 50 pesos of
Mexican money of any kind. There were other provisions in the
decree, but it was seen that the primary object was to allow the
Government, through a control of gold movements, to build up a
gold reserve, while at the same time placing no direct restrictions on
the export of any money, national or foreign. The creation of a
gold reserve by the Federal Government was also seen as the first
step in a program to bring about a return to the gold standard.

Following the policy intimated in the above decree, the Secretary
of the Treasury announced on September 23, 1932, that the Federal

PAN AMERICAN PROGRESS 891

Government had authorized the Treasury to purchase gold of national
production. The funds for such purchases were to be derived from
the Government’s seignorage profits from the silver minting authorized
in the law of March 9, 1932 (amendment to the Monetary Law),
except that amount used to back the notes issued by the Bank of
Mexico. The gold so acquired by the Government was to be placed
in a special fund in the Bank of Mexico, in which would be accumulated
a gold reserve which would eventually permit Mexico to return to the
gold standard.
Ei Gas:

THE SIXTH REFRIGERATION CONGRESS AND THE
ARGENTINE MEAT INDUSTRY

With the attendance of 72 delegates representing 28 countries, 7 of
which were American Republics, the Sixth International Refrigera-
tion Congress met at Buenos Aires from August 28 to September 4,
1932, under the auspices of the Government of Argentina. The
inaugural ceremonies were held in the Cervantes Theater; addresses
of welcome were delivered by Dr. Rémulo S. Naén, mayor of the city
of Buenos Aires, and by Dr. Antonio de Tomaso, Argentine Minister
of Agriculture.

It will be remembered that the First International Refrigeration
Congress was held in Paris in 1908, the International Refrigeration
Association being created as a result of that meeting. Vienna,
Chicago, and London, in 1910, 1913, and 1924, respectively, were the
seats of the second, third, and fourth congresses. In June, 1920, 44
countries, dominions, and colonies signed at Paris a convention which
converted the association established by the first congress into the
International Refrigeration Institute to function under the patronage
of the French Government. Buenos Aires was designated as the
seat of the sixth congress during the sessions of the fifth, held in Rome
in 1928.

The Sixth Congress elected the following officers: President,
Dr. Horacio N. Bruzone, president of the Argentine Rural Society;
vice presidents, Dr. Jorge H. Marenco, Under Secretary of Agricul-
ture, and Sefior Miguel F. Casares; general secretaries, Dr. Carlos A.
Erro and Dr. H. H. Mooy.

Over 200 papers, covering practically all the scientific and economic
phases of refrigeration, were presented at the meeting. The discus-
sions in the various commissions into which the work of the conference
was divided were of great interest, since all the delegations were com-
posed of technical experts in the field of refrigeration or men directly
interested in the refrigeration industry. Of the delegations which

892 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

attended the Congress that representing the United States was the
largest.

The discussions concerning ‘‘quick-freezing’”’ methods and machin-
ery were of special interest. The exportation from Argentina to
Great Britain of meat cuts prepared by this process as a future possi-
bility aroused considerable interest and discussion among the Argen-
tine delegates and in the Buenos Aires press. During the course of
the Congress, Mr. Gardner Poole, president of the American Institute
of Refrigeration, and chairman of the American delegation, gave a
demonstration of the Birdseye quick-freezing system in one of the
buildings of the Ministry of Agriculture. This exhibition, which was
illustrated by several reels of motion-picture films, showed the opera-
tion of the Birdseye system in its application to the quick freezing of
fish, meats, fruits, and vegetables, and the harvesting, shelling, clean-
ing, grading, and freezing of green peas in northern New York. Sam-
ples of meat cuts, fish, mushrooms, spinach, and red raspberries
frozen by this process in the United States were exhibited and a cut
of Argentine beef, provided by the Ministry of Agriculture, was frozen
before the delegates within 20 minutes on a small portable model of
the Birdseye machine.

Two resolutions were adopted by the Congress with reference to
the quick-freezing process, recommending that cuts of meat and other
edible parts quickly frozen in packages under an official seal permitting
their identification and coming from countries which offer sanitary
guarantees should enjoy the same treatment as those frozen by the
ordinary method and declaring that, inasmuch as the quick-freezing
method makes no change in the cell tisues, such method of preserva-
tion should be considered hygienic. The Congress also recommended
that studies with respect to quick-freezing methods with special
reference to the preservation of food products should be encouraged
as much as possible in the various countries.

An international refrigeration exposition was organized under the
auspices of the Argentine national executive committee of the Con-
gress. This was officially opened on September 4 in conjunction
with the International Livestock Show held at the grounds of the
Argentine Rural Society in Palermo. The latest refrigeration ma-
chinery and apparatus were shown at this exposition and the most
modern methods of storing and transporting food products illustrated.

Following the conclusion of the Congress, the official delegates
made a tour of inspection to some of the principal meat-packing plants
and visited some of the large cattle ranches near Buenos Aires.
Previous to this visit the delegates to the Congress had been shown
motion pictures illustrating the Argentine livestock industry and
particularly the rigid method of veterinary inspection maintained
by the Argentine Government on livestock slaughtered for export.

PAN AMERICAN PROGRESS 893

During the sessions of the Congress a bronze plaque was unveiled
in Buenos Aires in the presence of the delegates as a tribute to the
memory of Charles Tellier, the French engineer known as the “‘ Father
of Artificial Refrigeration,’’ whose pioneer work in this field made
possible the extensive development of the Argentine livestock
industry.

Those who have followed the development of refrigeration will
probably remember that what is said to have been the first overseas
shipment of meat under artificial refrigeration left France for Argen-
tina in 1876. Charles Tellier had for a number of years experimented
with the production of artificial cold by means of methylic ether and
ammonia. Several Argentine and Uruguayan citizens, realizing
the possibilities of refrigeration in the development of the livestock
industry of the River Plate countries, had been in close touch with
the French scientist and had given him aid and advice. To prove
definitely the feasibility of transporting meats over long distances,
Teller acquired a small vessel and installed on it a refrigerating
system. In September, 1876, with a small trial shipment of beef,
mutton, pork, and poultry, he set off on the long journey to Buenos
Aires, arriving in the River Plate estuary on Christmas of the same
year after a difficult voyage of 105 days.

The trip was a success. The meats arrived in good condition,
despite the simplicity of the refrigerating system, and were consumed
by the guests invited to various dinners served on board. The
Argentine press, commenting upon the arrival of El Frigorifico, as
Tellier’s vessel was named, prophesied that the newly arrived inven-
tion would have a decisive influence upon the future of the Republic.

Artificial refrigeration has been, as predicted, one of the most
important factors in the development of the meat industry of the
country, which in turn is one of the most important phases of progress
in Argentina. Shortly after the first shipment of frozen meat from
Argentina in 1877 the construction of the first frigorifico, or packing
plant, in South America was begun by The River Plate Fresh Meat
Co. (Ltd.) at the town of Campana. The plant was finished and
began to ship frozen mutton in 1883. To-day there are 22 such
establishments. They can process 28,010 heads of cattle, 67,510
sheep, and 8,030 hogs in an 8-hour day, and the capacity of their
chilling and freezing chambers and cold-storage deposits is 585,813
and 182,669 cubic meters, respectively. The value of their fixed
assets (land, buildings, machinery, etc.) is estimated at 250,000,000
paper pesos and their subscribed and paid-in capital, not including
that of the Matadero Frigorifico Municipal, which is owned by the
city of Buenos Aires, amounts to 193,855,528 pesos. The capital of
9 of the plants is Argentine, 8 are owned by American corporations,
and 5 by British companies.

894. THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

An index of the important economic relation between these estab-
lishments and the livestock industry is the amount which they spend
annually for the purchase of stock. In 1931 the 15 frigortficos which
were in operation during the year bought stock to the amount of
347,412,566 paper pesos, as follows:

Heads Paper pesos
Cattle ase ee ee yA ke 2 oes Be eee ta en nee eee ee 2, 309, 385 | 288, 360, 073. 99
SCC ate a eee Se i Be eh a ep eae Se een, Mee eee 5, 388, 326 45, 240, 980. 65
SWAT G Ree et ene a eA ret ENS Me ALS AES ohn Sen mE: MAE ER ee Aree 392, 428 18, 811, 512.17
Ma NG 2 St eS ra Su ty Se Ce ee ee eee Ae 8, 090,139 | 347, 412, 566. 81

Besides these large establishments there are 53 smaller plants in
Argentina for the preparation of meat products; all of these have
refrigeration systems. Thirty-six of them are located in Buenos
Aires. The total capacity of their refrigeration chambers is 19,322
cubic meters. In the port of Buenos Aires there is also a large deposit
with 21 chambers and a total capacity of 5,500 cubic meters for the
storage of all sorts of perishable products for export or domestic
consumption. It is owned by the Government but operated by a
private concern.

Although the frigorificos near Buenos Aires supply the capital with
46 per cent of the beef it consumes, 39 per cent of the mutton, and 17
per cent of the pork, the bulk of their output and of that of the smaller
plants 1s exported, their principal market being the United Kingdom.
The following table shows the exports of meats and other cold-storage
products from Argentina during the years 1930 and 1931:

1930 1931
Products é
Mstrig Gold pesos | Metric tons} Gold pesos
ITOZeCNED Ce lets sane 1 eis wt Es es aie ee Oe 98, 748 17, 712, 790 83, 681 13, 899, 180
@hille@pbeetass sui 2 es eS ee a ee 345, 525 70, 914, 068 352) 22 67, 535, 512
I TOZENEIMUL GOMES ae oe ee ee ee ee ne eee ae 80, 360 14, 408, 556 83, 043 13, 859, 328
Saltediporktandiibecte == ee ee ee 3, 866 967, 969 3, 509 886, 529
I ROZE MY DORK ase ao oe Re ee ek ee a a nt ee 4, 830 1, 114, 492 5, 278 1, 172, 348
HE aT SEs rn en erat se es ee nS ee ee Ree 19 11, 447 78 47, 329
Smokediton guess: 2255 a= ee ee ee 423 312, 342 427 437, 618
IRN ROZONISAUSA PC ee Stee eee ee he ee eel 27, 886 4, 064, 477 27, 925 3, 769, 525
TES ECO Te sh en SN anh ct aetna Se 14 6, 580 | 40 10, 332
JATIN AOU See eee ee Se ee ee ee 793 160, 986 1, 203 198, 878
SOUDISCOC Keer es a eed ce ee eee 1, 746 768, 495 1, 871 763, 779
IPTOSEEVC Ch POLK seco esa eat eee ee tee Senet areal 693 200, 133 876 250, 248
Otherpreservedimeats gasses e ee ee es ee 62, 420 16, 651, 321 55, 078 18, 545, 451
S beanies sO ee eS A OR seep nee eee ee eee 5, 449 779, 328 5, 058 |. 683, 930
Mieatiextra cha 5 22a a eae Hate aero ehers nee RS 1, 682 2, 549, 960 1, 197 1, 812, 913
Mie att Outs S55 Su eB Pca rate ee ee NRT ae 9, 336 739, 201 10, 423 628, 054
Taner ete se Sk OS ee CS FOES nk ate a Feed 112 20, 101 130 25, 748

PAN AMERICAN PROGRESS 895

1930 1931
Products ;

Motte Gold pesos |Metric tons} Gold pesos
Cl Meee ee a2 Seon a es ee ee 23, 204 13, 367, 330 23, 209 13, 269, 760
IMiarEea iin BiG OR hoa = 791 144, 344 726 109, 499
iRenderedsuallow and grease= === =- = =- == 5-2 50, 847 7, 428, 935 60, 752 6, 631, 661
Thawed] Gireyo) see 2 a 5, 040 184, 441 3, 061 124, 939
SILC UECHSIN G Sepee eames oa Sw AS ee 8, 714 2, 114, 488 7,475 1, 872, 491
ATC CRGASIN 2S eee we See SN SE wy 125 100, 540 116 100, 117
IETOVAGTS, CARER GO) -5 2 ee ee eee a 139 23, 958 152 19, 546
FE) se er eS es Las 2 1 968, 820 193, 764 | 1 2, 606, 107 419, 267
Hires siK(11| See et eee eee Se Se: 5, 292 375, 265 7, 805 493, 259
TERSEOVAB NEL TOO LED GEN pee 1,117 353, 983 2, 577 701, 531
CHORE he ee ES 14 8, 979 136 66, 192
UGG) LO = ee ee 155 40, 409 25 5, 675
CHC BSO ssc ee a es ee eee 337 124, 696 479 177, 626

739, 677 155, 843, 328 738, 557 143, 438, 265

1 Dozens.

The effect of artificial refrigeration upon the livestock industry of
Argentina has been one of gradual improvement of the breeds to
satisfy the exacting requirements of the export market. In 1908,
out of 29,116,625 heads of cattle, 55 per cent were purebred or pure-
bred on one side, and 45 per cent native. Six years later the pure
and mixed breeds had increased to 64 per cent, and in 1930, out of a
total of 32,211,855 heads, 71 per cent were purebred or purebred on
one side and only 29 per cent native. The larger percentage of pure-
bred stock is due almost entirely to the increase in the number of
Shorthorn cattle, which in 1930 represented 56.2 of the total number
of heads, as compared with 45.5 per centin 1914. The greater number
of Shorthorns is explained by the fact that the meat of this breed is
preferred in England, the traditional market for Argentine beef, and
by the shorter time which it takes a Shorthorn to obtain its maximum
development.

The same tendency toward the improvement of stock is noted in
the sheep of the country. According to the 1930 census, out of a total
of 44,413,221 sheep 90.5 per cent were purebred or purebred on one
side and only 9.5 of native breeds, as compared with 79.3 and 20.7
per cent in 1914, respectively. The improvement is particularly
noticeable in those breeds which produce good-quality meat as well as
wool. In 1914, out of a total of 43,225,452 sheep, 15.2 per cent were
of the Merino breed; in 1930 the percentage of sheep of this breed was
32.3. Similarly the percentage of the Romney Marsh sheep has
increased from 6.3 per cent in 1914 to 17 per cent in 1930.

The breeding of hogs has also shown considerable improvement
(see October, 1932, issue of the BuLLETIN, p. 725), especially with
reference to those breeds which produce the lean meats for which the

896 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

British market has shown a preference. The number of hogs of pure
breed, or purebred on one side, represented 44.4 per cent of the total
number of hogs in the country in 1908; 56 per cent-in 1914; and 62.5
per cent in 1930. Hogs of the Duroc Jersey breed, which in 1914
accounted for 5.7 per cent of the total number of hogs in the country, in
1930 accounted for 28.5 per cent. Those of the Poland China breed
increased from 4.3 per cent in 1914 to 13.3 per cent in 1930. The
increase in the number of hogs of these two breeds coincides with the
beginning and the development of the exportation of frozen pork
from Argentina.

As may be seen, Argentina has made great progress in the appli-
cation of refrigeration to her export trade in meats. There is still
open a great field in the use of refrigeration in the domestic commerce
of the country. Argentina is said to lead the world in the consump-
tion of meat, with a yearly average of 264 pounds per capita. Recent
statistics prepared by the Ministry of Agriculture show that on June
30, 1932, there were 33 private and 351 municipal abattoirs in the
interior of the Republic which did not have refrigeration systems.
These abattoirs have sufficient daily capacity to slaughter 164 and
10,505 heads, respectively. Refrigeration is only beginning to be
applied to the fishing and fruit industry, and the number of refrigerated
trucks and railway cars is still small —G. A.S.

NOTE ON SOME OF THE JEWELS CONTAINED IN TOMB 7
AT MONTE ALBAN

At the end of Miss Beatrice Newhall’s article on ‘‘The Treasure
of Monte Alban” published in the June, 1932, number of the BULLETIN
oF THE Pan AMERICAN Union, she comments on the contents of the
translation of my communication to the Congress of Americanists
held in Hamburg and the paper I read in March at the meeting of
the National Academy of Sciences in Mexico City.

Her ingenious remarks that ‘‘naturally enough the ‘symbol’ of
Cuauhtemoc, the last native ruler of Mexico, was an eagle, for the
Aztec word for eagle was ‘Cuauhtli,’”’ and that “‘the descending eagle
might be taken to signify the fallen fortunes of the unfortunate
Aztec’? . . . reveal her unconsciousness of the fact that the Ancient
Mexicans employed a system of ikonomatic writing in which, as in a
rebus, objects were pictured for their phonetic value. This explains
why she did not grasp the main point of my ‘‘Contribution to a
solution of the problem of the Monte Alban Tomb 7,” which I now
proceed to present to the readers of the BULLETIN.

PAN AMERICAN PROGRESS 897

The name of Cuauhtemoc, which literally means ‘the descending
eagle”? and is ecamposed of the Aztec words Cuauhtli=eagle and
Temo = descending or swooping down, seems particularly appropriate
to the young prince who displayed such heroism and energy in his
desperate resistance to the Spaniards.

In Mexican MSS., as, for instance, in the examples reproduced from
the Aubin MS. and the Mapa de Tepechpan in Figure 1, Cuauhtemoc’s
name is expressed by a swooping eagle with or without the accom-
paniment of footprints pointing downwards (to express the verb

FIGURE 1—CUAUHTEMOC’S NAME
In Mexican picture writings, the name of

the last Aztec Emperor is recorded in
these various manners.

FIGURE 2.—THE EMPEROR
CUAUHTEMOC

From Espinosa’s Historia.

temo = descending) or, more cursively, by an eagle’s head combined
with a single footprint.

Being familiar with the names of Cuauhtemoc as recorded in
Mexican documents, I was greatly impressed, on seeing the Monte
Alban jewels for the first time, by the fact that two jewels of the
most exquisite workmanship display the descending eagle, Cuauh-
temoc’s hieroglyph, and that, moreover, the first, a gold ring, is in
the characteristic form of the copilli or high diadem worn by the
Mexican kings. (See fig. 2.) This ring, of which five counterparts
in silver were also found in tomb 7, is reproduced in Figure 37.

S98 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

The second jewel that arrested my attention was the exquisitely
wrought gold pendant, also cast in a single piece, representing a
descending eagle in a closed circle (fig. 3°.)

In both cases the exact counterparts of the symbols hanging from
the eagle’s beak can be seen in Mexican MSS. (for instance in the
Magliabecchi MS. on the ‘‘mantas”’ worn in festivals by the lords),
and the same is the case with the signs on other jewels and the calendar
signs carved on bone, which exhibit all the characteristics of Mexican
conventional art.

These facts led me to investigate the possibility that the jewels
and carved bones found in what had been an abandoned, plundered
Zapotec tomb at Monte Alban might be those of Cuauhtemoc and
the other Mexican lords who were taken as hostages by Cortés on

FIGURE 3.—JEWELS FROM TOMB 7 AT MONTE ALBAN

(a) Gold ring in shape of an Aztec crown, with Cuauhtemoc’s hieroglyph. (b) Gold pendant with
Cuauhtemoc’s hieroglyph.

his expedition to ‘‘Higueras” in 1524 and are known never to have
returned to Mexico.

An illustrated paper, containing the results of my further study of
the question, will soon appear in the Boletin de la Sociedad Mexicana
de Geografia y Estadistica.

It will be seen, by the foregoing details, that my suggestion that
the jewels in question might have pertained to Cuauhtemoc was
based on more substantial evidence than Miss Newhall realized,
which nowise detracts from the merit of her article.

I regret that, as she was dealing with an unfamiliar subject, this
talented young writer did not submit these comments to me for
revision before publishing them and thus obviated the necessity for
the publication of this note. —Zrnia Nurra.t.

NECROLOGY

Cotomsia recently mourned the death of one of her distinguished
journalists and statesmen, Dr. Guillermo Camacho Carrizosa, who
died suddenly at Cachipay on September 3, 1932. Born at Bogota
in 1876, he entered public life at an early age and on various occasions
was a member of the municipal council of Bogota, the departmental
assembly of Cundinamarca, and the upper and lower houses of the
National Congress. In 1909 he was appointed Minister of Foreign
Affairs and some years later represented his country in France, Italy,
and Spain as Minister Plenipotentiary. Upon his return to Colombia
he served for some years as Governor of Cundinamarca. At the time
of his death he was a member of the advisory board of the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs.

CuiLE lost one of her prominent public men by the demise last
July of Don Eliodoro Yaéfiez Ponce de Leén. Born in Santiago on
May 6, 1860, he was educated at the National Institute and the
University of Chile, where he finished his law studies in 1883. Senor
Yafiez entered public life in 1893 through his election to the Chamber
of Deputies, and after many years of service as a legislator was elec-
ted president of the senate in 1924. As the founder of La Nacién
and Hl Correo de Valdivia Sefior Yafiez also occupied a prominent
place in Chilean journalism.

Admiral Guillermo Soublette, one of the most prominent figures in
the Chilean Navy, died on August 26, 1932.

The death of Gen. Leonidas Plaza Gutiérrez, twice President of
Ecuapor, has been deeply felt throughout his native country. When
he passed away on September 17, 1932, General Plaza was 66 years
old. He was first elected to the Presidency in 1901 on a reform plat-
form; in 1912 he was elected for the 4-vear term ending in 1916.
On his death the Government of Ecuador, in recognition of the many
services which he had rendered his country, decreed three days of
mourning throughout the Republic.

On October 1, 1932, Dr. Agustin T. Whilar, one of the foremost
educators in Preru, died at Lima at the age of 75. Born in Nicaragua,
he went to Peru at an early age. There he studied at the University
of San Marcos and from the date of his graduation devoted all his

899

900 THE PAN AMERICAN UNION

energy and enthusiasm to the promotion of education in his adopted
country. He was the educator of several generations, the founder of
the Colegio Peruano de Lima and the Escuela Normal de Preceptores,
and the author of numerous textbooks and a number of important
works on pedagogical methods.

Don Antonio Bachini, who for many years played a prominent part
in the political life of URuauay, died at Montevideo on September 11,
1932. Born in the town of Dolores in 1860, at the age of 15 Sefior
Bachini found himself owner, editor, printer, and distributor of a
provincial newspaper when its former owner was forced to emigrate
for political reasons. The manner in which he acquitted himself in
this undertaking gave him his start as a reporter on one of the Monte-
video dailies. His activities during his long years of public life were
not restricted, however, to newspaper work. He served two terms in
the Chamber of Deputies, was Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1907
to 1910, and in 1923 was appointed Uruguayan Minister to Portugal.
Later he served his country in the same capacity in Germany and
England and shortly before his death had been appointed Minister
Plenipotentiary to Brazil.

na aye it
SOM te Rea

Kby
Ko m

wad
ae abs

eine 4 f vine al
4 an by all

Pobtt ple gtd Pere. ere ene et 09) 48 ON ee re eee Pe | eee ee ie eee eee
rer ets ae tet eyes “ awineyeay wens fitbas pesos bABAC Grace g hidtititars
Pre an es WNT NG We erat rot
Ses aiaaead Ls

aed ange Pape avi
#4 te tee

can
reset sate o caer ees

Cpe et Peers)
ON SOREL BO Me mee rte eh
oh neha ae Oe a
pateasee in hy

res *' Selby sabe
wabasatyen petty wetter it
74 ig) ger gelis nde
a

HY MASogt an
Bint
tise Midge

* +2
J h rep eettty Smita + he

Reet nreaee rn aeViree thorns

West

: ny
ran Dita receeast

3 Moras tebe tiecnass
Cone
,

atlen ded Make Ra Pon tt atted sob onghs

esraeh ie rd» gly ‘ HY aie Hey iret cet Nal ian
a Fots . :
oie ore, Mtigsesite ' benaan' ge : he beta neta
i ir rtty ‘ ner Pani tined ’
imtae degre AT he fea, nga @ ee “
by 3

ote! 3 « ri Pre) pee es
it ee rt tthe ig, P hae iY Ose lm 98 14 ip des
. ik

: ‘ hs) a we wee
pias iat atcered [ere may oe
esis ta aA f

t te an a at

Bitte 0069) OLB Aa
oni: es i
pa rahe
dee se

o vase
pebepiatra be ab Ae testi) 9 Rede
ap),

f ae thy i
teat) anne
eT ry rates ’
y i ¥ oa
Bias reat nitty J amor ie shay egitieiad fips tyne Saas kW te

ud) 0MHe aaa reeling pecig gh Beek kas 3)
atin t aheky ym F

wed
Lan

aren 7 vb yeyety
Tne aigiee vials thelte bebe ebay! by ba amie
7 ' Saab ed Aa ees ar abses peaphens eis
oP REITY aah

‘ babies ,
ed i = : vt ebale scnletens te . : 1 . fi » 4 a
(iat © Hh eSe her ay SH 8 pede ' eens eas ai
rhbienctlpeierer lt ‘eras Ricans ta Bit es th ot. Soy 4 : hk Lee
widleteh cathaira: Heeger op4a OTR oh riirt in et Real opel cee mrineres : f
DE Re Leah eth Scr atROL ee ahaha sme tne te SP rualiet al Gepe 5
i Wel ord Ay +e ,
sp bet et hy SE ha Sept a
Ee) Saaee » \ 44 “ “
fr game ‘ wa ‘deh faba a sant wepeqvey! it Fah ie
weed rte ets tiydins poner “ weap sets e sueee neh tutal fs
se ‘hak at UT a it ce ou sare ee ry”
‘ arigtane’ ishexmasbouhvenyesaat 4 ebay oe tpt Bey y te series
Praga stwecoiatess ret oit pe ths elem tear a ee Toon aP viet ney
sf vi ered bree Oy i Rirerun wits) teers te ths © feat tye PRR GT MAN tehens cule
a Vong! rh brea tyrey
SeViek Ae Ext eri hitte ay ‘ *
iH a re. si Bd RE ony ue 5 “ é
rahe Ae si eee j a
Me at 3s 4 pron’ Tas Hs Ramp ar Pe) at es ne 16 he | (ee olaetaee ge
vail wee ge ee awberee nbd rrerriees ~ ' seroertie d at yh eee ee -
DOP teat rea Stitt + ' ay Perea eerie Ory ae) many
et srry a Caaeene any yey a Mae) be AP asbal eeiniveshiy bee dnidne 9s
' vik obese! «aha e a ; Byeter ey tA Paine: *
Prieta ra
ube iey ? a es i i et heeet
ely ry nie tle Saas Gel FETUS
a wedi tee rise oi hed, ery] Sa) Lo pal Py g PA Wee dee
ae her

ae pyres 6 rr ee ete Haeaead pie

uy.
i rit
teat Tea wy

sean dare

@.:
oy ae ara eat ORL hae) elt err inn y
iba al HN ela ber hese ol he bn» ideas teh onterwent ere RPbiK as sattinal, or eaapni:

a ava - etree

ry heey inch: ry vhs esi ert anmarty ete ae
ryt { 7 gee

‘ | on

pty Geepenen hs bee bees

Seems +7) iT) Bal in ae ttongle ct gh Ail> gan
wath Sur strane “ ta hee or oat on eritn th gadad ey ero ay hee bey fray Ape st te
+ bi vibe aries beeeavtions| 1 ebay ‘ ome the, 4
7 ay steele ektalt tdre eee fad) Bee keie * al at A, Lr ierth way +}

fs or 1 eee etged: ear ole tt a irl ws fone
tea 2 Roney % ‘ M ats ag mm yA ened carte aye amen Mate Tat oy > ee ke eae Bd
t Bhai Live rere ear renii yer eM bsiwes sins i scenaierien Rina tos aril ane ‘ enter
nNneietd be Gusl sesiatous ¢ «aw : zi otha * * velltguest®

bev tsd ans aug) tts a \
A? AY ra ae sie.

fen ph Pao OME

Tt het th ekae iY a ened (hos
sh! bat a Feat we a

teh Say ae wee redtaakeovithien vege ei hetoad HM lage ahahen eran s mie »
* sytyticnsest nt tO bee diig pod Freer it a Me Aen Cee re a |

PEE EPH ORs Hepa “ay iva wrerniver)
wa stbetae tt ei ede
ane wives) pre
fiom hie a Sele afer tdl a
ce - -

steal ‘ , f = ” :
~abi eh
carey ala-al rt Caceath vine Bid teege o seneg ther ae ee rt a
poederlar’ bre an 5 eet 4 ioe fo iSite letra URAL 7 be + i roe
oer pewhcens ae Red oh it fein u
+h

HIN rae,

hh
eae Sogy aah
art Ob 98s he pte bth
elie " isan tieatinemeay
ae Fit Pret ts
eins Reet
Paes 4 “ UTE elas

CH ta

“ weaee Ae shine h Athela »
a pay peleey nls 18 ihee. hy it Lane a) ‘inna “are Z 4 ee eee CT es Lhe
ane ere) a she inmates #
AAT Co Ses ter say Leet Sala ‘ itis st gute + =
tind siege (7 9 Nabe nastats
rH = ye ate we if ve i sfatend Upale
Sree bt bet er aiens i
z eee
ry “bene oy) y
OAs Ot Gibeger aii ccate

os Senco SNe ae
aye bas

Me
ante Cerone eee bas
pi lyke t echey othe
oe

LJ
ti eres . "
te WSLS EPO RE DAS Ue Lea ad rh
et we ena Predhancs 41) ethan rear ie
hie eae sah ft set ate sada

Paar oety vant

etre) obey
parti Tet eas me
4 arene Lede sie Ty “
bacsiotem estes rae re
Bie ‘ ry Atel
eat he hee eho etme
.

¥
Sei aeetaresne per - ;

prnerirarer ar Unye Mar Tt tS i seoyah wm pp = f mons

¥ . r reves aia # f

vere rome ae
- Sa cckipna. Meebo

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Bulletin of the Pan American Union"

See other formats